A Companion to Chinese Archaeology, First Edition. Edited by Anne P. Underhill.© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

A Study of Lian Sickles and Dao Knives from the Longshan Culture Site of Liangchengzhen in Southeastern Shandong

Geoffrey CUNNAR 柯 杰 夫

This study combines ethnoarchaeological observations with experimental archaeology in order to elucidate the functions of the Longshan 龙 山 period ( c. 2600–1900 BC ) lian 镰 sickle and dao 刀 knife. Through the pioneering efforts of scholars such as Peter Reynolds ( 1979 ) and John Coles ( 1973 ), and more recently through the efforts of research institutions such as Sagnlandet Lejre (Center for Historical-Archaeological Research) in Denmark and the experimental archaeology program at the University of Exeter in the UK, the use of experimental studies as applied to archaeological investigations have become common practice. However, with few notable exceptions ( Lu 1998, 2002 ; Cunnar 2007 ; Owen 2007 ; Gao and Shen 2008 ; Wang 2008 ; Cunnar et al. 2009 ; Ge et al. 2011 ) well-designed experimental archaeological projects remain under-utilized within China. In this chapter, relying on the results of an experimental archaeology project, I propose that the lian sickle and dao knife had crop-specifi c harvesting functions during the Longshan period occupation of Liangchengzhen. The ratios of such tools throughout the occupation of Liangchengzhen and possibly other sites in the Haidai coastal region of eastern China including Shandong province, might act as a proxy measurement for the relative use of the dominant cereal crops of rice, millet and perhaps wheat.

CHAPTER 22

460 GEOFFREY CUNNAR

STONE TOOLS FROM THE LONGSHAN PERIOD

The Longshan period is characterized by complex societies in more than one area that have been described as “middle range” or chiefdom-level societies ( Liu 1996 ; Under-hill 2002 ), or archaic states ( Yan 1997 ). During the Longshan period, ground and sometimes deliberately polished stone tools were the dominant forms of lithic artifacts. Ground stone tools have been uncovered from numerous excavations of Longshan period sites ( Bennett 2002 ; Cunnar 2007 ; Luan 2009 ). However, there has been little comprehensive research on production organization or the technology employed by the stone workers. We do not know what role these tools assumed in the changing economy. The research I have conducted over the last 10 years focuses on this theme.

Since the discovery of the Longshan culture over seventy years ago, it has become clear that there is a substantial amount of regional variation across the large area of eastern China in which Longshan period sites have been found ( Luan 1997 ; Liu 2004 ). This paper concerns itself only with stone tools and the ancient economy at the large site of Liangchengzhen located in southeastern Shandong province. Some scholars divide the Longshan period in Shandong (see Chapter 21 ) into six phases spanning from c. 2600 BC to 1900 BC . However, many scholars commonly refer to three major phases – early, middle and late ( Luan 1997 ; Luan and Wagner 2009 ). Most of the excavated deposits at Liangchengzhen fall within the middle Longshan ( c. 2300–2000 BC ).

METHODS AND DATA COLLECTION

Large-scale excavations at Liangchengzhen were conducted by a cooperative team involving Shandong University, Yale University, and The Field Museum from 1998 to 2001 ( Luan et al. 2004 ). The project was the fi rst in Shandong to employ 100 percent screening of all sediments and extensive, systematic collection of fl otation samples. The screening and fl otation strategies had a signifi cant, positive impact on the collected sample of stone tools and production debris. We recovered 2,764 stone tools and 1,702 pieces of stone tool debitage and microdebitage ( Cunnar 2007 ). A large proportion of the stone tools and debitage was not recognizable by eye during excavation. The tools were associated with eight major phases of occupa-tion at the site. For the purposes of stone tool analyses, these eight phases were condensed into four phases representing the major periods of house construction (Table 22.1 ).

I conducted a use-wear analysis on a large sample of the stone tools. The use-wear study incorporated both high- and low-power microscopy. High-power microscopy generally employs a metallurgical microscope (typically 100–400 × ) that utilizes light transmitted through the objective lens and striking the tool surface at a 90° angle. The technique was developed by Semenov ( 1964 ) and Keeley ( 1980 ) and focuses on the identifi cation of polish types. If the polish is well developed, it can often be linked to certain contact materials such as bone, plant, or wood. Low-power micro-scopy employs a typical stereomicroscope and focuses on defi ning the type of fl ake

A STUDY OF LIAN SICKLES AND DAO KNIVES FROM LIANGCHENGZHEN 461

attrition, caused by use, along the edge of the tool. Advocates such as Tringham et al. ( 1974 ) and Odell ( 1979 ) have been able to correlate certain fl ake-scar types and patterns with the hardness of the contact material and method of use (i.e., scraping, cutting, sawing). My research employed both methods. One signifi cant fi nding of my research is that it is necessary to study the entire ground tool (adzes, axes, knives, shovels, sickles, chisels, and projectile points) in order to understand how the tool was made. This is the only way one can identify if the tool was ground only, or ground and deliberately polished in production, and to distinguish use-related polish from polish formed by either prehension (clasping by hand) or hafting ( Cunnar 2007 ).

I also completed a geologic sourcing study within a 40 km circumference centered at Liangchengzhen ( Cunnar 2007 ). This research was largely successful in identifying basic rock types available in the region and determining which types should be con-sidered exotic.

In order to build a use-wear type collection and to elucidate the chaîne opératoire or production sequence ( Leroi-Gourhan 1993 ; Sellet 1993 ; Schlanger 1994 ), a total of 186 ground, polished, and fl aked stone tools were constructed using materials favored by the ancient Longshan inhabitants. Many of these tools were fi nished by a combination of grinding and polishing. Among the replicated tools were 21 com-plete sickles and knives, and sickle/knife edges.

For my dissertation research I spent a total of some 19 months living in the region of Liangchengzhen. During this time, I was able to analyze the uses of modern farming implements within 16 farmers ’ households. As discussed below, observations of local farming activities helped me determine how to use the replicated ancient tools.

Modern and ancient crops at Liangchengzhen The modern community of Liangchengzhen overlies much of the ancient Longshan period settlement. In modern times the dominant crops have included winter wheat, corn, soybeans, peanuts, sweet potato, sorghum, millet, and peas. Millet is quite scarce in the region. Tea, mulberry trees, and apples are also grown ( Underhill et al. 1998 : 455). Barley was once grown in the region. Rice is currently only grown in a few areas that have suffi cient water. Neither rice nor millet is currently grown in the town of Liangchengzhen but can be found in the region. Local farmers inform me that rice has not been grown for many years because there is not enough water.

Table 22.1 Relationship of Liangchengzhen stone tool phases to stratigraphy and houses.

Tool phase Associated houses Site layer Estimated age ( BC )

1 39, 45, 50, 65 1 2300–22252 38, 40, 41, 43, 44, 49, 53, 60, 61,

62, 63, 642, 3, 4 2225–2150

3 54, 57, 59 5 2150–20754 20, 21, 32, 33, 36, 37, 42, 55, 56,

58, 34/35 (one house)6, 7, 8 2075–2000

462 GEOFFREY CUNNAR

Botanical analysis of carbonized seeds recovered from fl otation and phytoliths from the 1999–2000 excavation ( Jin et al. 2004 ; Crawford et al. 2005 ; Jin 2009a, 2009b ) indicates that rice, foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, and probably wheat were planted in Longshan times. Rice and millet had been part of the suite of domesticates grown in the region since the Houli culture 后 李 ( c. 6550–5500 BC , Chapter 19 ). With the exception of broomcorn millet, these crops are grown in the region today. The adzuki bean was also likely domesticated, and wild soybeans appear to have been utilized ( Crawford et al. 2005 ). Wood charcoal was not found in abundance, but numerous charred weed seeds recovered from pits indicate that the Longshan inhabitants were likely burning weedy plants as fuel. This is an important aspect of plant use as it also might indicate that rice and millet stalks were harvested for fuel or other purposes. In addition to planted crops, a number of plants were identifi ed that were likely gathered for food such as amaranth, goosefoot, purslane, wild grape, smartweed and spurges ( Jin 2009a : 120).

Pollen analysis indicates that between 8800 and 5800 cal BP ( c. 6850–3850 BC ) warm and humid conditions prevailed in eastern China. This was followed by a period of decreasing temperatures and precipitation ( Jin 2009b : 112). Macrobotanical remains recovered from Liangchengzhen included hairy bamboo ( Phyllostachys ). This plant currently grows further south around Nanjing. Its presence during Longshan times indicates a substantially warmer and more humid climate than today ( Jin 2009b : 112).

Ancient harvesting implements The lian sickle and dao knife are two stone implements that are widely thought to have functioned as harvesting implements during the Longshan period (Figure 22.1 ). These tools from Liangchengzhen were fi nished by grinding and sometimes deliber-ate polishing ( Cunnar 2007 ). Sickles appear to have become common during the Peiligang culture ( c. 6500–4500 BC ) in the Yellow river Valley ( Chang 1986 ; Under-hill 1997 ; Yan 2005 ; see Chapter 9 ). Stone sickles in the Shandong region become more abundant during the Beixin period and appear to increase steadily throughout the late Neolithic period ( Zeng 1985 : 167; Gongben 2008 ; Wang 2008 ). A total of 74 sickles were recovered from Liangchengzhen.

Perforated stone and shell knives have a long history in China. Most have double perforations which are centrally located along the proximal end (Figure 22.1 , bottom). In general, the earlier the time period the fewer the knives with perforations ( Wu 1983 : 167). Shell knives may have evolved into stone and ceramic knives which in turn evolved into sickles ( Zeng 1985 : 65–66). The general trend seems to be a shift from rectangular forms into “half moon” shaped knives. By Longshan times the stone knives were fi nely ground and have double perforations. A total of 130 stone knives were recovered from our excavations at Liangchengzhen.

Analysis of ancient harvesting implements from Liangchengzhen Lian sickle Based on morphology, two types of ancient sickles could be distin-guished: those manufactured with a straight blade, and those that were originally made with a straight blade that is deliberately angled away from the base. A convex proximal

A STUDY OF LIAN SICKLES AND DAO KNIVES FROM LIANGCHENGZHEN 463

edge is present on most of the sickles. The plan view is mainly semi-circular with a square or rounded base. The sickles are typically well ground and polished. The proxi-mal end is generally ground and worn smooth from prehensile contact, or grasping during use. The average edge angle is 61° (n = 57, standard deviation (s.d.) = 9.4).

The majority (66%) of lian sickles were constructed from a locally available rhyolite. High power use-wear analysis clearly revealed that the most common use for sickles was harvesting some species of grass. Grass polish or “sickle sheen” linked approxi-mately 58 percent of the sickles to harvesting activities. Use-wear related linear fea-tures were not common (83%) on the edge. Only 8 percent had mainly longitudinal use-related striations, and 4 percent had both longitudinal and transverse use-related striations. Another 4 percent displayed randomly orientated use-related linear features on the edge. None of the examined sickles bore any traces of hafting. Rather, most had extensive polish from holding the tool along a deliberately dulled lower blade edge. This area on the blade was deliberately rounded to provide for a comfortable fi nger grip. The tools were likely used in a slicing motion such as that depicted in Figure 22.1 .

Figure 22.1 Ancient Longshan lian sickle ( top ) and dao knife ( bottom ). (Drawn by Ding Feng 丁 峰 for Cunnar 2007 .)

464 GEOFFREY CUNNAR

Dao knife Based on morphology, dao knives could be broken down into two major types: those with straight proximal ends (type A) and those with curved proximal ends (type B). Many of the knives were deliberately polished as part of the produc-tion process. The average edge angle is 68° (n = 102, s.d. = 10.5). Dao knives were mainly constructed from a fairly exotic sandstone (58%) and local granophyre (12%). The closest sandstone source is about 30 km from Liangchengzhen. In contrast to sickles, rhyolite was not used to build dao knives. High-power use-wear analysis revealed that the most common function was harvesting grasses (63%). Use-wear related linear features were both transverse and longitudinal (19%) and sub-transverse (52%) along the edge of the tool. Very few specimens (5%) had transverse-only stria-tions. These linear features suggest that the dominate action of the knife was in slicing rather than in a pulling or “stripping” motion. The majority of knives were not hafted; rather, they must have been held in the hand with the aid of a wrist strap (Figure 22.1 ).

REPLICATION EXPERIMENTS

During the course of this research some 72 ground stone tools were constructed. Appropriate stone was collected during the geologic survey. Tools were produced by a combination of pecking, fl aking, and, mainly, grinding and polishing. Tools pro-duced included lian sickles and dao knives as well as knife/sickle edges. One goal of the replication study was to elucidate why lian sickles were made from rhyolite and dao knives were constructed from sandstone. I constructed knife and sickle edges from both sandstone and rhyolite in order to explore the functional characteristics of the material types.

I used eight of the replicated tools to harvest rice, millet and river grass. Given the fact that local farmers had many years of experience in using such tools, I asked a local farmer to assist in the harvesting tasks. We harvested both the rice and millet crops close to the ground (Figure 22.2 ). A total of 279 minutes was spent harvesting 112 sq m of millet. This involved a total of 12,800 strokes to cut 8,624 millet stalks. A total of 167 minutes was spent harvesting 36 sq m of rice, incorporating a total of 8,800 strokes to sever 5,440 rice stalks. In addition, a total of 433 minutes was spent harvesting 163 sq m of river grass using 17,772 strokes (Table 22.2 ).

DISCUSSION

The sandstone edges were clearly more effective at harvesting rice, millet and river grass (Table 22.2 ). Sandstone was 1.5 times faster harvesting millet, 1.6 times faster harvesting river grass and 3.4 times faster harvesting rice. The experiments demon-strated that sandstone was likely much more effi cient at harvesting tougher-stemmed crops such as rice. The rhyolite edges would have been adequate to harvest crops such as millet, which has less tough stems.

I propose that the sandstone edges on the knives from Liangchengzhen function in a manner similar to the edge on a modern, serrated rice sickle (Figure 22.3 A). The individual quartz grains along the edge of the sandstone knife naturally form

A STUDY OF LIAN SICKLES AND DAO KNIVES FROM LIANGCHENGZHEN 465

numerous tiny cutting edges (Figure 22.3 B). When the edge becomes dull it is a simple task to quickly sharpen the edge with a grinding stone. In fact, a sharp (acute) angle for sandstone knives was not really necessary, nor was it observed in the col-lection of Longshan period knives. No matter how sharp the rhyolite sickle edges were ground, they remained inferior to the sandstone in cutting ability. The edges of the Longshan rhyolite lian sickles were consistently smooth under low-power magnifi cation (Figure 22.3 C).

I propose that the Longshan rhyolite sickles would have been effi cient enough to harvest or cut less tough crops and plants such as millet tribe grasses, which were identifi ed from the fl otation samples at the site by Crawford et al. ( 2005 ). They could also have been utilized to harvest other grasses such as wheat. The smooth edge of the rhyolite is more durable, but not as effi cient as the sandstone for cutting the tougher rice stalks.

Based on observations in the modern-day village of Liangchengzhen, it is clear that modern farmers select a sickle type based on the task that they are performing. I began to wonder if this might not be the case for the Longshan period as well.

Figure 22.2 Harvesting rice with an experimental perforated knife. (Photo by the author.)

Table 22.2 Experimental results of sandstone and rhyolite harvesting experiments.

Sickle/knife material

Crop Amount harvested

(m 2 )

Stalks cut

Strokes used

Time (min)

Speed (m 2 /min)

Rhyolite Millet 48 3,696 6,800 146 0.33Sandstone Millet 64 4,928 6,000 133 0.48Rhyolite Rice 18 2,720 6,000 129 0.14Sandstone Rice 18 2,720 2,800 38 0.47Rhyolite River grass 100 ? 12,172 310 0.32Sandstone River grass 63 ? 5,600 123 0.51

466 GEOFFREY CUNNAR

Modern sickles in Liangchengzhen In order to better understand why two harvesting implements with very different morphological appearance existed in Longshan times, I examined the types and use of modern sickles in Liangchengzhen. Two types of metal sickles are utilized by farmers at Liangchengzhen today (Figure 22.3 D). Both types of sickles are store-bought, although handles and hafting confi gurations are sometimes modifi ed or

Figure 22.3 Edge comparison of (A) a modern rice sickle from Jiangxi province, (B) a Longshan sandstone dao knife, (C) a Longshan rhyolite lian sickle, and (D) two modern styles of sickles at Liangchengzhen. (Photos by the author.)

A B

C D

A STUDY OF LIAN SICKLES AND DAO KNIVES FROM LIANGCHENGZHEN 467

replaced by the farmer. Analytical measurements were made on a total of 20 modern sickles. The straight-blade sickles are typically heavier than the curved-blade sickles. Neither of the modern sickle types has a serrated blade. The blade/handle angle on both tools is close to 90°. Both blades have a downward angle of about 15° and a 24° edge angle. There are three distinct differences in these sickle types: (1) sickle type A has a curved blade while sickle type B has a straight blade, (2) the blade of sickle type B is about twice as thick as sickle type A, and (3) the handles on sickle type A are slightly longer. Sickle type A is used an average of 61.6 hours per year and is mainly used at a frequency of a few days a month. Sickle type B is used less and averages 58.6 hours per year, at a frequency of a few days a year. Liangchengzhen farmers favored the stouter type B sickle for harvesting thick, tough corn stalks and soybeans. The lighter type A sickle was clearly preferred for harvesting grasses. The important attributes of modern sickles appear to be blade angle, weight, and perhaps handle length. The important criterion for Longshan harvesting implements instead was likely material type.

The earliest artistic portrayal in China of the lian sickle and quite possibly the dao knife is likely a scene depicted on a Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) tomb brick which is on display at the Sichuan University Museum in Chengdu ( Gunther 2012 ). The brick clearly depicts the use of a hafted sickle. The scene shows an apparent group of two men and three women harvesting rice. The men seem to be harvesting the straw after the women have removed the heads of the plants. Unfortunately the tool being used by the women is not clearly depicted. That unseen tool is likely a perfo-rated hand knife used to “strip” the head of grain from the stalk. Such tools have been used by the Ainu of the Japanese archipelago ( Nelson 1982 ; Poisson 2002 : 33).

While it is possible that the lian sickle and dao knife were used in such a manner during Longshan times, I propose that the rhyolite sickles would have been too inef-fi cient to harvest rice in such a manner. Rather, rhyolite sickles were likely used to harvest softer-stemmed crops such as millet, while the sandstone knives were used to harvest tougher-stemmed crops such as rice. This is not the scenario portrayed in the tomb brick. Instead, it is more like the use of modern sickles by farmers at Liangchengzhen. In Liangchengzhen today, farmers select the appropriate sickle based on the type of plant that is going to be harvested. I believe that Longshan farmers used the same reasoning when they selected either the lian sickle and dao knife for a specifi c harvesting task.

Analysis of phytolith remains from the ancient soils of Liangchengzhen has revealed very few rice-leaf phytoliths. If the ancient knives were being used only to “strip” the grain head from the stalk, many more leaf phytoliths should have been recovered ( Jin 2011 , pers. comm.). This supports the hypothesis that the rice stalks were harvested low to the ground in a manner depicted in Figure 22.2 .

Harvesting tools as a proxy measurement for crop type The ratio of dao knives to lian sickles over time is: 7:0 in phase I, 11:1 in phase II, 1:1 in phase III, and 1.6:1 in phase IV. If my conclusions about the functions of knives and sickles are correct, it follows that rice was the dominant crop during the early part of the Longshan occupation of Liangchengzhen. By phase IV ( c. 2075–2000 BC ) other crops such as wheat ( Crawford et al. 2005 ) were being cultivated.

468 GEOFFREY CUNNAR

The production of millet may have increased. It is possible that new crops were introduced in a context of changing climatic conditions. Jin ( 2009b ) states that during the Longshan period, the climate was probably both wetter and warmer and therefore more likely conducive to rice cultivation ( Jin 2009b ). The climate may have been shifting towards cooler and drier conditions by the late Longshan period in Shandong ( Bennett 2002 : 63). High resolution climate proxy data collected from various ice cores across the world has identifi ed a probable global “arid” climate event lasting approximately 300 years and centered at approximately 4,000 years before present ( Thompson et al. 2002 ); i.e., within the middle Longshan period. Some scholars have linked this event to the collapse of civilizations in other world areas ( Cullen et al. 2000 ; Weiss 2000 ). If this climate shift also took place in southeastern Shandong, it could have driven the Longshan farmers to reduce or abandon extensive rice cultivation in favor of millets and other crops such as wheat. However, the degree of aridity and its impact on different regions of eastern China is not adequately understood. We do know that rice cultivation was not abandoned during the last phase of Longshan occupation at Liangchengzhen ( c. 2075–2000 BC ) as there is abundant evidence for a rice-based fermented beverage on the basis of residues extracted from phase 4 vessels ( McGovern et al. 2005 ). Dao knives were also pro-duced in phase IV. Therefore, although it is likely that rice production was diminish-ing, it was still occurring. Rice production clearly continued to be very important for fermented beverage production associated with ritual activities at the regional center of Liangchengzhen ( McGovern et al. 2005 ). Such activities likely included both resi-dential and large-scale feasting ( Underhill 2002 ; Underhill et al. 2008 ).

One might ask if the sandstone knives were so much more effi cient, why were they not used to harvest all the crops? I believe that the answer to this question also can be found in the uses of modern sickles at Liangchengzhen. I suspect that a modern sickle could be designed that could work reasonably well for all the modern harvest-ing tasks performed by a farmer. My understanding of the late Neolithic archaeologi-cal record and modern farming implements indicates to me that adherence to tradition is an important aspect to consider as we try to understand variation in late Neolithic archaeological assemblages. After all, one could probably perform these harvesting tasks with great effi ciency using only a sharp stone fl ake. Yet this apparently did not occur in late Neolithic China. Tradition probably dictated that two types of special-ized harvesting implements (the lian sickle and dao knife) be used. I suspect in Longshan times it was also tradition that dictated that only dao knives made from sandstone were used to harvest rice and that only lian sickles made from locally avail-able green rhyolite were to harvest other crops. The Han dynasty tomb brick, dis-cussed above, documents that the tradition of specialized harvesting implements has been in place for a long time.

CONCLUSIONS

Use-wear analysis conducted on tools from Liangchengzhen indicates that the ancient dao knives and lian sickles were frequently used for harvesting tasks. I conclude that the dao knife was most likely used in a slicing or “sickling” motion rather than as a tool to pull or “strip” the grain head from the stalk. This suggests that the stalks

A STUDY OF LIAN SICKLES AND DAO KNIVES FROM LIANGCHENGZHEN 469

were also being harvested, perhaps for use as fuel. Experimentation also has demon-strated that sandstone dao knives are considerably more effi cient than rhyolite lian sickles for harvesting rice. A decrease in the amount of sandstone knives and increase in the amount of rhyolite sickles through time could indicate a reduction in the amount of rice cultivation from the early to later phases at Liangchengzhen. Such a scenario is supported by the functional analysis of lian sickles and dao knives, and the increase in quantity of lian sickles by phase IV. The relationship of rice and millet agriculture to a fl uctuating climate in the middle Longshan is not yet understood. I anticipate that future studies employing residue analysis of stone tools (particularly for starch grains and phytoliths) and further lithic material type and use-wear studies in different regions of the Haidai coastal area will help either refute or support the hypothesis presented in this chapter.

The use of screens to sift through archaeological deposits is now becoming common in parts of China. This is an important advance in collection methodology that will undoubtedly produce a much larger sample of all kinds of stone tools, similar to the large numbers that were recovered from the relatively small excavation at Liangchengzhen. However, standards need to be established as to how and when to employ screens on excavations in China. My observation is that archaeologists are using them too sparingly, arguing that time and the desire to expose large amounts of prehistoric architecture and ground surfaces are more important than consistent use of screening. This approach needs to change. I believe the focus needs to be on excavating smaller areas more thoroughly. Likewise, graduate students should focus on excavation of sites that may be threatened by development, or revisit previously excavated sites, bringing with them more modern collection methods, rather than focusing on the excavation of “pristine” sites that are not threatened with imminent destruction or impact by soil removal or the ever-increasing development. China ’ s archaeological heritage is a precious resource for the whole world. All excavations, no matter how well done, destroy archaeological sites. It is our obligation to recover and interpret all aspects of a site. I have no doubt that small, “ugly,” and broken stone tool fragments were re-utilized for various tasks and possess a story to tell us about life in the past. Recovery of small broken tool fragments also is critical for locating and interpreting production areas and for testing hypotheses such as the one I have offered in this chapter. I have no doubt that additional experimental archaeo-logical projects and comprehensive use-wear studies on prehistoric tools will help us better understand variation in tool use and aspects of social life, and will also increase our understanding of the changing late Holocene environment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Anne Underhill, Luan Fengshi, Yu Haiguang, Fang Hui and the late Cai Fengshu for their mentorship and for the privilege of working on the excavations at Liangchengzhen. I am grateful for the fi nancial support of the National Science Foundation (Frank Hole, Geoffrey Cunnar, Anne Underhill, BCS-0223692). Gener-ous support for the excavation of the site came from the National Science Foundation (Anne Underhill and Gary Feinman, BCS-9911128, 2000–2002) and the Henry Luce Foundation (Anne Underhill, Gary Feinman, Lothar von Falkenhausen,

470 GEOFFREY CUNNAR

1998–2000). I gratefully acknowledge the warm-heartedness of the residents of Liangchengzhen who allowed me to examine their modern-day farming implements and offered me tea and conversation on cold days. Special thanks go to my good friends Wang Shifeng who helped out tremendously during the experiments and Ding Feng who drew the tools depicted in Figure 22.1 .

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