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A case study of learning styles inbiologyJohn R. Baird a & Richard T. White ba Melbourne State Collegeb Monash University , Victoria, AustraliaPublished online: 24 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: John R. Baird & Richard T. White (1982) A case study oflearning styles in biology, European Journal of Science Education, 4:3, 325-337, DOI:10.1080/0140528820040311

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EUR. J. sci. EDUC., 1982, VOL. 4, NO. 3, 325-337

A case study of learning styles in biology

John R. Baird, Melbourne State College and Richard T. White,Monash University, Victoria, Australia

Summaries

EnglishThe process of acquisition, and the nature and extent of retention, of a hierarchy ofintellectual skills in genetics were examined for each of three adults by case study.Task materials, based on a skill hierarchy and interview protocol, were designed topromote learning with understanding. Various theoretical models and schemes weredevised to identify and monitor learning processes and changes in cognitivestructure of the learner. Additional information was obtained on the stability andgeneralizability of learning processes, and the nature and extent of retention andaccessibility of learned material. Evidence was obtained for qualitative differences inlearning process and outcome. Results indicate evidence for two different learningstyles which involve different specific learning strategies and which differ in theextent of incorporation of new material into the learner's cognitive structure, and onthe subsequent retrieval of this material. One learning style is considered par-ticularly effective for both incorporation and retrieval. The theoretical basesdeveloped in this study may prove useful for identifying changes in cognitivestructure of, and strategies employed by, a learner as he or she progresses throughsimilar intellectual skill learning sequences, and thus for remediation by a teacher ofgaps or deficiencies in the learner's strategies or cognitive structure. This procedureshould facilitate progression by the learner to a thorough understanding of theterminal skills.

DeutschGegenstand der Untersuchung ist der Prozeß des Erwerbs einer Hierarchieintellektueller Fähigkeiten im Bereich der Genetik sowie die damit verknüpftenBehaltensleistungen, jeweils auf drei Erwachsene bezogen, die in der Form vonFallstudien in die Untersuchung einbezogen werden. Die zu lösenden Aufgabenfußen auf einer hierarchisierten Fähigkeitsskala und einem Interviewprotokoll. DieAufgaben wurden so formuliert, daß sie bestmöglich geeignet waren, Lernen undVerstehen als kombinierten Vorgang zu fördern. Verschiedene theoretische Modelleund Schemata wurden erörtert, mit denen Lernprozesse und Veränderungen imBereich kognitiver Strukturen des Lerners identifiziert werden können.Zusatzinformationen über die Stabilität und Generalisierbarkeit von Lernprozessenwurden erzielt. Dies trifft auch zu auf die Behaltensleistungen und die Eignung(Zugänglichkeit) der Lernmaterialien. Offensichtlich zeigt diese Untersuchung an,daB es qualitative Unterschiede in den Lernprozessen und den Lernergebnissen zuverzeichnen sind. Die Ergebnisse sprechen fur zwei unterschiedliche Lernstile,welche verschiedene spezifische Lernstrategien involvieren und welche bezüglichdes Ausmaßes der Einbeziehung neuer Materialien in die kognitiven Strukturen desLerners sich unterscheiden ebenso wie in Hinsicht auf die nachfolgende Nutzung

0140 5284/82/0403 0325 $02.00 © 1982 Taylor & Francis Ltd

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der Materialien. Ein Lernstil wird als besonders wirksam in Hinsicht auf dieEinbeziehung neuer Materialien und der nachfolgenden Nutzung dieser Materialienbetrachtet. Die theoretischen Grundlagen, die dieser Studie unterliegen, mögen alsnützlich gelten, wenn es darum geht, Veränderungen kognitiver Strukturen zuidentifizieren. Angesprochen sind solche kognitiven Strukturen und Strategien, dieder Lernende durch vergleichbare intellektuelle Lernfähigkeiten undLernsequenzen entwickelt. Dem Lehrer bietet die Kenntnis solcher kognitivenStrukturentwicklungen eine Möglichkeit, Lücken oder Probleme, die während desLernens auftauchen, zu identifizieren und zu beheben. Diese Prozedur sollte dazubeitragen, daß der Lerner Fortschritte beim gründlichen Verstehen solcherFähigkeiten erzielt.

FrançaisL'objet de cette étude est le processus d'acquisition, ainsi que la nature et l'étenduede la retention d'une hiérarchie de capacites intellectuelles dans le domaine de lagénétique, se rapportant a trois adultes, sous forme d'études de cas. Les problemes arésoudre, basés sur une analyse hiérarchique des ces capacités et sur un protocole desinterviewa, furent choisis de telle sorte qu'ils puissent favoriser le processusd'apprentissage et de comprehension. Differents modèles théoriques et schémasfurent discutés pour identifier et contrôler les processus d'apprentissage et leschangements intervenant dans les structures cognitive du sujet. On a obtenu desinformations supplémentaires sur la stabilité et la généralisation des processusd'apprentissage, sur la nature et l'étendue de la retention, ainsi que sur l'accès aumatériel d'apprentissage. Cette recherche montre clairement des différences quali-tatives dans les processus d'apprentissage et leurs résultats. Elle révèle aussi deuxstyles d'apprentissage differents et qui different aussi bien au niveau de l'étendue del'assimilation d'un nouveau materiel aux structures cognitives existantes du sujet,qu'au niveau de l'utilisation ultérieure de ce materiel. Un des styles d'apprentissageest considéré comme particulièrement effectif pour l'assimilation d'un nouveaumateriel et pour sa réutilisation. Les bases théoriques développées dans cette étudepeuvent se révéler utiles pour identifier les changements survenus dans les structurescognitives et les stratégies qu'emploie le sujet lorsqu'il développe des séquencesd'apprentissage et des capacites intellectuelles similaires. Elles peuvent aussi êtreutiles pour l'enseignant, car de telles connaissances peuvent l'aider à remédier auxlacunes ou aux problemes qui surviennent au niveau des strategies d'apprentissageou au niveau des structures cognitives. Cette procedure devrait faciliter le sujet aprogresser dans la comprehension profonde de telles capacites.

Introduction

Although case studies rarely allow estimation of the proportions of apopulation which belong to particular types, they are useful in identifyingthe types that do exist. An important instance is in the study of learningprocesses and styles. Case studies can reveal differences in the manner inwhich people acquire new information. Once these individual differenceshave been identified, we can consider which styles are most desirable and candevise instruction to promote them. Large-scale experiments can then beemployed to evaluate the effectivenesss of this instruction. The initial casestudy is clearly a vital element in this sequence.

The study described here is an analysis of the styles of learning exhibitedby three adults as they progressed through a learning programme in genetics.

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It was designed to test three hypotheses, which, it can be seen, are of adifferent style from those which are testable in large group experiments.

Hypothesis 1: that, for a given instructional programme, differentlearners will show similar general sequences in the development of theircognitive structure. This hypothesis is tested by proposing a logicalsequence of acquisition and linking of concepts, propositions, and rules,and then monitoring conformity to it.

Although the general sequence may be similar for all learners, priorknowledge might enable a learner to skip particular stages in the sequence orto acquire particular concepts, propositions, or rules in a manner which hasnot been predicted; hence,

Hypothesis 2: that differences in the detail of cognitive linking sequenceswill be found. These differences may be due, in part, to differences inprior learning of the content material, but are independent of eachindividual's learning style.Hypothesis 3: that all subjects acquire intellectual skills by a learningprocess which involves a finite number of identifiable cognitivestrategies.

These hypotheses arose from consideration of the learning paradigmshown in figure 1, which is an extension of the three-term relationInstruction->Memory^> Performance proposed by Gagne and White (1978) toinclude the knowledge, strategies, personality, and attitudes of the learnerwhich bear on the processes of acquiring new information.

Instruction-based

variables

\

Learningprocesses

Memoryoutcomes

Performanceoutcomes

Learner-based

variables

Figure 1. Paradigm of learning

The model implies that instruction- and learner-based variables dictate,either directely or by their interaction, the learning processes which occur.Learning processes here mean the application of particular strategies inadding or modifying knowledge. These processes result in changes to thelearner's cognitive structure, which in turn determines performance,whether in response to external cues such as questions or observations ofaspects of the environment, or to internal ones generated in thinking.

In order to guide the progress and the interpretation of each case, theeducational phenomena under study need to be defined. For this study, oneaspect is a detailed model to direct the actions, observations, and interpret-ations that the experimenter will make. The outline shown in figure 1

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therefore has to be elaborated: types of instruction-based and learner-basedvariables must be listed, strategies must be proposed, and possible forms ofcognitive structure must be described.

Relatively little detail will be given here for instruction and learnervariables, because the nature of the three hypotheses in this investigationrequires most attention to be given to spelling out details of strategies andcognitive structure. We will say only that instruction-based variables wereconceived of as including the mode and style of presentation; the amount ofguidance given; the amount, type, and inherent difficulty of the subjectmatter; the sequence of presentation; the nature and extent of reinforcement;and the general level of stress which is aimed at. Learner-based variablesinclude existing cognitive structure; relatively stable psychological traits andpersonality attributes; and more transient affective states.

Content

Strategies and cognitive structures are more easily defined in relation tospecific content, so the subject matter of the investigation and the instruc-tional materials are described first.

The subject matter in the investigation centred on thirteen skills in thefield of genetics, which were obtained by deriving a learning hierarchy(Gagne 1962) leading to the skill: 'For a monohybrid cross involving anunmodified dominance/recessiveness relation between autosomal alleles,given selected phenotypes works out a valid genetic model consistent withthe data.' Genetics was chosen because of its relative unfamiliarity to peoplewho lack an extensive background in biology, and because it contains clearlydefinable skills.

Items to test each of the thirteen skills were then developed, and a set offifty information statements necessary for the acquisition of the skills wasprepared. The statements were organized in groups, each group connectedwith a skill, in an order consistent with a logical upward progression throughthe hierarchy. Each statement was written in a way which attempted tomaximize its potential meaningfulness in terms of what had come before, andthus to enhance understanding.

The information statements were combined with items testing thethirteen skills to form a learning programme.

Theoretical bases

In conjunction with preparation of the programme, four theoretical baseswere prepared for the analysis of learners' performance: a sequence ofcognitive links was proposed; a procedural analysis of each test item wasmade; possible cognitive strategies were defined; and three sequential stagesof learning were proposed.

Hypothesized model for the cognitive linking sequence

The hypothesized cognitive linking sequence is a step-by-step developmentof cognitive structure, contingent upon each new piece of information, testitem, and oral question. The sequence leads to a final 'cognitive map' which

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is proposed to result from completion of the programme, and which is shownin figure 2. This map is a network of propositional relations between conceptsand rules. This style of representation of how information is stored inmemory is consistent with most modern theories (e.g., Bower 1975; Glass,Holyoak and Santa 1979). The hypothesized sequence of development of thismap served two purposes in the investigation. It guided the selection andtiming of oral questions and written test items which the interviewer was touse, and it served as a model against which the observed progression of eachsubject could be compared.

OrganismsI

: CellsI Control

Nucleus ̂ *̂" Instructions

Each chromosomemany instructions ̂ One segment

One characteristic

Threadlike Differentsegmented chromosomes

Differencebetween genesDifference

betweenchromosomes

Alternative Numberinstructions" allelesor alleles per gene

Homozygousrecessive

Differentorganismgenotypes

Allelessame ordifferent

Cellresulting(offspring)

reproduction(fusion)

Alleles pergamete = 1

Offspring Offspringgenotype ~ organism

Different genesDifferent letters

Dominant capitalrecessive small

Same gametes

Different gametes

Punnettsquare "procedure

Offspring Constancy Parentalphenotype of characteristics

genetic (generation)material

Constancy ofallele dominance/recessiveness

Figure 2. Hypothesized cognitive map

Test item procedural analysis

Each test item was examined to ascertain the logical, inferential, orconditional steps necessary in order to attain the correct answer withunderstanding. An example of a test item and the corresponding itemanalysis is given in table 1. These analyses were constructed in order to assistevaluation of each subject's manner of approach to, and progression through,the item. The analysis included classification of each step according to thecognitive strategies classification scheme which follows. Certain steps were

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Table 1. Sample test item and item procedural analysisItem: A spotted rabbit and a solid-coloured rabbit were crossed. They produced all spotted offspring. Assuming that these two traits are

both expressions of the one gene, which trait is determined by a dominant allele?

Item procedural analysis

Step

Core procedure(necessaryfor answer)

##

#

#

Cognitivestrategy

(ies)(see table 2)

1,2,32 , 366 , 74 , 526

6

98. 10

Nature of step

1234567

910

Chunks first sentence.Chunks second sentence.Predicts spotted and solid-coloured to be alternatives/alleles.Confirms allelic association by interpreting first part of third sentence.Establishes purpose: to decide which allele is dominant.Concentrates on second sentence.Interprets second sentence in terms ofdominant allele being expressed (information

statement No. 35).Deduces that spotted is dominant by overriding uniform-coloured (obtained from

information statement No. 18).Notes that information is consistent with information statement No. 50.Confirms consistency of logic, accepts and writes answer.

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considered to be core procedural steps—steps without which the answercould not be obtained, except by blind guessing. Examples of such steps forthe sample item in table 1 are indicated with an asterisk. The remaining stepscontribute to effective processing and thorough understanding.

Cognitive strategies

Hypothesis 3 requires definition of a set of strategies which learners mightexhibit. This set needs to be comprehensive. The point of hypothesis 3 is thatif it is found that all the strategies which the successful learners employ arereasonably few, then there is prospect of teaching them to poorer learnersand thus bringing about substantial gains which could be both permanentand applicable to a wide range of tasks. A tentative set of postulated strategieswas devised for the purposes of this study. This set, which is outlined in table2, was produced to serve as an initial basis for comparison with, and thusassist interpretation of, learner performance.

Stages of learning

The initial learning of a fact or skill may be termed achievement (White1979), and can occur quickly and simply. Understanding of facts and skills is,however, a complex phenomenon which may involve application of manystrategies in the processing of the new knowledge. As it may be convenient tobe able to summarize a learner's use of strategies, a small number of stages oflearning is described in table 3.

Procedure

When the instructional programme and the four theoretical bases had beenprepared, the learning task was administered individually by the first authorto three adults, all well-known to him, who will be called by the pseudonymsAlan, Barbara, and Cathy.

Alan is male, aged 34, a science graduate with no tertiary training inBiology. Barbara is female, 34, an arts graduate with a major in Psychologyand one short course in Biology. Cathy is female, 20, a high school graduatewith secretarial training who had studied Biology in the 11th grade of herhigh school course.

Before commencing the task, the subjects were tested on their knowl-edge of the various skills and were found to be ignorant of them. They wereasked about their attitude to this type of task and their degree of anxiety aboutit, in case their learning might be inhibited; all seemed satisfactory. Somepractice was given in verbalizing, and the subjects were encouraged to attendto meaningfulness of the material, its connection with other knowledge,images that it provoked, and episodes that were recalled.

Each student proceeded through the programme with assistance givenby the interviewer only when required. A tape-recording was made for theduration of the task.

Full transcripts of the tape recording resulting from each interview wereprepared and thei|i analyzed in detail. Each verbal and written response to

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Table 2. Classification Scheme for Cognitive Strategies

Strategies for reception of information and for search and retrieval from existingstructure to ascertain meaningfulness of this information

1. Scan communication en bloc; establish overall level of understandability andextent of meaningfulness against known.

2. Identify discrete areas of communication. Select one/more for attention.3. For area chosen, analyze more thoroughly to discriminate meaning

'chunks', and nature and extent of understanding of concepts, propositions,and skills.

4. Establish that the question asked is appropriate to, and consistent with, thenature of the communication. Confirm purpose as relevant and logical.

Strategies for restructuring information for processing; processing strategies.

5. Selectively order different parts for processing. Hold/manipulate bits ofinformation.

6. Process discriminated parts against stored knowledge to generate newconcepts, propositions, skills.

7. Process discriminated parts against each other to generate new concepts,propositions, skills.

Strategies for embedding new information into content-related structure

8. Trial/rehearse logic and results of strategies 6 and 7. Confirm consistency.9. Establish boundaries, conditions of validity and appropriateness (e.g.,

consider change in the magnitude of one variable and draw implications).10. Delete superseded structure; replace by new.

Strategies for embedding new information into wider cognitive structure; externalembedding

11. Relate to external parts of structure. Create bridges: ask 'What i f . . . ? 'questions, generalize, induce, apply in new situations. (Includes divergentthinking, reflective thinking, creativity.)

12. Relate to real world; invoke episodes, analogies, sensory/ perceptual links.13. Accept (affective) and incorporate (cognitive) new evaluated elements into

structure. Delete superseded structure.

each step of the programme (information statement, test item, oral questionused to diagnose understanding of key concepts and concept associations,supplementary diagnostic teaching of problem areas) was interpreted interms of the appropriate theoretical bases. A series of diagrams representingthe stepwise development of the learner's cognitive linking sequence wasprepared, and records made of the nature and type of divergence from thatwhich had been hypothesized. The sequence of procedural steps taken ineach test item was recorded and compared with that hypothesized to belogical. Data sheets recording instances of particular cognitive strategies

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Table 3. Classification Scheme for Stages of Learning

Stage I: Limited/inadequate discrimination and processing

IA. Reception of part or all of the communication but without adequatediscrimination of parts. Evidence of minimal chunking and inadequate structuringof the communication. Inability to proceed with processing because of inability todefine the most appropriate starting point. (If this part is picked out for him, he maythen proceed correctly; therefore, the problem is in the subject being 'put off' by thecontent, rather than ability to function at higher levels.) Need to start again.Cognitive Strategies involved: inadequate application of Strategies 1-3.

IB. Preliminary, and possibly confused, attempts at structuring the communi-cation. Repeated and changing attempts at chunking, or limited and superficialprocessing. Perhaps lack of understanding of one or more parts, or of inadequatediscrimination of this part relative to others. Perhaps skimming over the informationand gaining an inadequate understanding of the meaning of the communication.Cognitive Strategies involved: deficiencies in Strategies 1—5, leading to inadequate/incorrect use of 6 & 7.

Stage II: Progression to completion of content-specified processing

IIA. Structuring of the communication achieved, but evidence of conflict,either between information and known, or within information. Conflict possibly dueto previous misconceptions or inadequacies in cognitive structure. Repeatedstopping and consideration, leading to possible frustration as attempts are made torationalize and establish compatibility of disparate elements.

Cognitive Strategies involved: unsuccessful resolution of strategies 6 & 7.I IB. Resolution of major ambiguities or conflicts; realization that processing

has resulted in satisfactory conclusion.Cognitive Strategies involved: application of 6—8. Possibly some use of strategy 9.

Stage III. Acceptance and consolidation stage

IIIA. Evidence of instability (lack of consolidation) of cognitive structure.Application of learned information still not proficient; need for referral back toinformation, reworking of links, and re-establishing boundaries. Acquisitionsuperficial, and performance sometimes faulty because of inappropriate use ofconcepts, forgetting of nature of links, reversion back to a misconception or elementof previous cognitive structure, etc.Cognitive Strategies involved: revision, reworking of 6-10, perhaps involving 11.

IIIB. Stable acceptance and understanding of information. Use of materialwith proficiency and confidence. Consistent cognitive framework to serve as base forextrapolation and transfer.Cognitive Strategies involved: co-ordinated application of 6-10, and possibly 11 and12, to embed information by linking information with various sections of cognitivestructure.

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were prepared. Evidence of learner performance at particular stages oflearning was monitored throughout the task. For each of these recordsobservations and inferences were made regarding the use made of images,episodes, and analogy, the effects of prior learning on performance, thestability of certain links acquired during the programme, and the extent towhich the learner extrapolated from information given and related inform-ation to personal experiences and other knowledge.

Results

If learning were recorded in terms of the outcome measure of acquisition ofeach of the thirteen intellectual skills, each subject would be recorded assuccessful. Each subject progressed through the programme without becom-ing totally 'stuck' and eventually performed each set task. However, how eachsubject learned, what and how much each subject knows, and for how long eachsubject will know it, are less clear but certainly more variable and individual.These results provide support for Marton and Saljo's (1976a) contentionsregarding qualitative differences in learning process and outcome.

Evidence obtained indicated the presence of two quite dissimilar stylesfor processing incoming information, with each subject routinely applyingone or other of the styles. One style, shown by Barbara, is described ascontextual rationalization. This style is evidence by continual elaboration orextension of the information provided, by a process of interrelating andrationalizing in terms of prior knowledge and the 'real world'. The aimappears to be not only to acquire the understanding of the material based onits logical internal consistency, but also to actively compare, check, andinterpret each piece of information in order to rationalize this information interms of its perceived context in the life experiences of the subject. Thealternative style of processing is called content-prescribed analysis. This style,while involving most or all of the logical, effective processes for analysing,interpreting, and evaluating a communication, is fundamentally restrictiveand limited to the boundaries of the communication. Continual, active link-forming or extrapolation beyond the boundaries is not central to this style.This style was shown by Alan and Cathy.

Generally, the results supported hypothesis 1, in that the generalpattern of linking for each subject was consistent with the hypothesizedmodel. It appears that such differences as were observed are a reflection ofprior learning not only in the content area, but also more importantly in thelearning style of the subject. Hypothesis 2, however, is contradicted by thisresult, as it proposed that differences in learning style would not beresponsible for differences in sequence and pattern of linking. Priorconstruction of a theoretical cognitive linking sequence by a teacher shouldassist in assessing a learner's cognitive style, general level and nature ofunderstanding, and particular misconceptions and difficulties, which in turnshould form the basis for the implementation of appropriate teachingstrategies.

With respect to the Cognitive Strategies classification scheme and theStages of Learning classification scheme, evidence was obtained whichsupported inclusion of all the major categories in both schemes, and which

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supported the usefulness of both schemes in evaluating a subject's learningstyle and stage of progression towards consolidated understanding of thematerial. This evidence supports hypothesis 3.

Cognitive strategies exhibited by each subject provided the basis forinferences regarding learning styles considered above. The common occur-rence of strategies incorporating inquiry, analogy, episodic memory, ex-trapolation, and evaluation (particularly strategies 8, 9, 11, and 12) exhibitedby Barbara, and the relative paucity of strategies 11 and 12 for the other twosubjects, were particularly noticeable. The extensive supplementary teach-ing required by Cathy could be interpreted as deficiencies in particularcognitive strategies. In fact, most of the teaching required was directassistance with strategies 2, 3, 4, and 5. It also appeared that certain attitudesof this subject (a tendency to be 'put off' by the material, and her overall lackof confidence) were related directly to such deficiencies.

One striking feature related to the Stages of Learning scheme, and shownby all subjects, was the difficulty in moving beyond Stage IIA if this stageinvolved a well-entrenched misconception. Each subject gave evidence ofachieving Stage IIB—>III learning transiently, but then reverted back toapplication of the same misconception. It appears that effective deletion ofprior misconceptions in favour of new knowledge constitutes an importantstrategy for progress in learning (strategy 10).

Retrieval task

Following the identification of the two distinct learning styles, it wasimportant to discover whether they were stable and generalizable.Therefore, a further investigation was carried out with Barbara and Cathythree months after the initial learning. Different requirements were placedon the subjects from those of the initial programme: this time, they had toactively retrieve, organize, and use information already stored in memory.The task was a test of the accessibility and meaningfulness of this storedinformation.

In this task, which has similarities to those used by Champagne,Klopfer, DeSena, and Squires (1981) and by Novak (1980), each subject wasgiven thirteen small cards, on each of which was written a key concept orterm from the original programme. The subject was then required to arrangethe cards on a large sheet of paper in the way she considered the most 'logicalor meaningful', and to connect the cards by arrows or in some other way todemonstrate relations between the terms. The original information state-ments were available to each subject throughout the task. After completion,the subject was required to explain each term and connection as clearly aspossible. Having done this, she was then asked to describe as many externalassociations or meanings that this term had for her (i.e., connections whichare unrelated to the descriptions already given).

Performance of each subject on this task again demonstrated a markedqualitative difference in modes of thinking and learning outcomes. Barbara,who demonstrated the contextual rationalization style of thinking at theinitial task (which we will call here Style I) again employed processes ofextending, interrelating, interpreting, criticizing, and rationalizing. The

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style, which incorporated a preponderance of images, episodes, sensory andillusory links, analogies, and other relations with the real world, continued tobe productive and effective. In Mayer's (1975) terms, she has a memorystructure with a high degree of external connectedness. This memorystructure appears to have been fabricated by long-term use of Style Ithinking. By comparison, Cathy, who demonstrated the content-prescribedanalysis style (called here Style II) at the initial task, exhibited a qualitativelydifferent type of understanding. Her concept connection sequence wassimple, basically serial, not very logically organized, and had remarkably fewinternal connections. Of the connections shown, many were questionable orincorrect. With one exception, she was quite unable to form any externalconnections with any of the concepts. It is tempting to conclude that, for her,the learning sequence was of little or no long-term value in assisting her torationalize and react with knowledge of the world around her. Informationfrom the initial programme appears to be in a form which is essentiallyunavailable for use under conditions where there is no specific, directedquestioning.

Concluding remarks

This study revealed two different learning styles, centred on differentcognitive strategies. Style I, which has similarities to Marton's (1975) deep-level processing and Pask's (1976) comprehension learning, appears toinvolve active processes of relating and rationalizing which are not basicallydictated by task instructions. Style II appears to be more task directed, and ismore limited to responding appropriately to received prompts and stimuliand to obtaining 'correct' answers to questions asked. It is conceivable thatany learner may have both these learning styles available to be used at anytime, but that the learner may routinely apply one style in preference to theother. Each individual's learning style appeared to be reasonably constantover time and task, but this disposition to use one style may be stronglyinfluenced by various attitudes to learning generally, or to this 'school-type'of learning in particular. A similar effect has been reported by Marton andSaljo (1976b), indicating that learning processes and outcomes are a functionof the learner's conception of the task requirements.

There appear to be significant differences in the nature and degree ofunderstanding achieved by application of one or other of these styles.Understanding resulting from Style I may be more accessible and useful tothe subject in everyday situations, whereas the understanding resulting fromStyle II is less related to other knowledge, less accessible, and potentially lessuseful.

It is quite possible that Style I is more difficult to acquire than Style II,and it appears that it is not emphasized normally in schools. Gunstone andWhite (1981) have demonstrated the lack of command of various learnedphysics concepts in a situation where the student was required to apply thematerial to a 'real world' situation.

The theoretical bases of this study appear to be useful for identifyingchanges in cognitive structure of, and strategies employed by, a learner as heor she progresses through an intellectual skill-learning sequence, and for

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formative evaluation of progress and performance for concept and skillacquisition and retention. Particularly, aspects of this study provide aframework for the diagnosis and remediation of missing, inefficient, orinappropriate cognitive learning strategies. If it is agreed that the learningstyle designated as Style I is a desirable one, it may be possible to teachexplicitly the strategies appropriate to this style, and to foster attitudes whichencourage students to adopt these strategies.

References

BOWER, G. H. 1975, Cognitive psychology: an introduction. In Handbook of learning andcognitive processes, Vol. 1, edited by W. K. Estes (Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, NewJersey, USA).

CHAMPAGNE, A. B., KLOPFER, L. E., DESENA, A. T. and SQUIRES, D. A. 1981, Structuralrepresentation of students' knowledge before and after science instruction. Journal ofResearch in Science Teaching, Vol. 18, pp. 97-111.

GAGNÉ, R. M. and WHITE, R. T. 1978, Memory structures and learning outcomes. Review ofEducational Research, Vol. 48, pp. 187-222.

GLASS, A. L., HOLYOAK, K. F. and SANTA, J. L. 1979, Cognition (Addison-Wesley: Reading,Massachusetts, USA).

GUNSTONE, R. F. and WHITE, R. T. 1981, Understanding of gravity. Science Education, Vol.65, pp. 291-299.

MARTON, R. F. 1975, What does it take to learn? In How students learn, edited by N. Entwistleand D. Hounsell (IRDPCE, University of Lancaster, UK).

MARTON, F. and SALJO, R. 1976a, On qualitative differences in learning I—Outcome andprocess. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 46, pp. 4-11.

MARTON, F. and SALJO, R. 1976b, On qualitative differences in learning II—Outcome as afunction of the learner's conception of the task. British Journal of EducationalPsychology, Vol. 46, pp. 115-127.

MAYER, R. E. 1975, Information processing variables in learning to solve problems. Review ofEducational Research, Vol. 45, pp. 525-541.

NOVAK, J. D. 1980, Effective science instruction: the achievement of shared learning. Paperpresented at the Conference of the Australian Science Teachers' Association, Canberra(ASTA: Canberra).

PASK, G. 1976, Styles and strategies of learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology,Vol. 46, pp. 128-148.

WHITE, R. T. 1979, Achievement, mastery, proficiency, competence. Studies in ScienceEducation, Vol. 6, pp. 1-22.

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