DOCINIENT REMISE

ED 120- 906 'EA 008.031

_AUTHOR ,A_,- Derr, C. Brooklyn__TITLE- Major Cause! of Organizational Conflict: Diagnosis .

.

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INSTITUTION- Naval Postgraduate School, Ndnterey, Calif._REPORT_ JO- NPS-SSDr-P75062pus DATE Jun 75 .

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DESCRIPTORS Bibliographies; Conflict; *conflict Resolution;Environgent; Individual Characteristios; -

Interpersonal Relationship; *Management;*Organiiation; -Organizational. Development;- . . ______

*Organizational Theories; *Organizations (Groups);Role Conflict; Self 'Esteem,

IDENTIPIERS Chntingency Theory

1BSTR1CTSix major causes .of organizational conflict

(individual stress, role conflict, power struggles, differentiation,interdependence, and external pressures) are ,delineated; implicationsfor managing these conflicts using collaboration, bargaining, andpower plays are pointed out; a conflict management paradig pointingout which mode of conflict management wor:.s best for which cause ispresented; and literature on organiiational conflict management isreferenced. (luthor /IRT)

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MAJOR CAUSES OF .CIRGANIZICIONAL CONFLICT:. DIAliN04.3 FOR ACTION

C. Eiroold.yn Derr

June* 1975

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MAJOR CAUSES OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMM:DIN:MOUS FOli AC1TOM

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IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

1

7f. AOSTRACT lemika. a t Ans* aS 11 owermay oaf kfronalr,ey Week *grind

Six major causes of organizational conflict are delineated; implicationsfor managing these conflicts using collaboration, bargaining and power playsare pointed out; a conflict management -paradigm pointing out which mode of

conflictmanagement works best for which cause is. presented; literature on,organizational conflictramnagapent is reference

IL ,KEY WORDS (0.10*. al 1f 01.1.11 alp 11 seemoy awl Odsoelly y Acir assolney

Conflict management organization deyelornent ingalai stressdifferentiation organizational conflict organizational -theory

role conflicts external pressures Conflict *ablutioncontingenCy theory power struggles interdependence.

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MAJOR CAUSES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT:"

DIAGNOSIS FOR ACTION6

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C. Brooklyn DerrGraduate School of Education

UCLA

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C. BROOKLYN DEAR ".ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

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NAVAL. POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

MONTEREY. CALIFORNIA 93940

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AOMINISTRATIVE SCIENCES ,4011446.267Wi594

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MAJOR CAUSES.4F.ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT

DIAGNOSIS FOR ACTION. -

6

' The success or failure of any organization is*

dependent upon the use of its indigenous, collective. .

energies. Wheprocedures are clear, the "esprit de

corps" is high, and the energy resources of the organi-

zation 4é primary and dynamically directed towards

ajievement of the organization's task goals, then

the enterprise is said to be productive. The. number 1..4$

and depth of 'the unmanaged internal-akuleXiernai conflicts

draining its energy resources can generally determines

an organization's place on the scale between success and

falaure.

The primary goal of an Organization's management team, II,

therefore( is to divert resource energy from,conflict

,dissipation .to task-goal implementation. In -Order to

do this, ways and means must be found and applied io,, 0 .

turn conflict energy intoproductitrity, or at least, 4 .

to eliminate the conflict energy draih; linottior words,_

2.

to use conflict-directed organizatiOn energy

. positively.

This is not a simple maneuver. Organizational

.

conflict,occurs at the same organizational level of

individuals and groups, generally responsible for gag-

nosing the problems and effecting the cure. ."Doctor13.

Ore thyself :.." but in order to do so. it is important

that "to thine own self be true .;" in terms of the

organization's good, even if.it means sacrificing your

own ambitions, .needs and-satisfactions.

In an ideOlogically-oriented organization created

.=to handle a war, social unrest or psychic disorder, for

exampIel,the sacrifice -of "self" for the_Fgood of the

organization" carries its own,rewards. In a career-,

oriented organizationl'however, "self" must be preserved

at all costs, or 'thete.will be no car of and no rewards. '

This is the primary and motivating distinctioneetween

career`- oriented otganizational conflict and,confli.qt.

generated. within an ideologically-oriented orgahization.

e-rs-treed-fore-nvIrte gener21 theory about conriict

and 'conflict management and while ,valid concepts and

models at any level of analysis should hold true for

other 'levels as well, there are, nevertheless, someunique

features of career- oriented organizational conflict which,

when highlighted,:maybe.useful,to students of complex

'organizations.-

7.ice

%

7.

i

oD

3.

Xpe emphasis in this article is not on the uniqueness. .

between the iwo.types- of organizations and their conflitts,

bAut rather on the major areas of dispute that occur,/IP

especially within career-oriented.organizations.. 4 . 4

The term "cOnfiicil-(Or "disputel is used in a

variety of ways including tension, opposition, competition-11.

fighting, incompatible interests; violence and problem:

solving. Kenneth W. Thomas and other writers on the subject

have. pointed out that the term "conflict" hks no clear

referrent.1 In this paper, the concept is operationally

defined to mean: energy expended in the enterprise in

reaction to a felt tension. The causes of that tension,:

their intensity-effect and the posiibil&ties of. coping- with ,

conflict are treated below.

-o

FIELDS' OF INTEREST AND-SCHOOLS OF. THOUGHT

The management of organizational conflict,

as a - special subfieid of conflict

.resolutiOn, has come to be much studied and discuiied,

o.,

1

generally, and experimentally implemented in some insti

tutions onlywithin the past five years, However, "several-.

schools of thought on. the subject did begin to evolve: - .

seriously- around 1960; the genesis going back to 1950_

(as cited in Table I) when major journal articles on. the

- ,subject first appeared. The table I articles are listed

by the professions (fields) they serve. It is interesting..

. 8'

I. *

to'note that more has been written to business and

academic audiences than Ito praCtitioners in either- .-

. . .

education or pulgic.admibistrationt A '/n fact, the; .. .Harvard _Business RevIew as.run many more article's..

for practitioners than the other comparable journals,

and the Administrative Science Quarterly Was prihted

far more articles on this subject for academicians.

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1951-73

rBUSINESS

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TABLE I S.

Journal Articles on :Organizatiohal Conflict

.CMR*

EDUCATION

TCR* AN* EAU!'

..1

PUBLICADMINIS-TRATION

.

PAR* ASQ*

ACADEMIC

1965-73 1958 -73 ,1965-73 1952-73 19517'73 1965-73 1950-73 1956-73

JABS* JCR*

1965-73 1957-73

Directly-RelatedArticles*

O s

19

Tangentially-Related "Articles*

I /..

9 0 '3 2 15 .

6

-

16 2

1.

7 1

4 .

7 12

4

e

7:C.

7

SEE APPENDICES. I 4N11

e

5

s 5

I4

X

4

"Directly- related" articles are thOsie that concen-

0

trate -on conflict within organizational boundaries and

are illustrative of knowledge, skills and strategies

(situations) for actually 'managing disputes. "Tangen-

tially- related'- articles, on the other hand, may relate.

.information that has implications for,either what we

know about varieties of organizational conflicts or how<

to resolve them. This latter category does not directly

address the'subject but adds to our understanding.

. Table 11 illustrates the point that the real

Concentration in'this field is a post-1960 endeavor.

Only nine directly-related articles were printed inthe

1950's, while sixty-seven articles have appeared since

0

6.

that time."Also, some thirty-nine articles were .printed

'since 1968 (during the last five years', whereas only .

twenty-seVen were in circulation between 1946-968. The

Appendix lists all of the articles considered .by the.

author to be tangentially and directly.related;

6

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Isis

1960

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1959

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.130341

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PAR'S

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JAB

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1956

'196

0(2)

1963

(2)

1964

.19

65)-

1967

(2)

1970

1971

(2)

1972

(3)

1973

_-

1966

(2)

1969

(2)

197.

3

Ig68

1969

1970

'

1972

(2)

1973

(3)

f

1962

1968

1970

.

1972

1967

1972

'

O

1959

1960

1961

1962

,

1965

1966

1969

(4)

X97

019

71..

1972

(2)

r19

73

1965

1957

(2)

1963

1966

1967

619

6819

6919

70(2

)19

72(2

) 19

70(2

)19

73°

, .The literature moistly describes opinions abort the

genesis of biganixational conflict. Since 1065, however,- .

iiereetas been an .emphasis on effective action- to - .manage

it. The Most pfeValent, aRproach is the collaborative one.

asclibed to by organiiation development ,(OD) pgopodenti:

They fioiht out that:. conflict is .neither good nor-bad bUt a

normal cons. nonce of orgenitational life; 'that it occurs .io not

iixortasit es-bow it is managed. The method 'that leads to

ffeckivenesp. .1s. Annmbick vier. .tbe_aiipute-as-crentiwer_tension -

ineify:vbiob, broiight to the -surface and pobien Solved-, can

;l ::to innovation, better intettersonal telationships and increased

ptcidundifity..2- -

. .

. A More recent -approach to organizational design oand

fo;

match. the. internal 'tasks and- structure to the demands of

the external environment . ,This...schOO1 of thodiht contends. ..

. th4t.: theft- is no -"beset way to design "-,he enterpriae, since .

. -

. .' -'...., .

ippropriate,structuge, for; enanple, is contingentUpon the: task,.

. .-

the environment and the needs of individuals and groups working is,. . ,

the erten. The theor-yaand _empirical research. aupportingd a .

this. point,- of View has resulted body pf literature

tiown as '"Contingency Theory.:P3' Qne rule of thumb is.

that: the :pieseriptionfoi .iiprowenent_oust be appropriate and,

therefore, cilia only be nsde-after a careful diasktsis.

A

0

f

In a Contingency Approach, effective conflict manage-

' -,went depends on an in-depth assessment of the major 'causes

of the dispute.

a

.

groups against one:-another to achieve vtheir own selfish

_

Almost any effective action will depend on a valid

. and useful diagnosis of the problem(s). Whether the

research suppOits a more normative (collaborative) OD0

view about effective conflict management or a Contingency

Theory approach is a much debated question. Thefollowing

describes the author's synthesis of What the litetature. -

says are the major reasons for conflict==Ehose-Vh2ch-hamr-

9.

C

implications for intervention and management-Mich will later be

heated with some of his and others' experiences in the

application of different management procedures.

--------

MAJOR CAUSES- OF -CONFLICT

According to the literature, thete are innum erable

origins of otganizational,dispute'and'each.produces'its

own variety of effects. In general, there are six major, -

sources: (1) the interpersonal disagreements thatarise

when one persoh is experiencing individlial stress;

(2) theiproblems resuliihg from role_conflict, a condition

that occurs when there is a clash over ohe"s role, in the

organization;. (3) the power struggles that pit persons and

objectives; (4) the misunderstandings and disagreements

0

. 14

10.

from differentiation, i.e., the clashes that arise because

people approach common problem's from very different

orientations; (51 the interdependence requirements for

collaboration which, if not extensive and balanced .

between the parties, cause communication and idteractl'on

breakdoWns which, in,turn, if critical, lead to more

intensive conflicts; and ,A6) the external pressures..

4--from forces outside the enterprise that breed internat-A

pressures as the _system seeks-ip adapt but not to.disrupt.4

its internal order.

INDXVIDUAL STRESb.

r

&times the feelings, anxieties and tensions'ey

perienced' by a-person are so strong as-to inflUence his, .

4 .

work relationships with others.- The origin of-these

internal conflicts may or may not bp directly attributed

to the vxganitation.. People bring their whole selves. to-,

6 the workplace and they may he experiencing stress as a

result.of their membership in other organiiations

voluntary groups, the family) or they may be working'. 4

through psychological...issues. (e.4.4 depression, par-

scnality change, identity :crisis). There are, lume4Ver,

several causes of individual stress that Ake directly

related to the organization.- 1.4

.; 15

-

4.

Unfulfilled. Expectations

There is often an expectation :gap betifeen what

the employee "Understands. the job or task to be and what

it actually is. In some organizations, recruiters tend

to overemphasize favorable aspects- ofa jOb. do that

false expectations are generated. This is especially

true when the job is professional in nature- (e.g.,

requiring

training,

individual expertise that comes from special

the product. of whidh can only be judged by

others with similar -knoiiledgerbe4414e-the 'conditions-.

and emphasis of the position vary according to the

organizations' -needs and therefore

lens in'liis field of expertise

11.

4

cannot be-defined.

that were high priority

at the time "of recruitment might be downgrded,' forcing

the professional to accept a lesser degree of importance

in tie organization, in direct ratio to the problem-solving.

emphasis reqUired by. the- Organization. 1

A

Ifi other instanc4, "fhe recruit himself is 'so, intent

,on achieving his own objectives -that he interpretk phe

recruiters messages- to 'suit himself. -Be ig later -dieap*-4.

pointed to discover that it is not possible to -kedetine._

the "grey" areas between his objecti*es and; thoke of' the

.organixittion tb"--tris .satisfaction within the 'already

established -social 'system.

The rate of organizational change in our society

1.6

.p

C.*

I%

often makes it impossible to keep original promises and

contracts. The needs and objectivesof the organization

may change dramatically with new technology, new comr

petition and new client wientations. JObs and tasks

inside the system must vary accordingly to adapt to. ;

.deMands _coming from the-external environment.

Research by SOhe in4,

and- Kottek5 stressesA A

worker's satisfaction and productivity in hia

that

first year

12.

.is./argely determined by the degree to which his expectations

and those of the organization match._ kottees work under-

scores the IMPortinCe' IfOr employee activation) of %matching

expectations even over the possibility of an uqexpected

bbonus Argyris6; and Levinson7 have also stressed

the importance of stated and unstated expectationsas a

powerful determinant of organizational behavior..

)

/

Values

It is increasingly commonplace for -an employee's

'personal values to bein conflict with the norml, .&ccediies

and goals of the enterprise. Employees believe less and

less that they should subdrdiate their interest to those

Of the organization.."

The emergence of the notion that a person has a,-7 410.

greater, moral duty to exercise his judgment against the

organization for the good of society is-growing. For

example, Ralph Nader encourages goveriment employees to

2

1

SO,

13.o

serve as social watchdogs and report to public scrutiny.

groupi, any .ihformaiiollythat conflicts with their inter-

pretation of the public good. The cases of DanielElls-

Berg releasing the Pentagon.Papers for publication and

Jack Anderson reporting the National Security Council 5-

discussion of. the India-Pakistaik War "tilt" are illus-.

trations of this new 'version of morality.

Values gieatly influence individual behavior. They

-determine what the individual regards as good, right'and

. important.' They govern' his attitudes towards cautesaod

issues. They control the way he internalizes, assimilates,

and transmits information and concepts. They even serve

as guides for his behavior. When a "person exiwiendes

a conflict between his values, and those of organization,'

he undergoes person4l stress that may well affect-his

performance ancicause difficulties fo-.7';the enterpriie.8. .

Authority Relationships

An individual's psychological tolerance for and

response to authOrity figures -are,critical.iMpact factors.

on.his relationthip-to the organization. Various types ,

. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -

of Subordinates may have different relponiej to the

same toss:. one May work well with one boss_and clash. .

with anotherLa colleague might favor the second boss

and fight with the first. The'leadership style of the

boss and the disposition of the subordinate towards

authority peksons in geneial and towards a leadership0

1.8

I

: 14.

style in particular, will determine the extent to which

there exists personal stress in the subordinate that

could lead to organization conflict.9

Some persons have deep, psychological needs to

dominate or control. Such a type can be impulsive-ande

actively seek to overthrow the authority person.' :This'

is the so-called "trouble-maker." His insatiable need

for power causes him:to create conflict situations to

undermine the-authority- person who dominates him.

When Worganizes others against the boss, the

friction he creates within the organization react,. _

detrimentally upon ale system and ultimately against

him. .

Thtre is stilt another type of individual who, also

wants to dominate but he uses amore'passive Modus

operandi. Suffering from a sense

negative feelings towards his boss, his aggression is

usually more. hidden and his tactics are more indirect.

maniptilative."-He is capable of.spreaaing malicious.

golf:sip and of sabotaging the work to make the authority

person look bpd.

-Theethere is the individual whomeeds-to be in control

of his own destiny so that,any directives by an authority

figure are negatively viewed.,, His greatest goal is tither

to have a well-defined job where he,can do the minimum

,:and,have the rest of the time to himself, or .to be in the.

capacity of. a 'professiona'l with Maximum flexibility and

9

. .

autonomy. He- rebels against authority by, a$oding it, J

.

trying to become as free as possible fram itsi0 A. 0

He even avoids interaction and participation fort,feak J. ..4. s _ d

that he will then be forced to follow the7.grOup'..

% .- . -,, decision instead of acting independently. Such an employee .

,.-%

.

. .

.

seeks to build barricades.

around himbeIf in order to ...

enjoy maximum autonomy...

O

Relative Deprivationi

p

-People-_-frequently-evaluate.theirmell4ming in .

relative rather than absolute tetras. They compare them-..-

igolves with others and their apparent:.stlinding' in the,

)/(Comparidon.determines,theirhappihess. The feiiiing of

'being deprived in relation to othirs rather than actually

10.being deprived is a state kn9wrlas_nrelatiVe iLdepriation-n -

...

However, relative deprivatiotrtheoryjoresumed that

there will be close istociatibn- with a reference giOu0 so

that the degree of similarity between the individual and

the other people. (of.referen6e).:caigtabtished. The

individual wilt then have to choose which seta he prefers.a

Such conditions exist in a complex organization. _people

?--

.4;,4

Ore

work qlosely within th eir own -work, group and they compare(I(

I-

themiefves as to saliky, work conditions, status, authority,

"opportunities,. etc., to others 'in the group,. ;Groups_within

the system compare themselves' to other groupeCi,

_ .

t

e

.21.

. ...*%-

"16.-

'Persons and /or-groups in oiganczed. setting :do --, .0

experience' relative deprivation. Ain a .result; -.the

individual may be -openly. hostile tO- another mefiber of.- e

the- group,.'-Or the group -hostile to ahothet group. They

may, feel that the orginization. is taking' .advantage of _

thel and that they Should act against it (e'egy-,-..sabotage)---, _.

-.or should do less Work. They may simply feel '=hurt ;because .

: ..they are not -valued- .ait 4-,. as a. consequence,. may withdraw,

. .

. performing, only the Minimum required- of iheiti._

-i

1.!,:.,

.e

..

SelfrEsteem__

_._

.4.1.

.

;.

..,

. .

Chris' Argyris -maintains that three aspects. ofindividual..personalitk relate to one's -competence- and

effectiVenestifil. First, the person must accept :hlinse-If---,

.so. that te- values himself; he is then opentre75Cliiii.--,

feedback regarding. his attitudes, -hi:a-work and "sicci0"%

products,- -" za,1 to be minimally defensive. -This is because,

he values his thcs le self enough to consider criticism.

. . .

willingly and accepts suggestions that 'can- improve a part

of himself that is '14.cng-iwithout, in, turn,. deyaluing- , , -. ,,,

-,MO whole-self) ...Second? the-:person-Siiskt-get---.9orifitmation

,,that his view of reality -on any 'g yen. Iiibleat of ptolgera

- Itcompares favorably with the- view :of hers; this gives.him more self-confidence in his own pep. ions. Finally,

,Orthe portion. needs =the .free'dom to 'be able to`-̀ess hi* in

capabilities and concerns for improving the sis 00 that. .

-21-

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17'.

he feels essential to its effectiveness.- .The feelings of etsentiality,,, confirsiatiOn and-

selffitacceptance are precondition's' to effective inorganizations: 'These 'ate' all part of a person's totalseli-esteem.

_ Onthe other ,hand,. . individuals. with . law self- esteem

in one or niore-of the ".self" areat, can generite manyorianizational.00nflticts. ,SuchpersOnii tend, to become

overly defensive in order to be -able to survive with :the

low opinions they head of. thesiselves. result,: they'..

depersonalize any feedback and attribute it _to uncontrollable, .' , _

events or to other people. Ttley.rationaVize aWay liegative :,.

-information rather khan- acting to. 'improve' the situation:.

They regard. such data,as- a cuMuleitive attack on- themselves

rather than accept as useful that 'feedback which seenis'to

be .accurate.

Conflicts occur when the person of 4.,-6w self.esteem!s

defOnsive behavior blocks pLOnest and meaningful interaction.

with fellow workers; also when they 1)erceive that he -is

fragile, they tend to ignore or, avoid' hilt; when such aperson, under stress, withdraws and :denies to .the-. others.

.r

access to orM zot1731cis (inciucting hwn-:1he holds back as well the benefit of his best-perfoilitnCe .

. ,-..-...

which, under normal -conditrequire, would- reqUi taking- riskim .. ..

.

0.1%

01.

-;"

44,

18.

ROLE'- CONFLICT

, .. .

. .

._ Some social psychologists argue that an organization

is substantially a number of organized acts among people,.,'.

People act on MOterials4 on machinet, and on one-another:- \

_Thuix the organization is comprised of persons interacting_

!,in certain.rOles; and it' is possible to understand' an:

. .r

indiVidual's behavior iii-the organization by finding out

"what his roles are in.respect.to.others.

olebehavior in a complex organization refers to

"the recurring actions of an.individUall.aepropriatay.

interrelated with the repetitive activities of others so. . P

o as _to yield predictive outcOme.'il2. memberi. ,t .

of the-.,_

4

organization perform, their interactions with others-who..

..

are Often. called the. "role-det." The role-set is composed'-

P---of those persons who are interdependent,with ajartiOular.

person In ,the organization,,

And' theactiviiiewalst define. ,

, his role are maintained*throUgh the expectations of members....._ .,. . .

. p-g.:, '

,

of the role -set, Sometimes, however, the person, does mit.. - . .

d ,-11....choose:to conform to.these "eitpeotations'and.conflict rallies. 47

2

,': e-p12.The strong est illdividual Stress Aspects-in role

VI.

conflict are the expectations' gags that ,cause, personal,.'

tension.' Theieare often due to the clash between the.

4_

perpon.and his yae-set rather than-r for example, the.. .

pqrsom and the whole organization. The other causes of,4 ...f .

individual stress presented above are all intensitied As

pan indiVidual interacts With other members of his rd1fe-set.

4

-

e

r

It

...

However, there is an4Mpottant distinction between

role conflict and indiyidual stress per se. ,In the

former, the emphasis is placed on Understanding the=

.dIsputed'thai occur -when-there is_ interaction between

0.

0 4

the person and his role set. In the latter" category,_ .

there is an effott to try to determine what happened

within the person that led him first to experienCe.dOnftt.

flictO

and later to act it out on the tole s0.. Role

Conflict' is interpersonal and intragroup in nature;

individual stress is intrapersonal but eventually leadingP

t6the_interpersonal /exiel-bf analysis. As I(atz and. A

ehn-state about the nature.of role theory:4.. .. .

. ,. .

It is the' reeeived role which is the immediatesource of influence and motivation of his

(insofar as it is, influenced by Membersof his role set). Finally, the. Local personacts; showing some coMbinitiOn 4tomplianceand non -cops liance with the expectations of hisrole-set. ti

-iThere are a- number of reasons. Ay ndividuale may

not conform to. the expectationp. of members'of their role

set. Ones contradictory messagesreceived.from others,

.such as trying to live up to the expectations of the

_principal of a school which may violate.iMpdrtant norm§P

.of a.teaching*team. Two: different persons within a

role -set may have diverse expectations and the individfial$,"*.. .<

may have to' choose one set of expectations.-instead.of

another.- Example: sometimes a new teacher may

IP

.*

7

N".

O

t

.

:i...; ...Langaillatisneeded.lies in the choice' he makesaboUt how,

:. J % .- - . !

- ..

.

. choose between what his/her professor in college-taughtV

to strive towardsand:the different phildsophies and'

methods of the faculty with which she/he is now working.

Three: interroIe conflicts manifested dile to the

multiple roles in the organization. hick most persons

0 .

must assume. An individual may Wet teacher, the head.

of a curriculum committee,, the member bf a planding

committee, and at the same time a teachers' association. .

xepresentative,'A choice will have icibe -made by this

person-betWeen'the expectationtof

takers with whoM.he interacts, for

the different -roles

an expectation of one

might ,weld be in conflict with the expectations -of another,

Four:, role overload, a result of expectations Of"

meMbers of the various role sets which are too demanding'..

It may be impossible to satisfy them all.

Five: peroonal reluctance.on the part of-the

individual.who'simpay. does not want to .comply with the

expectations of.members of his role -set. The expectations

i,

may be. ,perceived: by the individual as against 'his personal.

va

Iesj

not personally interesting to him, in violation'

Nt

.

-torofessional orientation to the work, dr different.

.

-

from hii own perceptions of What,is needed. This part of

%role conflict theory is '-similar to the individual stress

category. Once again; however, the .emphasii in this,.

last differentiation between an individual's perceptions.

0

-4

R

4

4

p

21.

to oppose the others in the group, and not on his personal

tensions which may lead sometimes unintentionally, to

interpersonal disputes.

POteR STRUGGLES.

f.'rt

Power struggles seem to be-anatutal part of

organizational life'. Robett Ardrey claims that man has

.4

a real need for territory or apiece of the action he can

call, his own." 'David Modellararhas distin4Uihed

between socialized Power, that is, the4desireto use

influence, to serve and be more socivIly, responsible, And-

personalized power, defined as the need to control and.

use power to a dvance bne'sseif.- _The ocialized power:%f 4 '

teed is normal 'Among lig (lets and might be beneficial to

,t''21the'orgvization. course" personalized poOter need

can also,-be d5structive. Michael C rOzier_states that

, power' plays of one kind or another were"at them heart of

all the conaicte hehas studied." And the' conclusive.

thesis of Anthony Jay's "Management and Machiavelli" is

thatbureaucratio politics (power playing) are normal and

natural and should therefore be dealt with dispassionately

as a reality of organizational life. 17J.

40

.Power struggles occur-when'some personsora grant:J(8)

try to gain advaqtage over:others. One commpn- reason for

a power struggle is competition for:scarce resources 4e.g.,

0

26.N

...L.

e

e

.t-

4

A

status, information,, work load,, -budget) .the.objective-

is to set up:a destiudtiire win-lose situatiow-whereby.6 : 1

onemg p, -parties will be destroyed, or at. least. el

dominate `by the victor.*tr.''

1...

- A second cause of power struggles'in:Complex.organit. .

z , .

zationsarises when parties seek to gain inflUence thrOugh

the,informal organization. /fhe person dr,group(s) who

have the recognition -based power are the key to this gambit.

(or` they are) perceived by organizational,'

14mbeis as having access to the boss, or haVerled,Jar

whatever means deference from, others, received key assign-. a 8 .

minis, he or they) are able because oeposiOmn to dp:1iir,er

services and-favors, etc., and4a power - wielding positioe'

ha0.7beenestablished.'

A third cause of.poier struggle conflict springs

-frost thf Incompatible drives for autonomy and influence,

Ily'definitton, to be -influential is to be Involved with

pthers and to be autonomous is to be neither involved nor

.= influenced. To be influential- therefore, fulfillecertain

power needs for control l-olier others, while 'to beAUtonomoUs-. . 0

allows one to be his own man (Okercis control oveiself) -.

Tigu,re I represents the spoweiftriangle" andhelps ma. .

.. 6

.

better to understand some of these dynamicsor the.

. .

organizationapower struggle leading to Conflict:

4

0.

0

0

0

I.:

. .

THE POWER TRIANGLE

AUTHORITY.

Influence and autonomy are mutually incompatible

oblectives_that clash at the .vertex and. are linked

together by the common base of formal authority. Persons

.trying to be.autonomous7attempt to resist the rules,

policies ana pressures of those in authority, and those

--who-seek-influencs_either try to enlist the support of

authority figures- (to use them) or vie for the positions

theimelves so-that they can combine informal influence0

23.

with formal authdrity. Conflict arises when, for example.,

Subordinates resist the orders ofthOse in authority or

when the organization cannot.gain full- compliance by

subordinates for its dedisions.

Conflicts also arise within'-apersOn orpgroUpthat

attempts to be. both- influential and autonomous. A "best,

of both worlds" approach seldom sucteeds an4 in this-

case, it is difficult to straddle the line-between getting-.

involved and'staying,aldof-

A valid'reasonfor conflict develops:when an emergent

leader with influence' (e.g.x,senior_professoi) disagrees

with the authOkitrperson department cbairman). In

; o

213_

0 -

to.

24:

some organizations, the emergent leader can gain more

infldence by remaining a marginal or informal leader,

i.e., keeping a law profile and manipulating through others.

.Gonfltet also occurs when an individual succeeds.,

at gaining freedom from the restrictions and thereby thea

influence of his role set. Such a person is often disputed..17,

.

because he cannot be counted on-to do his-share" of: the

work) support the'norms considered by the role set to be0

important or to contribute to-a resolution of the problems

.and issues being deliberated by them for which they 'are

responsible.

. The fourth of the,power struggles causes is manifested,

when persons of equal authority in a-work group. (peers) vie

for leadership positions and influence. Most group decision;

are usually made by compromises or consensus. Either

process results in unleashing powerful points of view that

try to sway the group; these can lead to unmanaged negative

feelings and disagreements. In fact, wide open channels of

communication can encourage the expression of' tensionsall

of which is to the good, but only if 'those feelings are

managed.

Group-based emergent leadership it often captured by

articulate spokesmen because:the scene (a group. with members.4,0

taking) is one in which expressive persons'ean dominate-.

This sometimes causes conflicts for the inarticulate.the

'tixddiand for those who haye a different reactive style

29

.(e4g.,American Indians, through tribal traditions

- 25.

inculcated from birth;generally listen and remain silent

-until there is a movement towards consensus, or they

really have a deeP.felt.positioq:to takel:.

Intragroup conflicts also emerge-when newcomers find

. it difficu/t to gain true access to the rest of the group

or when trying to establish their influence-identity.

through certain incumbents, they offend or irritate others,

The indigenods seeds of power struggles take root

When group-based decision.making does not work. The con-

fidential information that was freely exchanged because

there was initial -trust is now used by, warring factions

in the 'form-of delitOrious-gossip or making. strategy

decisions against the opposition.

A fifth power struggle confrontation occurs when some

of the interrelated departments and,orginizations are not

bound by either a-COMMon-authority or the need to collaborate

(interdependence). These independent units-, howeverltend

to get involved in important power struggles to strengthen

their already strong positiond. They fight unilaterally

-, for jurisdiction over various functions (territories)1.

they vie with competitors,for sdarde.regources within the,

common marketplace, demonstrating tOClients that they can

out-perform their competitors (e.g. by profit Otatements),,

failing really to communicate in the **ailing" phase the

joint Problems they have in common with the others; they

"30_ ,

distort -or Withhold piOiliation from Clients and competitors

alike. Thus, as the opposing units- unite." defensively,

strong intragroup -feelings of -solidarity against- the*

AutonoMOugi- unit are built/ and as. a resulti..ndmeroua inter7

-perioital hostilities and attitudes. of distruttThese are difficult, if not impossible,- to overctite. at alater time when the autonomousunit needs to work together

with One or -more of the other units.

.DIFFERENTIATION-

The relationship between organization and environment

has been the focuS of much recent research and theory

building. Both empirical and theoretical studies. haie

shown that, given certain task -environmental requirements.,

some patterns of structure and behavior are sore appropriate. -

than'others; that organizations Conforming_ More closely_1with these patterns are. more effective.,, 8 This concept,

subject of afgrowing body of literature, is called"Contingency -Theory:" It is a "contingent" theory beCause

the theme,common to these studies, is that,effectiVe patter:tit

of organizational structOre and behaVior are contingent

on environmental and task demands. 19. An organizational

pattern; initially well- suited to. an .existing.-enviroment,ceases to be-appropriate as major environmental changes;

occur.. They require coMpensating -changes' in the .task

patterns of the organization in 'order for the organization tofunction dynamical-ly .Within the new, . environmental atmosphere..

314

,..

.

The basic premise of 'Contingency Theory is that'an imitable

environment requires the 'organization ,to exhibit alertness;

flexibility and dynamic. responsiveness. .to 'Whatever changes:

..

may occur. ,

Several empirical and iheoreticil Studkelit Of -organ i-

zatiotial response to environmental Change ',support this

conclusion.29 For example/ Burns and--Stalker have shown "'

that in order to ;survive, organizations thrust into dynamic0i

and uncertain environments require 'different patterns- of

O

1)

structure and conflict resolution than do organizations.., 3 . .........

comfortably entconsed in, stable and unchanging environ-..-::---

ments.21 Work by Emerf and Tist, Dill, $tarbucjc, and

Terreberry also support these,findings:iind suggest -that

as environments evolve in terms of diversity., turbulence,Ci

-,.

-rates of change, or uncertainty, Organizational patterns

of behaVior must evolve with the*.22

One of the most recent and elaborate ContingenCy Theories.- , 9

has been advanced by'Lawrence and*Lorsch. Their approach

his already received -much- attention in business circles.231

,

Building -on several other studies concerning: organizationil-,

environmental "fit," Lawrence and- Lorsch. vieWed organizations

as- -open Systems capable of Internal differentiation.- Within-

. this premise, they developed a contingency model for studying'

the relationship between environment and internally. differen-

tiated complex organizations." Obsetving that organizational

environments- often, offer :a wide divergity of..

issues, they

.

-i

,c

postulated that organizations segment themselves into

subunits, each subunit concentrating orvvne part of the

organization's task and environment. The authors-'' hypo-.

thesized that if the individual "subenvironments' and.

the. corresponding tasks Of these subunits were:different;

. .

from each other, then - the -internal organizatiOh.of each

of the-various subunits would, also have to differ..

They theorized that segmentation into subunits

has two. consequences: (1) the efforts of thevariout

segmented:parts are integrated; making the entire organi-

zation viable; and (2) differentiation among members of

the various ports is created-. "Differentiation" was

,operationally"definea as the differences among rneibers. of

Major subunits in cognitive and attitudinal Orientations,

i.e.; differences in attitudes and behavior, not simply

division of labor or specialization of knowledge. Diffeten-.

tiation was measured in. four areas:, goal orientation,

formality of structure; time orientation; ancFinterpersonal

orientation.

Using these constructs, Lawrence and Logsch pOstulated;

and. later showed empiriciflY4 "that the greatetthe differen-

tiation among parts; themore difficult it was to.bring

about.integration of effort.m25 Integritiokwes defined as

the perceived state of collaboration! betvven-lajor,paire.idsublinite.

In &comparative study of. organizations in three

different U.S. industries; Lawrence and Lorsch found that

each indlistry required different patterns of differentiation

30'

r/

if organizations were to be effectiVe. In the more diverse

and uncertain industry-environments, subunits had to be

29i

I

inbre- differentiated. from each other if the total organi-

zation was to cope with the-diversity.of its tasks and

subenvironments. Environmental. diVersity was operationally

defined as . the degree to which- the_ sthenvironnents corresponding

to various subunits differed in their relative certainty of infuriation,

time- span- of feedback, and the nape issues they presented= to the-

organization;26

Lawrence and- Lorsch discovered that the more effective

firms (in terms of economic .criteria) in industries .

characterized by highdivertity were more differentiated

than the less effective firms.27 They alto-found that

these firms had simultaneously achieved higher'states of

integration bgtween subunits. In the more diverse environ-

ments, high differentiation was required betwien. subunits'

but considerable integration was heeded to bring together

.these differentiated but interdependent parts. j

A study of the best performing organizations operating

in the differentiation mode showed that they were 'mores

effective in resolving interdepartmental conflict and in

joint decision making than the lessei perfording firms.

It was found-that the mechanics for integration-in'the

latter were more, highly deVeloped than in the former. These

conclusions suggest that the higher the degree of differen-

tiation among subunits-, the.greater the need for eiabOrate

4

I

6

30.

.integrating (conflict management) devices;.

James Thompson indirectly reinforces this contention

when he states ,that division of labor (segmentation) is

one of the major causes of organizaticinAl,cOnflict And that- #

this 'is due,to the diverse orientations of the heterogeneous

organizational poRtilAtion (differentlation).28

Todd Laporte, in studying a.government research and

development orginization, discovered a minimum of diffekenz-

tiation and therefore a minimum of conflict because the -

workers were for the most part self-dependent scientists

who required little interaction with other scientists to

accomplish their part of the organizatiori't task..29 However,

in"Harrison White's studies of the disagreements between

an R & D and a production department in an industrial

enterprise, the. kinds of conflicts he describes aresimilar

to the ones discovered by Lawrence .andLorsch in the highly

.differentiated firms, and by-and-large substintiate their

conclusions."

Conflicts occur because people and grows approach

'problems with totally different orientations.. This is

especially. true at the intergroup level of analysis where

whole departments become cohesive and competitive and take. _

on.speciil indulgent characteristics to serve and protect

their domain, causing. conflict thereby with other groups.

outside their orbit whoseorientation and objectives are

different. this is just as true at the interperson'al level

when.t4o ifferent individuals try to 'collaborate je.4.4

-3 5

1

Ni

IL

31.

academic consultant and line administrator, the directors

of two different departments, and old-timer and a young

MBA in the same task foice .

INTERDEPENDENCE

The more two persons or groups are required by the

nature of the task to work together (be interdependent),

the greatei the potential for conflict. If persOns lust

work closely and dependently with one another to get the

job done, they will be more sensitive to their disagreements.

Forced to Collaborate, the magnitude of the consequalCes

of disagreements are intensified on aonetto-one basis

'because of the nature of the close, enduring relationship.

` As a result, the potential for friendship or antagonism is

in direct ratio

disagreements.

more intense or

interdependence

A residual

to the intensity.and frequency .of their

Thus, whenever conflict arises., it is made -'

less Intense bythe relative climAte dif.the

between the individuate.

effect of high interdepends ce seems .to be

the corresponding drive for autonomy. 31 If t q imposition.

of joint activity is 'too demanding, the people.i0yolved

.

will consider it an invasion of their right to pursu some

of their own interests. Interdependence, therefore, b eeds

conflict when people with needs for autonomy for their

interests tend to resist it (depending on how heavy are

the requirements for collaboration). -

33

t, 32_4

0 Mien collaboration is superimposed by the organization

Ondepartments or other groups, Soma comion,bOnflicts often ,

emerge. Usually they-ate the kinds of probleislwe disCussed

in the previous :section on differentiation. Moreover, if

the two groups ,have had a-histori of poor relationa in the

past, the new venture is adversely affected froi,the beginning:,

This negative entry into collaboration can qdicklyaoctmUlate

into a struggle over who will. possess what information

spend what budget, initiate action oi control decisiohs..

On the other fund, the laCk ofinterdependence can

also be a cause of organizational conflict., Arsons who

do not have to collaborate onthemain body of their work

and therefore do not- frequently communicate Or interact with

others, tend to guard their-Insular domain by being secretive

and distiustfUl. They generally .do not understand nor seek

knoWledge of the problems of other persons or groups.

Opekating: without validated information,_ .they -will react

to; apparent or imagined encroachments on their autonomy.,

creating real conflicts where often, none need to exist-.-;

XTERNAL PRESSURE

Complex organizationslwhethei they be bUsinest.or

schoolso,must_accomplish.three major functions. simultaneously_

in order to survive: they must adapt to demands comingg

frothe external environment, they must change-internally

to facilitate suchAadaption, land they-must need organizational

Mg.

a

.1

N-

a

-NT!

4.

-objectives.

32.

.

Thus, an enterpribe does not exist insa

vacuum; rather, it is a part of its own external enviro n-

I

ment and Must meet those external demandS in'order to

33:.

continue existence. These factors'are part of the Lawrence

and Lorsch theory described abo4e in the section on

differentiation.

The boundaries of An organization at the interface

with its environment are not self-contained but are

permeable. There is a continual process of *potting,.

Converting and exporting materials toiand from the environ-

ment. Walter Buckley underscores thigs,conceptrSS

4

That a system is open, means, not simply,tjat it engagesin interchanges,with the environment, butthat thisinterchange is in essential factor underlying the system'sviability, its reprodusSive ability- or continuity., andits ability to change.

The external environment canbe a formidableforce

impinging on the organization. ,It can cause organizational. .

conflict as the internal system tries to- .adapt to of defend

, against presdures frdb without. For exfmple, every bUsiness

recognizes the impact of its clients and competitors on

its performance; every school system feels vulndrable to-

the detands of parent and community groups, to chin4es.i;

teaching and administration.

Some OD theorists believe that exceptional conflict

possibilities are put on the system when the environment

38

#

-34.

is generally uncertain or unstable (i:g., in innovative,.-

, . .

Industries: such acelectronAds. or,plastich or, :in the

public sector, when government funding is uncertain }.. ,

-. Persons in such tentative-systemii-are-learful-and-are--------- --.--------7-.

_. . _

.

. under constant pressure to provide-for their own siiiirival.

a

.

Thii leads to many conflicts, even when a-disaster'threat-.or;

is not imminent. However, -when crisis reigns' and chaos-.,

is rampant, the authority persons ,at ihe top of thWorgani-

zation tighten their controls so as to assure system surviVal

and thereby their As .a result, many become involved

in vicious power ,st uggleconflicts. Each tries to dominate

and secure his posi ion w;th added power and at the same time,

take advantage of tjhe crisis in order to possess greater

influence and moreterritory

The clients o consumers,

bring direct force to bear on

However, some env

wOri it has POstd.

of organizations-gometimes

the servingorganisation.

ronmental groups are part of the system's

own mechanism for 'gaining external Cooperation and: feedback,

For example, stockholders vote end express their opinions

a& the annual meeting. The PTA serves as a channel for

parents tO'discuss theirewsmith. re -school system/ Many

feelp.however, that the effectiveness of an envirOnmental

'group's input on the system is minimal because the orgapi-.

nation controls whether or not to-act.on'their suggestions..

pr, if it does act, it may-do-so in such ..a way that - the.

interest of persons in the :system are first protected- and /. or°

39

O

15,

*.35.

served, distorting and possibly destroying the intent of,

the suggestion and the effectiveness of implementation.r

Alto, organizations can' and do coergethe involvement

of these kinds of groups in decisions to back their own

self- serving versions of a group-sponsored program of action

by deceptive promises to utilize the progrim_in" a way

that will satisfy-the group4 Objectives. When the

deception surfade4,,it is too late and generally too

embarrassing for the deceived group toadmit its gulla-i. if,"'

bility besabotaging A programsiesupported.

However, recent` decades in Mericin history have

demonstrated the powerful impatqf protest groups on

'(141korganizations. 'Students have illepecitated:universities;

't,g' .

schools have beefi boycotted and, sometimes, shut down by

rioting students and unhappy citizen groups; governmental

'sagencies, pa riicuIarly those whose fundilons related to

the Vietnam Way and presently those wbose focus is on

poverty,race relationi, etc., have seen the victims of

many irate citizens' assaults.

Protettors have a whole menu of destructive techniques

they use effectively to engineer disrders-, slowdowns,'

sometimes ruin to the target cirgAnizations: whOle schools

are immobilized and thrown into- chaos by the simple, act of

setting off fire alarms or by calling in false bomb reports;

valuably productive time_ of a orlipization's imiiort4ht

personnel is-di4Vipated respondirg to false aqcusations, 'td.- .

- .

4 ,zt .h

:04

I4

401

1...44.4

o

.

t

04

.

4

4.

- o.

36.-

.'crank" letters and phone calls, to forged .cemunidations

0c

- .ft. ontaining information that is 'false, malicious and

.

embarrassing; stores service is disrupted when. ahcorate of phoney-costumers take. up tit& clerks'. tilde. ej.th a

,series4Of nuisance questions and filse accusations- for ;. c ! "

the simple purpose of harassment and to make 'the regular

customers impatient with the 'resulting lack of. serVice-.

. .Ofteri,the technique is a subtle cfamPaignc.of half truths 4

...designed to get the media on the side .of the' protestorsi. .1 . .. ..and take a position against -the organization. This. ie

./ .. . .

not tO say that 'all protest "graTt Pe that resort to suchI

extreme techniques ire .not advocates of worthy causes..

Generally, ,all. other methods of making their cause felt. .

-and acted upon have failed andsofte sort of extreme

-. technique is ,a la st resort. -On'the other hand;. there

0

--- -groupsare protest grolips whose purpoie is not to better conditions-

.

or improve the .byttem-within socially acceptable COordinater.- .°

a,

°

Their oblective,is to destroy the organization and thesystem itself because the systewill not accept them on. * t

equal.termis-and! to this end, no action no tadtid. ii.. .a ..."

iOoextre* . . .1.. , .

. ..

A The author has- extensively researChed,the evolution4,

of protest, groups and their target. organizat=ions, over, ,

a period of years, tracing the progression of thp strategiesemployed to influence the organizationom.legitiMata

7and

.

traditional presentationS/ through channels provided for by-O

.t

4;: liDO

.4-

4".

O

...-system - through the extreme means of forde,and-violence

.. . : 1.

.. 0 %."

. .,;7'. . .

';',Wfitch.were ultidafittY resorted :when-the syStei-refuted.. ...

--... .... ..,

... ... 'their demands. ihdi4oUght off their .strategic-06ves: "'The_46 - study was concitned with the 'black comiunities New York

. :

.

and' Boston vying for their communities' control of the. -

pubEicischools.-

In, he first study, the author identified twelye

aajOt groups that influenoed the Boston Soho& .b4pfirtment.

'between 1962-1970. The major ones were in order_Of"their,.

importance: Oarent andciti;en groupscin the black.

community,,local universities, the mass media federal and

state governmental agencies, the teachers union, other.parental groups, dissenting students, ieform groups fi-oM

suburbia, professional organizations,:the business ComMunity,

City Hall, and Lciedited agencies.33

In a second, as yet unpublished teddy of five groups

in the black community in New York and Bostonsthat were

vying for community control of the schdols, the author

identifies the major strategied they use to exert influence.

upon the system. First, local,organizations useekthe

traditional andlegitimate channels (e.g., cOntacting,the.

school personnel in charge'about given, problems, also 4

through the PTA) trying to work with 'the school system

organization. Failing to achi0,te their gbals, a.nuMber,

of environMentalgroups reported using the 'political prodess

ti. try and exert-pre ssure:0 they and i

`mass meetings to which they invited schoolboardlitemktere;

42

"I,

0

_

39.

theyused-a lobby to try and influence the city council

and.state legislature; they solicited the 'support ofthe

mass media for their cause; they- evoked their considerable

members:Kip to send telegraiis and d-letiers to public officials.

Then anAttempt was made to "bore" fro® within: the bureau-

-cracy-of the environmental group tried to.work.quietly and

directly with memberof the school system bureaucracy..?- -. ,

hoping to achieve their objectives at lower hierarchial

levels; without going through the politici;ed process of

working.with those at the top of the organisation who

,seemed antagonistic and prejudicial. Failing it this level,

the external grodps,used a third party; someone respected

by the school -system sand whole community (e.g.', a university

person or someone from industry). Thrh tactic had as its

objective to use this person toget the other Side:to-the4

bargaining table so that the environmental group could be

seen as an eqqal powedr.-"Then, still trying to work. within

the system, these external groupe't4ied to go around the-

establishedhierarchy.of the school system by eliciting"

the support of higher sources of influende: the Courts,4 0

the mayor, the state department of education. It was Only

after they were frustrated at every level within the

,°system that they tried to sabotage directly the effoTts of

the school'system by disrupting, ongoing prograhs, by,;

.

. .

training studentsto disrupt-classes and other scholastic

activities; by strikingeby being selectively uncooperative.

and by leaking information to the press to be used against

the school system. Finally, some of these environmental

groups seceded from the school system and pet, up alternative

models worthy of the public's support. Other groups resorted

to threats of violence and then to actual violence in order

to try and get the .school system to respond to their.demands:c

first, they threatened-and then actually organised riots4

and heated protests; and fit4lly, they threatened to cause

harm to officials and to lb= .school buildings..

Theschodi system fought back with every resource at

its command. In the early stages,, ippeaseinent was tried,

offering the environmental groups small, inconsequential

5encessions to drop. their huge demands and support the4

status quo. When this failed to stem the tide of protests

and demands, the'systems marshalled their 164a1 mandates

to combat the problem-groups: ,Furthermore, they demanded

and were given (for the most part) the support'of the career

personnel within the organitions, who refused to collaborate

, with the unknowledgeablefflaymen on the, simple principle, that

they were non-profedsional and not competent to judge not

deal with the matter over which they were prOtesting. The4

systems reinforced their intransigent position on every

issue through biased public relations campaigns 'arid by

diversion, bringing t9 the fore othet importantuprojects

and concerns, ignoring the environmental groups'- problems

As though they were non-existent. They further weakened the

groups''impact, by .banning or outlawing them from the system,

4

44

.4

e

40.*

thereby discouraging the possibility of external funding

to support their fights By refusing to give the groups

public hearings or to interact with thenton any level, they

succeeded in eliminating much of their public visibility.

And, lastly, when faced with.threats and with actual

violence, the systems retaliated in kind, 'utilizing police

and in extreme cases, the Natiohal Guard.

Another more recent-'trend by client and consumer groups4

to bring external presture to bear,on the internalorgani-

zationv is the activity of scrutiny" groups, such as the.

Ralph Nader oiganization. These citizen watchdO -groups

exist to make private and.public organizations socially

responsible. The media have traditionally played this role

,and continue to :be a powerful environmental force but they

are joihed by this new forde. .The-purioses andtactics of

scrutiny groups are much diffeient fipm those :of the pro-.

tiestors and, in some ways, it is easier for the organization

to defend against the latter.

-Scrutiny groups seek after scarce, information that

might indict ap organization*and demonstrate that it is not4

adequately serving society. They infiltrate the system and,

through spying, get access to carefully gUaxded information.

They, investigate public records. They snoop and probe.

Such groups not only make an organization nervous-but'can

cause it to change or face undesikable consequences, (e.g.,

`boycott, loss of votes)

Another type of-client group that needs to .be mentioned

4 -3 C

is the regulating agendy. Accrediting agencies review

the school curriculum and have considerable impact on.it.

Government teaks and agencies investigate and regulate

business activities. Fact-finding committees keep watch

on the activities of pUbrie-Wgendiet:

Healthy organizations adapt to important.environmentai

demands but do so in a way that does' not disrupt their cord

functioni. They engage in strategic planni4toc affect

some orderly response to external Pressdres;-otherwise,

41-.

they manage by crisis. Many enterprises,seek to influence.

their environments as well (e.g., thr gh advertising) to

cause the impactmake the process even more ratlonal.

Aof the external environment is felt within the organization,

an objective is to be adaptive and innovative by managing.4

the conflictt caused by external pressures. Their object:

to be prepared and therefore not to be the victims of

environmental iohims and crises.

However, managing these typesof conflicts is very

difficult. The sets of enterprises comprising the relevant

environment lack a common authority to .bring them together,

and often compete for scarce resources (e.g., within the

industry). They are not compelled to collaborate in order

to be effective and must accept a far more abstract and

complex situation than if they were managing their own internal

35 ,disputes.

46

42..

Other

Scholars have mentioned other causes- of organizational

conflict that do not necessarily fall into the categories

mentioned above.. Mayer ;aid feels that, in addition to

the balance of power and the level of Interdependence

and communication-, the level of conflict is intensified

according to the organization's goals. This happene

-when organizational goals lead individuals and groups to

pursue mixed policies and when those goals give the organi-

zation'a more Oroblem7solving (treatment)" orientation

rather than a routinized or custodial orientation.36

Joe Kelly also: mentions the moire formal aspects of

organizational life that,cause conflict: the physical

shape of the building (e.g., the lack of privacy impinges

*on one's autonomy), the career structure, status incon-

-u

gruency, "who has what," torMai authOrity in the hierarchy,

organizational size, and the class struggle between workers

and managers.37

A number of'writers have discussed the inability to

communicate effectiyely as the chief contributor to organi-c

zational disagreements. Louis Poidy also believes, along

with many game ifiderists, that a more perfect exchange of

information allows, one to act more in hie own self-interest,

whereas ignorance forces the parties to agree on alternatives

of mutual.interest. Thus, perfect tommunication is not

always a desired state." However, Warren Schmidt and

47.

43

Robert Tannenbaum warn that unless .a dispute is based on

the same-set of perceived facts, conflicts could arise

simply because of misperceptions and uncommon information.39

While good communication is essential for managing

conflict, poor communication may onlybe a symptom of still

another underlying cause of disagreement. ,Communication

helps to resolve many of the disputes mentioned above,

but it is a tool for managing a conflict that is usually

caused by one of the six problems heretofore discusSed.

Finally, organizational conflicts' are attributed to

line versus staff misunderstandings,40 to the degree of

information about one another:s activities, to competition

and the need*to compete, to status differences to.,aonflicting

ideas and to personality clashes.44

IMPLICATIONS FOR ACTION

Based on a valid diagnosis of the situation,

3.,.".1.'1 0%

Conflict Manager can thew intervene to help manage the

dispute. Conflict has been defined as energy expended in

reaction to felt tension. The objective of an intervenor.

is to make use of this energy for the,goodof the enterprise.

An individual worker or a group within the system, however,

- .may be most concerned about protecting seif-interests,

. winning, keeping a lower profile or promoting goOd working

relationships. Thus if the CM is to use this tension-energy

. productively, he must attempt to find a xesolution strategy

which matches the self interests of indiViduals, groups and

the organization. 48

.1

44.

Contingency Theory is one conceptual tool usefUl to

integrate-Mutual self - interests for managing, organizational

conflict. Theie are t4ee major conflict management

approaches from which =intervenor can draw to formUlate

-an- approach appropriate for resolving a dispute: collabora-

tion, bitgaining and.power-play. The appropriate use of

any one of these methods depondd on theindividual and

the organizational state.

-C011aboration: This theory maintains that people

should surface their dikferenc4s (get them out in the Open),

and then work on the problems until they .have attained

. mutually. .satisfactory solutions-. This approach assumes4,0

that people will be motivated to expend the time and energy

fot such - problem- solving activity. It tries ;6 exploit the

possible mutual gains of the parties,in the dispUid and

views the conflict as avreative force pushing View to1.

achieve an improved state.of affairs to which both sides

are fully committed. -

Bargaining: This mode for managing dbnflictsassumes'

that neither party will emerge satisfied from the con-

frontation but that bath, through negotiation, can get

something they do not have at the, start., or more of something

they need, usually by'giving up something of lesser impor7

tance. 4ne party generally wins more than the other; by

the skillfUl use of tactical trades, he can get the ifaximum

possible from thebther side. Sometimes the tactics used

.49

in trading are underhanded and 'create bad feelings..

the end, when an agreement is reached, it is usually

enforced by a written contract-with sanctions in case

non-compliance. In the event no agreement-is reached

In

. third-party mediator may be employed to bind the_sides.

eventual arbitratiOn.

Power-playl. This mode differs from the Other two_ .

approaches 'because its emphasis .s on self - interest..

Whereas, in colilboration,and.bardaining two sides

come together to try to resole their ioblems, When power

. is the doMinant mode, the actiohs are unilateral or in

of

a

45.

coalitions acting unilaterally. All,of the power technician's

resources are unleashed' against his opponent to win:on a

given issue or a long -range program. 'He gives neither

internal commitment nor does he agree to external sanctions

guaranteeing compliance to joint decisions.

Collaboration is the most preferred strategy for thet.

good of the enterprise because:. (I) it promotes authentic

interpersonal relations; (2) it is a creative force tor

innovation and-improvement; (3) it enhances feedback and

information flow, and (4) it has a way, of ameliorating the

climate of the organization so that.'there is more openness,

.trust, risk-taking and good feelings of integrity.

Bargaining is the second most preferred alternative.

It is an approach that, at the least, .brings the varties

together and it can lead to binding them together to.joint

50

3

q

46.

de isions. It- gets the substantive issues out on the -table

where they .can be better understood and acted Upon. It-7,

allows or interaction on the problem.-

Pow -plc, k is the least desirable method fok orgaiii-1 .

zational effectiveness --(although it may be _the most dekirple

.approach for individual who has the potential for winning)-.

a%sGenerally, agg' sive and hostile-.feelings exist between

those locked in a r struggle,.shutting.off communication

and interaction. Vi ious gossip may ensue, causing rumors

and otherwise distort g information. 'Al]. of this tends to

drive information underg ound so that the organization and

the parties involved cinno learn from their' experience

since there is little honest feedback. A large amount of

sabotage and non-compliance tak!s place which harms the

system. People acting in their otr self-interest often

subvert.. the organization.e

Serious cases of- individual stress lead to personal

preoccupation with "self," at thp.expense of the organi-

zation. The employeema, however, remain important to

the enterprise: if a selfish bargain is strnck whereby some

of his needs aid met' in idturn.for useful seiyice. Otherwise,

the person may ,have to be-fired.lor traniferred: In less

dramatic instances, a-more collaborative stance Can be

taken with unhappy individuals through counielingoaching,. .

and thirdparty consultation.

InstanCes-of external pressures are also more prone

51

et

to being fought using power or they can be resolved through

birgaining. Independent entities in conflict have no common-

., authority to bring them together, since they compete for

scarce resources and lack common purpose. To become more

collaborative, they need to establish power parity, find

ways= to enhance ,their mutual interests (perhaps by, fighting:

4

a common enemy), structure more independence, and pkovide

resources to support common efforts-and- skillful interactions.

Bargaining'it a method for winning power parity which,

when used effectively, permits the- parties to begin a'

co-equal relationship when it is achieved. To assume a.

trading position connotes equality, as each iArty recognizes

that the other has something of value tooffer and/or.

withhold: Acting in good faith, trust can then be estab-.

lished between both parties. _With such. a climate for0

collaboration, ,the parties can begin to plan, problem-

solve and carefully define their mutual interests.

For example, the author and his colleagues conducted

a bargaining intervention within an elementary school-.

"(between independent teaching teams) and changed the 0

balance of power to a conditioh of more power parity.,

This made it possible to increase the collaboration- effOrte

between the parties. 40 Once: power parity and interdependence'..

have been establ ished, open-systetsplanning schemes provide

technology for organization-environmental Collaboration.41

52.0

s.

s

O

O

Role conflicts can-be managed by matching the popydho*

logical expectations. of members- of the -role set, by' adlpting

the design ,Of the. work in such =a way that there is 4-o. role-

Overload and so-that.One-iseval ted- on the in -role `tasks

he,performs. This can be Accomplis d by team4,1iilding

Within the rOlegroUp to develop 'Diode es for effective'

communication, by conflict management, decisionMakIng,

goal-setting and-by planning, establishing', and Ohafiling

the norms and values. A:thirdpartiedbnpultant can. often6 4

help role group members by more objectively clarifying the

disputes., He -can do this-by structuring the time) place

and ground rdle'S for the encounter4,4eddby helping, the.

members find. solutions to° Problems by engaging In- an

exploratory process and encouraging- them to confront in a-,

skillful manner,.

Power struggles demand a somewhat different dollebora--

tive strategy: A pm can .resort to authority and -mandate

solution to. the problem: He can 4tpempt tb "co-opt the

influential parties inOrder to get them-to join the effort.c

He Can build coalitions .of influeniials: .He can develop a:

A"favor" system whereby others ogre- him debts of'gretitlAde

and recognize. he will 'be the source -of.. benefite--

thereby making them support his activities-

However, ;a Morecollaborative style than. any mentioned.

aboVe would be, to b#ild a climate wherein opetiness-;:trupt

and risk - taking, were rewarded. 'Workers 'would attempt to

a

0

0

4

exert their influence and.share their power agendas (self-

interests) quite openly in collaboriting witti.Jothers The

best ideas (not necessarily those4coming from the highest

.authority) would.prevail. Decisions would be diadetby the, .

group. People would_ be encouraged to- pattidipate, as

effectively as possible, in this problem- solving activity.

Increasing interdependence ups the stakes and makes

conflict. management more compelling and more apt to be.,

engaged in by the workers. By the same token, decreasing:,

interdependence leadi to conflicts which may have less-

consequence for the enterprise since theparties do not

have.to interact to accomplish important tasks. However,

decreasing interdependence may be a method in and of itself

to reduce the importanre of conflicts and, thus," to manage,

themr. 1f an organization,cari' afford to decrease inter-

dependence by the nature of its critical task as influenced

by the external environment, it may'vieti afailure to-

manage conflicts as simply lost opportunities for improvement

rather than threats to its lurvival.

Differentiation is a common manifestation lending..

itself to collaborative conflict management.AThere are various

, ways tO tesolve this phenomenon: by emphasizing common

purposes around' which the various brientations can coalesce;

by increasing the individual rewards for accomplishing the,

collective task; by encouraging skillful listening and0

communication sotgat differences are clarified and under'20

,stood; by engaging in a problem- solving- process maximizing

54;

A

1 0'-

.1

-

fJ

'A

O a

50._

* the resong06 of the various members; and lastly, by

tieing a consultant toLhele.the group work-through its'

differeftees: dditionally,. the use ir;.the hierarchy of

.,nositions, with the authority and infOrmation to.Malce

coordination an important priority helpi-the

Takities to achieve a state of collaboration.6

The followingligure suggests a mintingency, approach

to conflict Management.

FIGURE us CONFLICT MANAGEMENT cmcpE

boundary of the orbit arethoie:problemsC

r

which often Originate outside t4e,eystem and over 'Which

. it has little controls, At the of theptocela are

"instances of Coalicellhich lend.themailves to a more_.

collaboratiVe,approach: Mhe=collaborativerthod Will

a

C:

4

O

51.

also lead to more organizational improvement. =While

bargaining is the second most preferred CM mode, it is

less central to the orbit than collaboration. PowerPtadtics-...

maybe necessary (even functional) to 'deal with some-

problems- but,' in general, are to be applied only 'where

-aonditions do'not exist fora more long-term imprOvement

strategy.

For .example, external threatt which seek't6 destroy

the legitimacy of the enterprise (e.g., revolutionary,

movements, scrutiny activities) -,can be combatted -fling.. -

power tactics. This is als6-trde for serious individual

stress and for some internal power strugglei. 'Those

indiViduals with a high psychological need for power, a.

desire for winning'their interests at any cost or a .commit. . ,

I.

ment to hurting the organization, may need to be dealt- with

commensurately..

However,. bargaining may be the 'best strategy to use

under the following conditiodsi when power parity needs to

be established in order tb' wok* through a problem; when

external. pressures are such that a common .solletion to.the

problem is possible and .parties- are willing to-collaborate;

when individuals feeling moderate-tension want to strike a

more satisfactory personal contract with the system. Bar-

gaining is also important when resources are acarce and

.parties must compete for an absolute.

Without a doubt, for organizational health, colltboraiion

0

is the Most effeciiive way to manage conflicts. it is

true that collaborative methods lend themselves to some...

...

idstances of individual. straits and external pressure...

- Yet, this approach is best employed with .role disputes,

differentiation and iowe'tegualizktion alternatives to.. A

power sttuggles`under conditions ofthigh interdependence., .

Table-III below illustrates the various technologies

,applicable -.toto eadh major cause of conflict given the

three different approaches.'

I 9

52.

..

I . .

I

8....

; .

OW

a

.

TABLE III

CONFLI CT MANAGEMENT PARADIGM

_

Causes of Conflict

r

CM TECHNOLOGIES4-

.

*

.

Collaboration- ,Bargaining

.

Rider -'

..

External pressures

s

.

.

open systems plan-ring

.

.

.

. negotiation

.

.

force and threatsFlof-fortei.use of

laws co-optation,. strategic use .of

information, co-.

:alitimbuilding

'

.

. .

Inditrichal stress.

.

. ,,

1

touhseling)coaching,problem - solving-

.

contracting '

-..

VA .

.

'fire,

transfer,careful jobdescription

' -

,

Power struggles

.

.

-

build organiza-tonal climate,make decisionscloseto infot-mation source,best ideas pre --

vail, encourageparticipation,probleh-solving

negotiation,solve substan-tive issues ofscarce resource,allocation, es-tablish - power

parity

,

.

use of legitimate'authority,co- optation,

coalition build-ing, favor system

.

-

.

. .

,_

Low interdependence

, .

increasing groupinteraction.

negotiation tointer-

action

4.5e. of legitimateauthority, to

structure moreinteraction

,

Role disputes,differentiation,high interdependence

.

-

-

team building, .

;Communicationskills, problemsolving, con-frontive style,imaging, third-party consul-ration,- climate

4-

.

.

.

support with formalauthority andrewards

.

1158 Gs

Appendix III -whiCh,.follows is an :aitempt to describe"-

briefli the variousterMs- and technOlogieS in Table

In general, ithen the causes. of conflict ore. role- disputes,

_ differentiation, high interdependence - or saw forms of

power struggles, a collaborative- strategy "seems to be

most, effective.

We can conclude by stating, a siziple growid rule- Which

the Conflict Manager can use to guicie.iis.interVentionS.:

-assess the situation arid- then..aCt appropriately. As. Michel

Crozier has stated in a. Critique of the strictly rational-

And the strictly human relations approach to dispute.

settlement:

A human being, however, doesnot have on).$ a' hand. and a-

heart. He- also hai 'head,

which means-Ie. is. free_ to.pity 44 own gene...-Subordinates ens be ceeaide*44asIsee agents mho can discuss.-theft ean'probleavand beige*about then, 'who do. not onlyenhmit to a power structure but:also particigate in that .structure.-

.kanaging organizational -conflicts .situationallY

-allows' for the integration of the 'heart, the -hand and

the head in one of the 'lost. important' asPeCti of:

organizational life.

59

CN APPENDIX I

ti

55.

NAMES OF JOURNALS CORRESPONDING. TO 'LETTER ABBREVIATIONS

O

* HOR: The Harvard Business Review

AMJ: Academy_of Management JOurnal-.

4TUU California Management. Review

TCR: Teachers College 'Record .

AN: Administrator's Notebook

EAiS: EdUcational:Administration and .Supervision

EAQ: Educational- .Administration Quarterly

PAR; Public Administration Review

ASQ: Administrative Science Quarterly

JABS: Journal ofApplied Behavioral Science

JCR: Journal -of Conflict Resolution

"q

-60

-r

10,

t

V

APPEND/Xi /I

ARTICLES APPEARING IN JOURNALS-LISTED-IN TABLE -I

The Harvard Business Review (HBRiq

I. Directly-Related Articles

56.

F.J. Roethlisberger; *The Administrator's Skill: Communication,"Nov./Dec., 1953, 31, #6.

Wendell Johnson; "The Fateful Process of Ni. Talking toMr. B.," Jan./Feb.; 953, 31, #1.-.

Chris Argyris, "Human Problemswith Budgets,". Jan./Feb.,1953, 31,41.

William C. Schutz, "interpersonal Underworld," July /Aug.,1958, A6, #4.

Robert N. McMUtry, "Conflicts in Human Values," May/June,1963, 41, #3.

Warren H. Schmidt and Robert Tannenbaum, "Man'agempnt ofDifferences,* Nov. /Dec., 19.60, 38, #6.

John A. Seiler, "Diagnosing /nterdepartmental COnflici,"Sept:/Oct., 1963, 41, #5.

David W. Ewing,,mTension'Can Be An Asset," Sept. /Oct., 19641.42, #5.

Abraham Zaleznick, "The Dynamics of Subordinancy," May /June,1965, 431 63.

F.J, Roethlisberger, "The Foreman: Master and Victim ofDouble Talk,*"Sept./Oct., 1965, 3, #5.

/sodOre Silver, "The Corporate Omb4daman," May/June; 1967,45, #3.

e.

, .

57.

Paul R. Lawrence and Jay W. Lorsche "New Management Job:The Integrator,* Nov. /Dec., 1967, 45, #6.

Joe Kelley, "Make Conflidt Work for You," July/Aug., 1970,48, #4.

Harry Levinson, "COnflicts That Plague Family BusineSses,"Mar./Apr., 1971, 49, #2.

M. Scott Myers, "Overcoming Union Opposition to Job Enrich-ment,* May/JUne, 1971, 49, #3.

Alonzo McDonald,-*Conflict At The Summit: A'Deadly Game,"Mar./Apr., 1972,.50, #2.

Larry E. Greiner, "Evolution and Revolution As OrganizationsGrow," July /Aug., 1972, 50, #4. _

Richard E. Waltbn,' "How to Counter:Alienation In the Plant,"Nov., Dec., 19.72, 50, #6.

Robert N. McMurray,;"Power and the Ambitious Executive,"Noy./Dect, 1973, 51, #6.

-\

A

II. Tangentially-Related Article's

Elizabeth andFrancis Jennings, "Making Human Relations Work,"`Jan./Feb., 1951, 29, #1.

Carl R. Roger g and F.J. Roethlisberger, "Harriers and Gatewaysto Communication," July/Aug., 1952, 30, #4.

ti

Leonard Sales and George Strauss, "Conflicts Within the LocalUniont",Nov.., Dec.-, 1952, 30, #6..

Kenneth M. Thompson, "Hurdin Relations in Collective Bargaining,"Mar./Apr., 1953, 31, #2.

Irving J. Lee,,"Procedure for 'Coercing' Agreement," Jan. /Feb.,1954, 32, #1.

Chris Argyris,32, #5.

"Human Relations in a Hank," Sept-./Oct., 1954,

Verne J. KallejianT Irbing R. Weschler, and Robert Tannenbaum,"Managers in Transition," July/Aug., 1955,033, #4.

Robert N. McMurry,. "War and Peace in Labbr Relations," Nov./Dec.,1955, 33, #6. '

63

Chris Argyris, "Interpersbnal Barriers to Decision-Making,". Mar./Apr., 1966, 44, #2,84-97.

-Abraham Zaleznick, "Power and Politics in OrganizationalLife," May/June,_11970, 48, #3, 41-60.-

Edward W. Jones,. Jr., !What %Is Like. to- be a Black Manager,"July/Aug.-, 1973,. 51, #4.

C.F. Fertz and Joanne Hayman, "Progress For Women - -Men AreStill Mbre EqUal," Sept./Oct., 1973, 51, #5.

M. Barbara Boyle, "Equal Opportunity For Women Is SmartBusiness," Maylaune, 1973, 51, #3.

George M. Prince, "Creative Meetings Through Power Sharing;",July /Aug. 1972, 50, #4, 47-54.

Henry-B. Arthur, "On Rivalry in the Marketplace," July /Aug.,1972, 50, #5.

r.

Academy of Management Journal (AMJ *)

I. Directly-Related Articles

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James A. Ba -lasco and Joseph A. Alutlo,'"pine-Staff Conflicts:Some Impirical Insights," Dec., 1969, 12, #4.

Agthur E. Butler, Jr:, "Project Management: A Stuay, Of _ --OrganizatiOnal Conflict," Mar., 1973, 16,

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,------------ .s3_,----

11.111

59.

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Robert J. House, "Role Conflict and Multiple. Authofity i40. Complex Organizations," 1969v 12, #4, 53-60.

James Gilbert Paltridge, "Organizational Conflict in Academia,"1970r 13, #3, 85-94.

E. Frank_Hartison and.Jamer E. Rosenzweig, "ProfessionalNorls and Organizational Goals: An Illusory Dichotomy,"Spring, 1972, 14; #3.

Richard B. Higgins, "Managerial Behavior in Upwardly Oriented-Organizations," Spring, 1972, 14, #3.

.

John Paul KoteerI-The Psychological Contract: Managing the, Joining-up Process," Spring, 1973, 15, #3.

Edwin M. Epstein, "Dimensions of Corporate Power, Part X,"Winter, 1973, 16, #2.

Akthur G. Butler, Jr., "Project Management, -A Study inOrganizational Conflict," March, l933].6, #1.

II. Tangentially4elated Articles

°--- -7., .

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Pita Prasow, "Reducing the Risk's. of Labor Arbitration,"1958, 1, #3, 39-46.

Robert Tannenbaum, "Some Current Issues. in-Human Relations,"1959, 2, #2, 90-97.

' aca Z.

61 .

1 -

^: 7.1 ,..

.60.

C

Thomas A. Petit, "Managememt_.Ideology: Myth andReality4.°1960, 3, #2, 95-102.

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Paul Prasow and Edward Peters, -"The Development of JudicialArbitration in 'Labor-Management Disputesiw1966,il: #3,7-16.

.Wendell French, "Organization Developlent Objectives,Assumptions and Strategies,°19691.12, #2, 23-34.

-

Saul Gellerman, !Behavior-al Strategies," 1969, 124'42,45-51.

4

Kenneth-Gc-Goode, 'Can- the ilroAmeridanBe An'EffectiieExecutivelt 1970, 11, 41,-22=26.

Lyman K. -Randall, "CoMm6n Questions and-Tentative-AnswereRegarding Organization Develcipmenttle 1970, 131_ #34 45 -52.,

'Theodore V.,,Purcell, S.J'.4 and Irene W. Rodgers, "Young Black'Workers 1peak.Thkir:Minds4"-Summer, 1912, 14, #4.

Donald R. Domm and James E. Stafford, "Assimilating. Blacksinto the Organization-; °- Fall, 19724 15, #1.

David Moment and Delmar-Fisher/ "Managerial Career Developmentand the Geherational Confrontation4" Spring, 1973,,A5, 3-

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S. Pre kash Sethi, °The-Corporation and the-Church: Initi-'tuti:onal Conflict and Social Responsibility,* Fall, 1972;151. #14 (63-74) .

-or

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Stephen P. Hencley, "The Conflict Patterns .6t schbol Super7. intendents," May, 1960, 8, #9..

Alan F. Brown, 'Conflict and Stress in 'Administrative Rel.ation-ships," March; 1962, 10, #7.

J. Stephen Hazlett, "Sope Thoughts On. Educational COnflici,"Dec., 1968, 17, #4.

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Edwin M. Bridges,'"Student Unrest-and Crisis Decision-Making,"Dec., 1969,.18, #4t,

John B. Weeres, "School-Community Coniliqt in a Large UrbanSchool System,"^May, 1071;.19, #9. ,

. J

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. ,...

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Wesley A. Wildman, "Collective Action by Public SchoolTeacheri," Feb., 1963, 11, #6.

66

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1

r.

Bernard= C. Watson; "The Principal: Forgotten Man inNegotiations,* Oct., 1966, 15, #2.

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62.

Mark Hanson, "The Emerging Control Structure of Sohodise" .-

March le 1973, Vol. XXI, #2.,

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'

' .e

of e%

Rossell W. Meyers,. "Bureaucratic Theory, and tchOols,":Jan-, 14, 1972, Vol. XX, 5. .

e'r ..:

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Resolution, " Spring' 197r, 6, #2, 36-45%" 00A. William "Vantinex "Toward a theory of Collective -Negotiations,"Winter, 1972, 8, #1.

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Arnold J. Auerbach, "Confrontation and Administrative ReSponsi,";Nov./Dec., 1969; 29, I6, 139-646.

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Chris'Argyris, *Organization Man:. Rational and Self-Actualizing,"tJuly/Au4s, 1973.

,

Herbert A: Simon, "Organization Man: Rational or 'Self-Actualizing?* July/Aug., 1973.

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Mayer N. Zald, "Power Balance and, Staff Conflicts in Cor-rectional Institutions," 7, , J4be,

'William M. Evan, Superior-Subordinate Conflict in ReseirChOrganizations," June, 1965, 10,. # , . 4.

Richard E. Walton and JOhn M. Dutton, "The Management .ofInterdepartmental 'tonflict," March, 1969,,14, #1, 78-83.

68

0.0

.. .

Clagett_G,i4d.th.,. "Atompirative Analysis of Some Condit -ions0 . and COnseg, nces of Intra-Organizational Conflict,"March,

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me.

fi

Louis R. Pondy, "Varieties-of Organizational Conflict,1969, 14, 114.

Monald" G. Corwin, "Patterns of Organizational Conflict,"-Dec.,. 1969, 14, #4. '

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t'George B. Darkoriwald, Jr., "Organititionai Conflict inC011egesaftd-Universities," Dec., 1974 le,"" #4, 407-412.

Atobeit lwBonn, "Arbitration: An Alteriative System forHandling.Contract Relafed'Disputes," 17, #2, June 1972,254-264: -4ers

.ca .

Stuarto M..SChkidt and Thomas A. tochan, "Conflict: Toward-Cbnceptual Clarity," 17, #3, Sept.._ 1972, 359370. _

C

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IJ

Delbert id. .Miller and Fremont,A. Skull, Irk, , "The Prediaticin ofAdministrative Role Conflict Resolutions," Sept.; 1962, 7, # e143-1602. .

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David Mechanic, "Sources of POwer of Lower Participants inComplex Organizatibns," 7, #2, 1963. .

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'Fred E. ICatZ,"Explaining Informal Work Groups in'Complex .

Organizations: The Case for Autonomy in Structure," Sept., 1965,10, 12, 2042P.

° 69I

r

'Tv

65.

William A. Rushing, "Organizational Ruler and Surveillance,"March, 1966, 10, #4,423-443.

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Cornelius. J. Laiunars, "Strikes and Mutinies:" A Comparative.Study of Organizational Conflicts Between Rulers and Ruled,"Dec., 1969, /4, #4.

Henry Assae], Constructive Role of interorganizatiOnalConflict," Dec., 1969, 14, #4."

H. George Frederickson, "Role Occupancy. and Attitudes TowardLabor .Relations in.Government," Dec, 196.9, 14, #4.

o

Doug10 T. Hall and Roger Mansfield, "Organizational andIndividual Response 'to External Stress," Dec., 1971, 14, #4,533-547. ;

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David W. Johnson and Roy J. Lewicki, -"The Initiation of Super- I

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LeOnard D. Goodstein-and Ronald K. Boyer, "Crisis intervention_.a Municipal Agency." 43, May/June., 1972; 318-340.

Samuel A. Culbert, '"Using Researdh to Guide an OrganizationDeVelopment," 8, #2, Mar./Apr., 1972, 203-236.

,70.

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Robert T. 'Golembiewski and Arthur Biumbcrg, "Confrontation asa Training Design in Complex Organizations," Oct:/Nov./Dec.,.1967, 525-547.

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..

$ .. .

Ronald. G. Corwin, "Strategies of,Organitaiional,SurVital: The.Case of a' National Program for-Educational Reform (TeacheiCorps)," July/Aug.!,1972, 8,. #4, 451z-480'1

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Kenneth-Boulding, "Organization and Conflict," June, 1957,1, 12, 122-134. -

.,

William Aubert,."'Competition and -DisSensual. Two Types ofConflict and-of Conflict Resolution," March, 1963,-7-,, 1, 26.42.°

Ralph M. Gol4pan, NA Theory 0 Conflict Processes and Organi-zational Offices," -Sept., 1966, 10, #3, 3284-343.-

William M. Evan and John A. MacDougall, InterbrganizationalCOnflictt A Labor-Management Bargaining Experiment," Dec.,1964 11, #4, 398-411

Oran X. Young, "Intermediaries: Additional.Thoughte oWThirdVartits,"-16-#1, March,1972,:51-65-

Ronald J. Piaher, *Third Party Consultation; A Method,fer theStudy and ReZolution of Conflict," 16, #1, March, 1972, 6T-96.

df

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Morton Deutsch, "Trust and Suspicion," Dec.:, 1958, 2. #4, 265-279.

Irving L. Janis, "Decisional Conflicts: A Theoretical Analysis,"March, 1959; 3, 11,

Irving L. Janis and Daniel Katz, "The Reduction. of intergroupHostility: Research Problems and Hypotheses," March, 1959;3, #1, 85.

Daniel-Katz, "Consistent Reactive Participation of Group Membetsand Reduction of Intergroup Conflict," March, 1959, 3,, lip 2840.

Robert R: Blake and Jane S. Mouton, "Comprehension of in andOutgroup Positions Under Intergroup Competition," lay., 1961,. 3,304-310.

Robert 0. Blood, Jr., 'Resolving Family- Conflidts,! June, 940,4, 12, 209-219.

-Robert C. North, Howard E. Koch,. Jr., and M. Zinner, "TheIntegrative Functions of Conflict," Dec., 1960, 4, #3, 355T-374.

Motton Deutsch and Robert M. Krauss, "Studies of InterpersonalBargaining," Matti', 1962, 6, #1, 52-76. .

Robert B. MKersies.Charles R. Perry and itichatd E. Walton,"interorganizational Bargaining in Labor Negotiations;" Dec.,1965, 9,'14, 463-481. ,

Barbara F. Muney and Morton Deutsch: "The Effects of RoleReversal Duking the Dis6ussion of OpposingNiewpoints," Sept.,1968, 12, 43, 345-,356. .

Burton B. Silver, "Social Mobility and Intergroup Antagonism,"A Simulation'," ec., 1973, Vol- XVII, 14.

Robert 'Ladner, Jr., "Strategic Interaction and Conflict," March, -1973, Vol; XVII, #1. * r

0

S.S. KoMOrita, "Concession Making and 'Conflict ResolUtion,': Dec..1913 Vol. XVII,

Kathleen Whmeister-and Daniel Druckman, "Determinants ofResolving a-Conflict of Interest," March, 1973, Vol. XV.YI, #1.

72.:

L

68.

John Cheney_, Thomas Hartford, Leonard Stilomon, *The. Effectsof Communicating Threats and- Promises Upon the Bargaining .

Process,* March, l972, Vol. 'XVI, -87, 91-107.

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APPENDIX III

GLOSSARY OF-UNCOMMON TECHNOLOGICAL TERMS

-Coaching:

risA Castunication ski.114:

Confrontation style:

Contracting:

69.

Helping a person by encouraging, advising;instructing, and otherwise aiding in theaccomplishment of a goal.

Learning how to listen, understand issues,explore verbal and non-verbal messages sothat the conflict can be worked productively.

Teaching people to value a style whichopenly surfaces- disagreements and then,.based on the data, attempt to confrontthe issues and solve the problems.

Setting psychological expectations andmaking agreements by explicitly dit-cussing agendas, wants, needs, quid, proquos and services.

-- ,,Co-optati : DiScouraging opposition by encouraging

opponents to join ...the orgarti_zation and,

o thereby, be forced to abide by the rules,norms anddecisions -they help create. 4

, This also means that the organizationmay 'have to 'allow itself to be influencedby the opposition in .order to attract

t.r them to join it.

,

O

. Cbunaeling: Engaging in a therapeutic relationshipwith a person to help him resolve (forhimSelf),,his own internal tensions.

Imaging: A 'procedure designed to uncover the- commonperceptions and -misperceptions of partiffin conflict so that the problems (isSuesi

are clearer; validated. and can .be used aslevers. for -managing- the, dispute.

74

e

Negotiation:

70.

A procedure, varying in its degree offormalityt, for deciding suhttantive issuesin a conflict and mechanisms to ensureresoldtion. It implies giVezand--take

-compromise.

Open systems planning: Various methods for including .parts ofthe external environment in the internaldedisioit making of the organization (e.g.the charette),.

Ctrganizational

Power parity:r

Prcblem solving:

%am building':

9

The norms, beliefs, values and rewarded=behaviors which constitute informal lawsin the enterprise.- If the climate supportstaking'risks,

notexample, risk-oriented,

workers will not hesitate to Stake them.

Trying to gain advantages through, con-frontation; the amassing of ,resources;demonstrating strength.; .a feeling of beingtreated as a peer or equal' on given' issuesas well as in the general climate.,

Openly sharing information (includingconflicts and anger). and. expanding energyto try to arrive at a common and creativesolution to a problem benefiting bothparties. A more Or. lest Sophisticatedprocedure can be used to arrive at asolution.

Building skint, aitodUctive climate,.good4hterpersonal relations, and conceptualUnderstanding within the work group sothat it can use conflict producing, energyto accomplish their tasks creatively.

Third-party cansultaiion: The use of someone both skilled (knowledgeable)and outside the immediate dispite to listento the qbkflict and :intervene in order tohelp the parties manage their problems moreproductively.

V

71.

FOOTNOTES

1Kenneth W. 'Thomas, "Conflict and Conflict -Management," Working

Paper 74-3, Human- Syttems Development Study Center,-Graduate School.of Nhirageient, UCLA, 1974;- Clinton. F. Fink, liome. Conceptdal:Diffi--culties in the Theory y-of Social COnflict,'"-Journaltof Conflict

Resolution, 12,December, 1968, 412-460; Louis R. Poody, "OrganizationalConflict: Concepts- and Models, "-Administrative Sciericejluarterly, 12,'September, 1967,-296-320.

aRichard A. Schmuck et. al., Handbook of-Okganizatidn-Develop-

ment In Schools (Palo Alto: National-Press, 1972),; Toe Kelley, "WeConflict Work for You," Harvard Business Review; 402, Jdly/August1970, 103-113;_ Robert =R.- Blake- and Jane S. Manton; "The Fifth Achieve-ment," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 6, #4,. 1970, 413;426..

-3Paul RAdwrence and Jay W. Lorsch, Organization and Environ-ment (Harvard, 1967)-; John Morse and Jay 'W: Lorsch, "BeyondTheory17Harirata Business, Review, May /June, 19704 Jay W. Icasch. and: .

Stephen Allen."11, Managing Diversity and Interdependence Oiarvard,1973); C. 'Brooklyn -Derr and John J. Gabarro,'"An.OrganizationalContingency Theory. for Education," .Educational-AdministrationQuarterly, 8,_02, 1972; John J. Gabarroi "Diagnosing Organization-Environment "Fit'--implications foir Organization-Development,"Education and Urban Society, February, 1974.

-

4Edgar H. Schein, Otganizatiohal Psychology (Englemiod Cliffs:Prentice-Hall, 1970).

5'John Paul Kotter,."The Psychological Contract: Managing the

Joining-up_Processe," California Management Review, 15,,#3, Spring1973, 91404'.

weV

Chris Aygyris, Understanding Organizational Behavior (Homewood,0 Illinois: Erwin- Dorsey Press, 1960).

7Harry Levinson, Mario-Management and Mental Health (Cambridge:

Harvard University Press, 1-067).

8See Kenneth E. Boulding, "Organization' and Conflict," Journalof Conflict Resolution, June 1957, 2, 122-134; Robert N. *Murray,'"Conflicts in Human Values," Harvard Business Review, May/June, 1963,41. 130-145.

7.6 .

r 7-2.S.

9See Abraham Zaleznick, "The Dynaniics of Subordinancy," HarvardBusiness. Review, May/June, 1965, 43, 119-131; and Victor A: Thompson,''Hierarchy, Specialization. and Organizational 'Conflict," AdministrativeScience Quarterly; -March, 1961, 485521.

1°See James D. licupson, "Organizational Manageinent of Conflict,PAdministrative Science Quarterly, Arch, 1960, 4, 389-409; LeonardBerkowitz, 'Frustrations, Comparisons and Other Sources of Emptional .

Arousal as Contributors to Social Unrest," The Journal of Social_ Issues,Vol. 28, 1, 1972, 77-91.

11 -ChrisArgyris, Intervention Theory and Method (Reading,

Addison- Wesley, 1970), 38-43;

12See Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn, The Social nychology of,

Organizations (New VOrk: John Wiley, 1966) , p. 174.

13Ibid. p. 198.

14Robbrt Ardrey, Territorial Imperative (New York: .Dell

Publishing Company, 1966).

1 5David C. McClelland, "The Two Faces -of

International Affairs, XKIV, 1, 1970.Journal of

16mi.-che.1 Crozier, The Bureaucratic Phenomenon (Chicago:

UniVersity of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 145.

17Antony Jay, Maria iat and..Machiavelli: An -Inquiiv-_into the

Polities of Corporate Life York: Holt; Rinehart. a.ffinston, 1967).

18See particularly'Tom Burns and.G.M. Stalker, The Manageirent

cif Innovation. (London: Tavistock Institute, 1961) ;- Joanne Woodward,Industrial Organization (London: -Oxfoird University, Press, 1965);

-Edgard Harvey:, "Technology and Structure of Organizatibn," AmericanSociological Review, 33,, 2. (April, 1968., 247 -258; Charles rrit,"A Framework for the Comparative Analysis -of COmplex -Organizations,"American Saciolo4cal Review, 32, 2, (April, 1967), 194-208; A.K.Rice; The Enterprise- and Its Environment (London: Tavistock Institute,1963); Lawrenc%and Lorsch, m. cit.; and James D. Thompion,prgani-zations In Action .(New Ybrk:McCiTiw-Hill, 1967).

4

1.9Lawrenc`b and Lorsch, Organization and Environment, m. citp. 186-.210.

e

20See F.E. Emery and -E.L. Trist, "The Causal Texture of Organi-

zational Environment," Human Relations, 18,'1 (February, 1965), 21-32;

77

73.

and Wiliam Dill, "The Impact. of Erivironment on -OrganizationalDevelopment" in Sydney Marlick and E:1-1. Van New Conceitsand Issues in Administrative Behavior, (Englewood Cliffs: -PrenticeHall, 1962) ; Thompson-,. p. cit.

21See Sums and- Stalker,, a.. cit.., p.e 96;-pp. 119 -120,139440, 232-234. -

.22gee Emery and Trist,. p. -cit.; William Dill, "Erivircannentas an Influence on Managerial Autonomy," Achinnistrative. Science ._

rterl 2, 1958, 399-443;, ThOMpsce, cit.:, pp. 72,73; Shirleyerre rry, wthe, Evolution of Organization 'firoianents," Administrative

'Science Quarterly,, -12, 4- -.March, 1968) 590-613;. and William. Starbucic,"Organizational Gra/tit and Development,"- in James .Match(ed.,), Handbookof Organizations (Chidago: Rand .McNally;- .1965).; pp- 467-468-

23See Lawrence and Lorsch, cit., "Differentiation andIntegration in 'Coriiplex Organizations,'" rninistrative Science.uarterly,. 12, , June 1967, pp. 1 -47-; .Developing Organizations:

Diagnosis and Action (ReadingMass.: Addison- Wesley, -1969); borschandlawrence, ed., Studies in Organizational Design (Homewood, Ill.:Richard D. Irwin, Inc. 197p;* and Jay W-.* Lorsch,' Product Innovationand Organization (New York: McMillan, 1965).

24Ste Lawrence and Lorsch, ibid. Several others have -alsopointed out that differentiation by organizations_ facing. cosidex-environments is a precondition to survival- and effettiveness. . Workingfrom both an open system model and a P4rsonian ft-asp of refetence, Katzand Khan have theorized that in order to survive, an 'organitationdifferentiates, itself into 'several subsyttems, .'Kat.z ,andlchan, TheSocial Psychology of Organizations (New York: John Wiley,,and1966J, pp. 45-5-456. Rice and Miller and their associates at the.Tavistock Institute haVe theorized that organizations differentiatethemselves to perforit the "primary task," the tesk-whia theorganization must do .to survive: A.K. Rice, The Enterprise-and Its

-Enviroivneniks (London: Tavistock Publicatiorta-,, 1963) pp.: 190-191;E.J. 'Technology,: Territory. and Time: the Internal.Differen-tiation of Complex Production- System's;" Human Relations, 12, 243.272.

25See Lawrence and Lorsch, (1967) pp. A7.48. Differentiation,between .subtinits makes integratiCin -of effort difficult because itincreases the potential conflitt -between, subunits. Walton and Duttonhave made this point in a review :of the literature on interdepartmental...conflict. Richard Walton and John Dutton, "Management of InterclepartMentalConflict: Model and Review," Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol.. 12',3, December,_ 1967, pp.,, 337-395. Similarly, ,March and Simon have .

explained -the tendency which each subunit -has to pursue it own sub -goals at the expense of other organizational .goals as- a_ necessaryconsequence of the cognitive, limitations of humans -as decision makers:

'78

(74..

See Jaws March and Hertiett Simon, Orsanizations .(New York:- John Wiley,1958), pp. 151 -154. OiganizatiOnal differentiation; -as Lawrence -andLorsch have defined it, ia4more extentive,elaXioration.-of the sameconcept because it also includes- the c.onsequeric,es .of-differeinces in .

-work styles and other orientations, idtich. are source_ a of difficulty ininterunit relaiionships-. A detailed explanation of their methodologycan- be -found in Lawren0e- and Wreck Cit., 0: :247,08..4

-

26see.,La- .and Limsdi, ibid., p..91..,..11

27Ibid.., -pp. 151-156.

28James D. Thompson, m. cit.

cp,

-29.

. ..

Todd R. LaPorte,. "Conditions of _Strain and Accoapodation inInduttrial Research Organizations," Administrative Science Quarterly,

. June, 1965, 10, 21-38.4,

38Harrison White, "Management of Conflict and- SociometricStructure," The American Journal of Sociology-, 07,,165.7199:

31Antony,Jay,- cit. Herbert. A.. Shepart, "Innovation-Resisting. and Innovation-Picitis Organizations," in Warren G. *Bennis,Kemteth D. Benne and Robert Chin, The Planning. of (hanger (New York:'Holt, Rinehart and' Ninston;---1969)-;~p. 5Z0;. Antony Down, InsideBureaucracy (Boston, Little, Brown and Co., 1969).. p. 147ran 'MichelCrozier, m. pp.. 160481.

32Argyris,

33...waiter Buckley, Sociology and Mdern Systems Theory (Engle-wood Cliffs, Prentice4lal1, 1967), p. -50.

34C. Biooklyn Derr; "An Organizational Analysis of the' BostonSchool Department," an unpublished Ed.P. Thesis, the Harvard,GraduateSchool of Education,1971.

35Richard-E. Walton; "Inietorganizational Decisioh Making andIdentity :Conflict," Special Technical Report 02 (The HarvardBusiness School, Division' of Research; 'March,- 1969) ; Howard,-Aldrich","OrganizatiCoal -Boundaries and 1#erorganiiationai .Conflict," .HumanRelations, 24, 4, August, 971; Eigend Litwak and -Lydia F. "Byltoi

ITTITorganitational Analysis; kifypothesis on Coordinating Agencies,"Administrative Science Quarterly-, 6; .March, 1962..

36NWyer N. Zald, "Power Balance and"Staff C6nflicts inCorrectional Institutions;"."-Aftinistrative Science Quarterly, June,1962, 7, pp. 22 -49. r-

---7,9.

-t

. 75/

37Joe Kelley., "Make Conflict Work for You," Harvard Business

Review, Jubrs/AugUst, 1970, pp. 103 -113.

38See Louis R. Pondy, "Varieties of.Organizational Conflict,"

Administrative Science Quarterly, . eCember, 1969, 14, 4.

39Warren H.,Schmidt and Robert Tannenbaum, 94anagement of

Differences,"- Harvard. Business Review, November/December, 1960,pp. 107-115.

400nline'and;taff conflicts, see E.: Rhenman, L. Strombeig

and G. Wasterlund, Conflict and Cooperation in .Business Organizations,(New York:. John Wiley;, 1970); James A4 Belasco and Joseph A. Aluttoi"Line-Staff Conflicts: 'Some EmpiricalInsights," Academy of Manage-ment Journal, Decemher,.1969, 12, pp. 469-477.

41C."Brooklyn Derr, PSurfaeing.and Managing Organizational

Power," 0D Practitioner,'. 4, 2', 1972.

110Peri SYstient:s and Traditional Hierarchies,"

A Working Paper, Graduate Schbol of Management arid. Institute"ForDevelopmental 021ganizationA UCIA, .September, 197Z. °

43Sed Crozier, St. it., pp. 149-150-

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