A Cognitive Theory of A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning: Multimedia Learning:

Implications for Design Implications for Design PrinciplesPrinciples

Facts!Facts!

Research on educational Research on educational technologies has a disappointing technologies has a disappointing history.history.

Example 1Example 1

In 1922, the famous inventor Thomas In 1922, the famous inventor Thomas Edison proclaimed that "the motion picture Edison proclaimed that "the motion picture is destined to revolutionize our is destined to revolutionize our educational system and that in a few years educational system and that in a few years it will supplant...the use of textbooks" it will supplant...the use of textbooks" (cited in Cuban, 1986, p. 9).(cited in Cuban, 1986, p. 9).

Over the decades later, Cuban (1986, p. Over the decades later, Cuban (1986, p. 17) concluded that "most teachers used 17) concluded that "most teachers used films infrequently in classrooms."films infrequently in classrooms."

Example 2Example 2

fifty years later in the 1970s, the fifty years later in the 1970s, the game-like computer-assisted game-like computer-assisted instruction (CAI)instruction (CAI) programs that programs that were envisaged as the wave of the were envisaged as the wave of the future in education eventually proved future in education eventually proved to be to be no more effective than no more effective than teacher based modes of teacher based modes of instructioninstruction (Cognition and (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1996). 1996).

Example 3Example 3

Today, strong claims are being made Today, strong claims are being made for the potential of multimedia for the potential of multimedia learning environments (including learning environments (including web-based applications).web-based applications).

Does it?Does it?

How to avoid history from How to avoid history from repeating?repeating?

How can we avoid a trail of broken How can we avoid a trail of broken promises concerning the educational promises concerning the educational benefits of new educational benefits of new educational technologies such as multimedia technologies such as multimedia learning environments?learning environments?

RecommendationRecommendation

A reasonable solution is to use A reasonable solution is to use instructional technology in ways that instructional technology in ways that are grounded in research-based are grounded in research-based theory (Mayer and Moreno). theory (Mayer and Moreno).

Effective use of a new instructional Effective use of a new instructional technology must be guided by a technology must be guided by a research-based theory of how research-based theory of how students learn.students learn.

advances in cognitiveadvances in cognitivepsychologypsychology

provide the starting point provide the starting point to understanding how technology--to understanding how technology--

such assuch as multimedia--can be used to foster multimedia--can be used to foster

student learning. student learning. (Mayer and Moreno) provide a (Mayer and Moreno) provide a

research-based review of five research-based review of five principles of multimedia design.principles of multimedia design.

Outcome of this research workOutcome of this research work

By beginning with a theory of how By beginning with a theory of how learners process multimedia learners process multimedia information, they have conducted information, they have conducted focused research that yields some focused research that yields some preliminary principles of multimedia preliminary principles of multimedia design.design.

principles of multimedia designprinciples of multimedia design

1.1. Multiple Representation Principle: Its is Multiple Representation Principle: Its is better to present an explanation in words better to present an explanation in words and pictures than solely in words.and pictures than solely in words.

2.2. Contiguity Principle: When giving a Contiguity Principle: When giving a multimedia explanation, present multimedia explanation, present corresponding words and pictures corresponding words and pictures contiguously rather than separately.contiguously rather than separately.

3.3. Split-Attention Principle: When giving a Split-Attention Principle: When giving a multimedia explanation, present words as multimedia explanation, present words as auditory narration rather than as visual auditory narration rather than as visual on-screen text.on-screen text.

principles of multimedia designprinciples of multimedia design

4.4. Individual Differences Principle: The Individual Differences Principle: The foregoing principles are more important foregoing principles are more important for low knowledge than high-knowledge for low knowledge than high-knowledge learners, and for high-spatial rather than learners, and for high-spatial rather than low-spatial learners.low-spatial learners.

5.5. Coherence Principle: When giving a Coherence Principle: When giving a multimedia explanation, use few rather multimedia explanation, use few rather than many extraneous words and than many extraneous words and pictures.pictures.

Multiple Representation PrincipleMultiple Representation Principle

it is better to present an explanation it is better to present an explanation using two modes of representation using two modes of representation rather than one.rather than one.

Multiple Representation Principle: Multiple Representation Principle: Observation 1Observation 1

Students who listened to a narration Students who listened to a narration explaining how a bicycle tire pump explaining how a bicycle tire pump works while also viewing a works while also viewing a corresponding animation generated corresponding animation generated twice as many useful solutionstwice as many useful solutions to to subsequent problem solving transfer subsequent problem solving transfer questions than did students who listened questions than did students who listened to the same narration without viewing any to the same narration without viewing any animation (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, animation (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992).1992).

Multiple Representation Principle: Multiple Representation Principle: Observation 2Observation 2

students who read a text students who read a text containing captioned containing captioned illustrations placed near the illustrations placed near the corresponding words generated corresponding words generated about 65% more useful solutionsabout 65% more useful solutions on a subsequent problem-solving on a subsequent problem-solving transfer test than did students who transfer test than did students who simply read the text (Mayer, 1989; simply read the text (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).Mayer & Gallini, 1990).

Multiple Representation Principle:Multiple Representation Principle:

Result from the observations is called Result from the observations is called multimedia effect (Mayer and Moreno)multimedia effect (Mayer and Moreno)

The multimedia effect is consistent with a The multimedia effect is consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning cognitive theory of multimedia learning because:because:– students given multimedia explanations are students given multimedia explanations are

able to build:able to build: Two different mental representations—a verbal Two different mental representations—a verbal

model and a visual modelmodel and a visual model The connections between them.The connections between them.

Contiguity Principle:Contiguity Principle:

Students better understand an Students better understand an explanation when corresponding explanation when corresponding words and pictures are presented at words and pictures are presented at the same time than when they are the same time than when they are separated in time. separated in time.

Contiguity Principle: Observation 1Contiguity Principle: Observation 1

– Students who listened to a Students who listened to a narration explaining how a bicycle narration explaining how a bicycle tire pump works while also viewing tire pump works while also viewing a corresponding animation a corresponding animation generated 50% provide more useful generated 50% provide more useful solutionssolutions to subsequent problem- to subsequent problem-solving transfer questions than did solving transfer questions than did students who viewed the animation students who viewed the animation before or after listening to the narration before or after listening to the narration (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Sims, 1994).& Sims, 1994).

Contiguity Principle: Observation 2Contiguity Principle: Observation 2

students who read a text explaining students who read a text explaining how tire pumps work that included how tire pumps work that included captioned illustrations placed near captioned illustrations placed near the text generated about 75% more the text generated about 75% more useful solutionsuseful solutions on problem-solving on problem-solving transfer questions than did students who transfer questions than did students who read the same text and illustrations read the same text and illustrations presented on separate pages (Mayer, presented on separate pages (Mayer, 1989; Mayer, Steinhoff, Bower, & Mars, 1989; Mayer, Steinhoff, Bower, & Mars, 1995).1995).

Contiguity Principle:Contiguity Principle:

The observations’ results are called The observations’ results are called continuity effect.continuity effect.

Consistent with the cognitive theory Consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia learningof multimedia learning– because corresponding words and because corresponding words and

pictures must be in working memory at pictures must be in working memory at the same time in order to facilitate the the same time in order to facilitate the construction of referential links between construction of referential links between them.them.

Split-Attention PrincipleSplit-Attention Principle

According to this principle, words According to this principle, words should be presented auditorily rather should be presented auditorily rather than visuallythan visually

Split-Attention Principle: Split-Attention Principle: ObservationObservation

students who viewed an animation students who viewed an animation depicting the formation of lightning depicting the formation of lightning while also listening to a while also listening to a corresponding narration generated corresponding narration generated approximately 50% more useful approximately 50% more useful solutionssolutions on a subsequent problem- on a subsequent problem-solving transfer test than did students who solving transfer test than did students who viewed the same animation with viewed the same animation with corresponding on-screen text consisting of corresponding on-screen text consisting of the same words as the narration (Mayer & the same words as the narration (Mayer & Moreno, in press).Moreno, in press).

Split-Attention Principle:Split-Attention Principle: split attention effectsplit attention effect (Chandler & Sweller, (Chandler & Sweller,

1991; Mousavi, Low & Sweller, 1995; 1991; Mousavi, Low & Sweller, 1995; Sweller,Chandler, Tierney and Cooper, 1990).Sweller,Chandler, Tierney and Cooper, 1990).

This result is consistent with the cognitive theory This result is consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning because:of multimedia learning because:– the on-screen text and animation can overload the the on-screen text and animation can overload the

visual information processing system visual information processing system – whereas narration is processed in the verbal information whereas narration is processed in the verbal information

processing system and animation is processed in the processing system and animation is processed in the visual information processing system.visual information processing system.

Individual Differences Principle:Individual Differences Principle:

multimedia effects, contiguity multimedia effects, contiguity effects, and split-attention effects effects, and split-attention effects depend on individual differences in depend on individual differences in the learner.the learner.

Individual Differences Principle: Individual Differences Principle: Observation 1Observation 1

Students who lack prior knowledge tended Students who lack prior knowledge tended to show stronger effects than students to show stronger effects than students who possessed high levels of prior who possessed high levels of prior knowledge (Mayer & Gallini, 1991, Mayer, knowledge (Mayer & Gallini, 1991, Mayer, Steinhoff, Bower & Mars, 1995).Steinhoff, Bower & Mars, 1995).

– According to a cognitive theory of multimedia According to a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, students with high prior knowledge learning, students with high prior knowledge may be able to generate their own mental may be able to generate their own mental images while listening to an animation or images while listening to an animation or reading a verbal text reading a verbal text

– So having a contiguous visual presentation is So having a contiguous visual presentation is not needed.not needed.

Individual Differences Principle: Individual Differences Principle: Observation 2Observation 2

Students who scored high on tests of Students who scored high on tests of spatial ability showed greater multimedia spatial ability showed greater multimedia effects than did students who scored low effects than did students who scored low on spatial ability (Mayer & Sims, 1994). on spatial ability (Mayer & Sims, 1994).

– According to a cognitive theory of multimedia According to a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, students with high spatial ability are learning, students with high spatial ability are able to hold the visual image in visual working able to hold the visual image in visual working memorymemory

– Thus, they are more likely to benefit from Thus, they are more likely to benefit from contiguous presentation of words and pictures.contiguous presentation of words and pictures.

Coherence PrincipleCoherence Principle

students learn better from a students learn better from a coherent summary which highlights coherent summary which highlights the relevant words and pictures than the relevant words and pictures than from a longer version of the from a longer version of the summary.summary.

Coherence Principle: ObservationCoherence Principle: Observation

– students who read a passage students who read a passage explaining the steps in how explaining the steps in how lightning forms along with lightning forms along with corresponding illustrations corresponding illustrations generated 50%generated 50% more useful solutions more useful solutions on a subsequent problem-solving on a subsequent problem-solving transfer test than did students who read transfer test than did students who read the same information with additional the same information with additional details inserted in the materials (Mayer, details inserted in the materials (Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars & Tapangco, 1996; Bove, Bryman, Mars & Tapangco, 1996; Harp & Mayer, 1997).Harp & Mayer, 1997).

Coherence Principle:Coherence Principle:

redundancy effect redundancy effect

– The observation result is consistent with The observation result is consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, learning, in which a shorter presentation primes the in which a shorter presentation primes the

learner to select relevant information and learner to select relevant information and organize it productively.organize it productively.

ReferenceReference

Mayer and Moreno, A Cognitive Mayer and Moreno, A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning: Theory of Multimedia Learning: Implications for Design Principles at Implications for Design Principles at http://www.unm.edu/~moreno/PDFS/http://www.unm.edu/~moreno/PDFS/chi.pdfchi.pdf