Space Chronicle

ISBN 978-0-9567382-2-6

General Issue

Publication Date: 20 February 2015

Vol. 68, Suppl. 1, 2015

A British Interplanetary Society Publication

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2 Operation Backfire: Britain’s V2 Launches Alan Marlow

15 Congreve Rockets in the War of 1812 - Part II Frank H. Winter

33 Welding in Space: A Comparative Evaluation of Candidate Welding Technologies and Lessons Learned from On-Orbit Experiments

Tracie Prater

47 Book Review

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LIST OF CONTENTS

Published By The British Interplanetary Society

Space ChronicleVol. 68, Suppl. 1, 2015

Front Cover: (Top) Observers for the final Operation Backfire launch. (Lower Left) Replica of a Congreve rocket on display at Fort McHenry, Baltimore. (Lower Right) The hard standing created for the Backfire firings.

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A. MarlowSpace Chronicle, Vol. 68, pp.2-14, 2015

Operation Backfire: Britain’s V2 Launches

Background

For the majority of the members of the Allied Forces advancing from the west and the Soviet forces advancing from the east, in the Winter of 1944/45, the main priority was simply reaching Berlin and ending the most destructive war in history. But for some people in the advancing Allied and Russian forces, there was a secondary priority.

During World War 2, Nazi Germany had made extraordinary advances in the field of what is now known as “aerospace technology”. The Allied powers were desperate to acquire German jet and rocket powered aircraft and the unmanned V1 flying bombs along with the scientists and engineers that had created these “wonder weapons”. But at the top of everybody’s list were the long range V2 rocket and its creators.

While countermeasures could be devised for jet and rocket powered aircraft and the V1 flying bombs, once launched, the V2 was totally impervious to any kind of interception until it struck its target five minutes later travelling at almost 3000 mph. That has remained the situation with long range rockets until relatively recently, when the American “Patriot”, and the Israeli “Iron Dome” anti-missile systems became operational.

During World War 2, defence of the skies above Britain was

ALAN MARLOW FBIS

the responsibility of the Allied Air Defence Division, commanded by Major-General Alexander Maurice Cameron of the Royal Engineers. Cameron came from an illustrious military family and had a distinguished career serving in France in World War 1, then India, Iraq and Persia between the wars and in Kenya in the 1950’s.

Essentially the Allied Air Defence Division, had responsibility for ground based searchlights, anti-aircraft gun emplacements and barrage balloons. Under Cameron’s command, coastal anti-aircraft batteries had been largely successful in countering the treat from the V1 flying bombs destroying up to 80% of them as they made their way towards London. The V2, was of course a completely different matter. Understanding the weapons they were attempting to counter was essential to the Allied Air Defence Division and while captured V2’s and German personnel began to reveal the mechanics of the weapon, the procedures for launching and directing the rockets to their targets remained a mystery.

It was actually Cameron’s assistant, Junior Commander Joan Constance Churchill Bernard ATS (Auxiliary Territorial Service), who first raised the suggestion of using captured German

British squaddies pose in front of a Backfire V2.

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Congreve Rockets in the War of 1812 – Part IISpace Chronicle, Vol. 68, pp.15-32, 2015

Congreve Rockets in the War of 1812 – Part II

FRANK H. WINTER

Part I was published in Space Chronicle, 67, pp.38-54, 2014.

(This is the second of a three-part comprehensive series of articles on the operational use of British Congreve rockets in the War of 1812 that has also been called by the British “the American War of 1812” and other terms. This part is somewhat longer than the first and includes coverage on assuredly the most famous application of the British Congreve rockets in this war---at the bombardment of Fort McHenry, Maryland, during September 1814 that saw the appearance of the following line in the poetic song by Francis Scott Key that became the National Anthem of the United States: “...And the rockets’ red glare, the Bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our Flag was still there...” The final part of this series will appear in a later issue of Space Chronicle.)

Indian Point, Maine

Possibly the first time the Congreve rockets were used in Maine, the most northern state of the United States, occurred in a minor action on 20 June 1814. Here, the British frigate Bulwark passed by the southern coastal community and fort of Indian Point, Maine, and were fired on by about a dozen soldiers from the fort. The Bulwark responded, including Congreve rockets and according to the Portland Gazette (Portland, Maine) for 2 July 1814, “A rocket singed the Lieut. Commanding at the fort, on the cheek and side of the head, but not badly. No attack was made on the fort, nor any shot thrown at it.” There was at least a couple of other employments of the rockets in this region of the country during the war [30].

Fort Sullivan, Maine

On 11 July, a British fleet under Commodore Sir Thomas Hardy, aboard the flagship HMS Ramillies, attacked and captured the very important installation of Fort Sullivan, at Eastport, off the northern coast of Maine, opposite New Brunswick, Canada; the fort had served as a strategic coastal defense for the easternmost United States. “The British,” reported the Portland Gazette (Portland, Maine) for 1 August, “have landed about 1,500 troops, 60 pieces of cannon, rockets and military stores, and are erecting strong fortifications.” But it is unknown if the rockets came into action here [31].

Lundy’s Lane, Canada

During the 24-25 July 1814 at Lundy’s Lane, Canada, just west

of Niagara Falls, there took place one of the bloodiest battles of the war ever fought on Canadian soil, that also included Congreve rockets.

But even before the main battle, Congreve rockets had been deployed in preliminary engagements in the area, such as against American forces under Major General Jacob J. Brown at Fort George at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, on 20 July, but with little effect, according to Barbuto.

In the battle of Lundy’s Lane itself, also known as the Battle of Bridgewater, or the Battle of Niagara Falls, there were two Congreve rocket launchers in the column under Lieutenant General Sir Gordon Drummond.

Marine Artillery Sergeant Austin and his crew of marine gunners managed 12-pound (5.4 kg) rockets fired from apparently recently issued tripod launchers that offered clear advantages over the usual cumbersome early Congreve ladder-like “frame” launchers.” This caliber of rockets could also be fit with solid shot, shell, or shrapnel warheads although one of the historians of this battle, Graves, does not specify which were deployed in this action. (Franklin, incidentally, beautifully depicts a “Land-service `light trough’ launcher...used in the field particularly during the U.S. War of 1812.”)

In any case, as pointed out by one of the British troops on this occasion, there still remained problems with the rockets themselves. One of these difficulties arose “...after the [typical] rocket was ignited when the ‘fidgety missile begins to sputter out sparks and wriggle its tail for a second or so...then darts forth.” But says Graves, “If the marines did not get clear of the after-blast, they `exhibited a strange appearance’ as the practice of discharging the Rocket...proved a great injury to the men, burning their hands and faces. Some had no hair on their heads and shoulder severely scorched.”

“Firing rockets was dangerous enough”, Graves continues, “but their accuracy was entirely another matter – a witness who watched a rocket troop in action noted that although the gunners `kept shooting off rockets, none...ever followed the [anticipated] course of the first; most of them, on arriving in the middle of the ascent, took a vertical direction.’ The fiery contrails shooting through the dark sky were long remembered by many of those who fought at Lundy’s Lane, but there is little evidence that these dramatic projectiles caused much damage.”

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Welding in Space: A Comparative Evaluation of Candidate Welding Technologies...Space Chronicle, Vol. 68, pp.33-46, 2015

Welding in Space: A Comparative Evaluation of Candidate Welding Technologies and Lessons Learned from

On-Orbit Experiments

TRACIE PRATERNASA Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, USA.Adjoint Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.Email: Tracie.j.prater@nasa.gov

An in-space welding capability is an essential supporting technology for the success of the long-duration, deep space missions being considered by government space agencies and commercial ventures. Currently, structures in space are assembled using mechanical fasteners or adhesives. Welding offers several advantages over these techniques: weight reduction, improved mechanical properties, reduced stress concentrations, and enhanced rigidity. Additionally, a welding capability will be needed to maintain and maximize the life of space structures. It is not difficult to imagine a scenario where a quick repair to structural damage (incurred from a collision or abrasion by debris/regolith) is critical. The replacement of mechanical connectors or adhesives with welded joints significantly enhances the survivability of a structure in these events.

This paper identifies current technologies used for aerospace welding and evaluates their suitability for in-space applications. The candidate welding processes considered are Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Plasma Arc Welding (PAW), Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), Electron Beam Welding (EBW), Laser Beam Welding (LBW), Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) and Friction Stir Welding (FSW). Each process is assessed based on the following criteria: safety (specifically dangers posed by operational voltages, radiation, and Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI)), compatibility of the process with common materials used in space structures, adaptability of the process to specific joint designs (such as those found at truss intersections or on fuel lines), joint and surface preparation requirements, weight and portability of equipment needed to perform a weld, the degree to which certain environments (microgravity, vacuum, large thermal variations) can compromise the process’s functionality, ability to reliably produce a hermetic seal (essential for fuel tanks and habitable structures), and operational modes (because of concerns about astronaut safety and spacesuit dexterity, some welding techniques may need to be teleoperated).

Historically the Russians have the most experience with in-space welding, having demonstrated teleoperated EBW on-orbit as early as 1969. A manual electron beam tool, developed by the Paton Welding Institute (PWI) of the Ukraine, was tested on Salyut 7 in 1984. From 1985-1990, an EBW unit on MIR was used for a variety of experiments, including assembly of a truss structure for solar cells. US research into on-orbit welding is less broad, consisting of experiments on metal melting, brazing, and sphere forming using EBW conducted on SkyLab in the 1970s. NASA and PWI developed the In Space Welding Experiment (ISWE), an EBW experiment to be conducted in the space shuttle’s cargo bay, but this experiment was never flown as a result of a payload re-prioritization in the late 1990s. Several additional experiments on in-space welding have been performed using ground-based vacuum chambers or in microgravity onboard the KC-135. This paper will examine lessons learned from previous experiments spanning the course of four decades and, in conjunction with the aforementioned comparative evaluation of candidate processes, propose a strategic path forward for in-space welding research. Since work in the area of space welding tapered in the 1990s, a new welding technology (friction stir welding) has emerged. FSW has proven to be highly compatible with aerospace alloys and is comparatively insensitive to the surrounding environment (i.e. FSW is not dependent on gravity and does not require shielding gas). While FSW is currently used in many aerospace applications, the high forces and large equipment requires may render it unsuitable for in-space applications. This paper includes a discussion of general concepts/requirements for a mobile friction stir welding unit for in-space structural repair/refurbishment.

Keywords: Welding, in-space manufacturing, friction stir welding, microgravity materials science

1. INTRODUCTION

In its 2012 report entitled “The Roadmap to Space Settlement”, the National Space Society identified 20 major milestones on the path to making humanity a space-faring species [1]. Chief among the developments detailed in the report are technologies required for adequate self sufficiency, which the NSS defines as the “tools needed to settle, survive, and prosper without constant resupply from earth.” This milestone encompasses closed-loop

environmental control and life support systems (ECLSS) for air and water revitalization, in situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies which make direct use of or creatively process locally available resources (soil, atmosphere, or ice) to produce power, food, air, or even structures, and technologies which will enable the establishment of an in-space manufacturing base. Recently additive manufacturing techniques have generated

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Book ReviewSpace Chronicle, Vol. 68, pp.47-48, 2015

Book Review

BRITAIN’S FIRST SPACE ROCKETTHE STORY OF THE SKYLARK

by Robin BrandThis is a BIG book both in size, it runs to nearly 700 pages, and in scope. It tells the reader everything you would ever need to know about Britain’s high altitude sounding rocket – the Skylark – and about much else as well. This may sound very daunting but it is not. The book is written in a very understandable style and the technical aspects of the story are leavened by the inclusion of numerous anecdotes which makes the book a relatively easy read. But I would still suggest you don’t try and read it all at once in case of mental indigestion. It is also copiously illustrated with many pictures that I have not seen before. It is really encyclopaedic and will, I am sure, become an indispensable reference source for all those interested in space and its history. The amount of research that went into producing this book must have been immense and Robin Brand, who by his own admission spent 6 years in preparing it, must be congratulated his perseverance and for the end product that will no doubt find its way into reference libraries all over the world as well as onto the shelf of space enthusiasts.

The story of Skylark started really as a gleam in the eye of the Royal Society’s Gassiot Committee during the Second World War when they were asked by the Meteorological Office to look at ways of investigating the upper atmosphere above about 30 kms, the heights that could be easily reached by balloons at the time. This does, in retrospect seem an odd time to be looking at this subject. The answer was a rocket and in 1944 serious consideration was given to mounting a radiosonde on the wartime solid fuel rockets of the time. But there the story wallowed until in August 1953 a conference was held at Oxford University on “Rocket Exploration of the Upper Atmosphere”. Just before that the Ministry of Supply [MoS], who had been invited to the Conference, asked the Royal Society in the form of Harrie Massey of University College London if they would be interested in using rocket motors developed by MoS establishments to fly scientific experiments into the atmosphere. The MoS were also at the time considering the development of a high altitude rocket [CTV5 series 5] for military research. So the seed had been sown. A short solid fuel motor, called Smoky Joe, originally developed as a boost for the British Thunderbird guided missile, evolved into the Raven motor for Skylark by the simple expedient of welding 3 of them together. This produced the most successful sounding rocket Britain, and some would say, the world has ever built.

Skylark first flew during the IGY in 1957 from Woomera in Australia and in all 441 Skylarks, in various configurations, were launched between 1957 and 2005. Skylark grew from a single stage rocket using the Raven 1 motor capable of reaching a

height of 150 kilometres with a payload of some 50 kg in 1957 to a three stage Skylark 12 capable of carrying 200kg to 575km. At the end of its life consideration was seriously given to using advanced Skylarks with a stonechat booster as a small satellite launcher. Throughout its 45 year history Skylark’s performance was steadily improved by the use of higher energy propellants and the addition of booster stages. Other improvements included three axis stabilised rounds so that the payload could point at a specific target in space or on the earth. Each flight and its payload are described in detail in this volume together with the results of the experimental payloads. To begin with, as well as a few military rounds, Skylark was mainly used to carry experiments from UK universities and research establishments, but soon it began to be used by outside agencies and universities. In 1964 the European Space Research Organisation began a campaign of Skylark firings and over 80 were launched in this programme from Sardinia and later Kiruna in Sweden and Woomera. This stopped in 1972 but the impetus was taken up by launches for the UK and Germany mainly from Andoya in Norway and from late 1980’s Kiruna.

The story of the development and use of Skylark and the various organisations involved, from RPD Westcott and RAE

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what’s on

LecturesVenue: Lectures will be held at BIS HQ, 27/29 South Lambeth Road, London, SW8 1SZ, unless otherwise stated.Members can attend free of charge. Places must be booked in advance, online or by post. Each member may also obtain a free ticket for one guest subject to availability of space. Non-Members are able to attend the Society’s lectures for a fee. You can order a ticket online or by post (please make cheques payable to the British Interplanetary Society). If oversubscribed Society Members will be given priority.If applying by post please send an sae. If applying via our website the confirmation receipt is your entry ticket.If, for reasons outside its control, the Society is required to change the date or topic of a meeting, every effort will be made to avoid inconvenience to attendees either by notice of change in Spaceflight/JBIS, on our website or by special advice to each participant.

Stepping Out – Celebrating 50 Years of EVA18 March 2015, 7 - 8.30 pm

Speaker: Dave Shayler

On 18 March 1965, just four years after Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space Alexei Leonov left the Voskhod 2 spacecraft and became the first person to walk in space. In the fifty years that have passed since that date spacewalking, or Extra Vehicular Activity to give its correct title, has become a regular feature of most missions. In this presentation Dave Shayler explains the developments and techniques that have been devised to accomplish the various activities in EVA operations both in Earth orbit and on the Moon. The story of EVA also involves the development of EVA tools and training devices which have allowed astronauts and cosmonauts to conduct extensive EVAs from space stations, repair and maintain satellites and begin to develop the skills necessary to explore new goals deeper in space. Celebrating fifty years of EVA the presentation also looks forward to the next steps in what is one of the most eagerly sought activities in a space explorer’s career.

Space Day 201521 March 2015, 9.30 am - 4.30 pm

Venue: Droitwich Library, Victoria Square, Droitwich Spa, WR9 8DQ

Following on from the success of last year’s event, BIS West Midlands will hold their next Space Day on Saturday 21st March 2015. This event, held at the Droitwich Library is shaping up to be even better than last year’s and includes many of the Space and Rocket related organisations in the West Midlands or indeed further afield. The event will include talks by well-known Space Buffs and many exhibits and stands showing items of local, national and international interest. It is also an opportunity to come along and meet both retired and working people involved in space related business.

Bring the family along as well as there are also some fun activities planned for younger people and a model spaceship competition open to all. Come and meet fellow BIS members too. See you there!

For a full programme please visit www.bis-space.com.

Terraforming of Mars21 April 2015, 7 - 8.30 pm

Speaker: Anthony Fucilla

In my talk I will be looking at the proposed methods and strategies that could be used to terraform the Martian Planet. Terraforming Mars entails three major changes: building up the atmosphere, keeping the planet warm, and keeping the atmosphere from being lost to outer space. In the talk I will speak about the use of orbital mirrors, Albedo reduction, Asteroid impact, Importing hydrogen, Carbon dioxide sublimation, Importing ammonia, Importing hydrocarbons, Importing hydrogen, use of fluorine compounds.

Extraterrestrial Liberty III – Dissent, Revolution and Security in Space11 & 12 June 2015

Following on from successful symposia at BIS in 2013 and 2014, which explored the two challenges, ‘What is Freedom Beyond the Earth?’ and ‘Human Governance Beyond the Earth’, respectively, Extraterrestrial Liberty III, the third of five conferences, looks at how political dissent will emerge in space, the implications of revolution and how systems of security in the extraterrestrial environment are to be balanced with maximising liberty.

Questions to be addressed include: How do you prevent the extreme

Readers are reminded that these Notices contain only a reduced description of the event. Full details can be found online:

www.bis-space.com/whats-on

BIS Lectures and Meetings

UK Space Conference 201514 & 15 July 2015

Venue: Arena & Convention Centre, Liverpool

Held every two years, the UK Space Conference brings together the space community to focus on positioning the UK as a global leader in this fast growing sector.

For more information visit www.ukspace2015.co.uk.

Non-BIS Events

extraterrestrial environment promoting the emergence of a coercive security apparatus? How do the confines of outer space encourage a surveillance culture? How is criminality to be managed in extreme conditions? Is revolution justified or even safe in space? How can political dissent be encouraged without threatening the safety of everyone?

The two days will involve talks and discussion. Topics to be addressed in the talks could include: police and security in the extraterrestrial environment, forms of punishment and prisons in space, general systems of security in space, balancing security with freedom, managing political dissent in space.

The workshop is open to scientists, political philosophers, policy makers and others. We welcome suggestions for talks. Please contact c.s.cockell@ed.ac.uk with a title and one paragraph abstract to propose a talk.

2015 Soviet/Chinese Technical Forum – 35th Anniversary Programme19-21 June 2015

On 4 January 1980 the first Technical Forum was held at the Society’s new headquarters building. The topic was the Soviet Space Programme with an agenda of five speakers. Since that date the BIS Chinese/Soviet Technical Forum has featured a wide range of speakers, papers, films and guests becoming one of the most popular and long running events in the Societies calendar.

To celebrate the 35th anniversary of this event this year’s Soviet/Chinese Technical Forum will be spread over the weekend of 19-21 June, with a varied and exciting programme beginning with an evening event on 19th June, the traditional full day programme on the 20th June and a selection of presentations, films and discussions on the 21st June .

The Society is accepting papers for the event and welcomes new and regular presenters to participate and support this historic date in the Society’s programme for this year. Once again this year’s event will feature new presentations on various aspects of Soviet/Russian and Chinese space exploration.

Please email the Society – info@bis-space.com – as soon as possible should you wish to present a paper. Further details will be published in future issues and on the website.

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Published by The British Interplanetary Society

Space ChronicleVol. 68, Suppl. 1, 2015

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