A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators –Production and Distribution

H.R.McK. Hyder1 and R. Hellborg2

1 Department of Physics, Oxford University, Denys Wilkinson Building, KebleRoad, Oxford OX1 3RH, Englandr.hyder1@physics.ox.ac.uk

2 Department of Physics, Lund University, Solvegatan 14, 223 62 Lund, Swedenragnar.hellborg@nuclear.lu.se

A.1 Invention and Early Development

Van de Graaff’s demonstration of a reliable electrostatic generator, capableof 1 MV and with the necessary stability and charging current to act as a par-ticle accelerator, occurred as the need for such a tool was being recognizedin nuclear-physics laboratories world wide. The first accelerator-based exper-iments were, of course, carried out by Cockcroft and Walton using a high-voltage cascade generator, but the prospect of voltages in excess of 1 MV fromVan de Graaff’s belt generator encouraged him and others to build improvedmachines in university laboratories and in national and industrial researchinstitutions. A record of these early developments can be found in Bromley’s1974 review. From 1932 until 1946, if you wanted an electrostatic generatoryou built it yourself. More projects were started than came to fruition; evensuccessful projects were not always recorded in accessible publications, andany list of these endeavors must inevitably be incomplete and inaccurate.Details of some of the more important of these early accelerators are givenin Table A.1.

A.2 The War Years: 1939–1945

With a few exceptions, the outbreak of war in 1939 brought accelerator de-velopment to a halt. Military research claimed the attention of many whohad been developing accelerators before 1940. Herb, Cockcroft and Trumpwere among those drafted to work on radar. While Herb worked on radar,his accelerators were taken to Los Alamos to provide cross section data. AtMIT, small Van de Graaffs were developed to generate high-energy X-rays forexamining armor plate and torpedoes. In other laboratories, existing accel-erators were pressed into use to provide cross section data, but few resourceswere available for development and construction of new machines.

596 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg

Table

A.1

.E

arl

yel

ectr

ost

ati

cacc

eler

ato

rs

Inst

ituti

on

Loca

tion

Des

igner

Yea

rV

olt

age

(MV

)In

sula

tion

Bea

mLay

out

Note

s

Pri

nce

ton

Univ

ersi

tyP

rince

ton,N

JV

an

de

Gra

aff

1931

1.5

Air

None

Ver

tica

lPosi

tive

and

neg

ati

ve

term

inals

,no

tube

DT

MW

ash

ingto

n,D

CTuve

etal.

1932

1.2

Air

alfr

esco

None

Ver

tica

lB

reit

tube,

no

ion

sourc

eD

TM

Wash

ingto

n,D

CTuve

etal.

1933

0.6

Air

p,d

Ver

tica

lFir

stex

per

imen

tal

use

MIT

Round

Hill,

MA

Van

de

Gra

aff

1935

+2.4

Air

pV

erti

cal

Hori

zonta

ltu

be

bet

wee

nte

rmin

als

and−2

.7U

niv

ersi

tyof

Wis

consi

nM

adis

on,W

IH

erb

1934

0.4

Air

,0.4

MPa

pH

ori

zonta

lFir

stpre

ssuri

zed

mach

ine

Univ

ersi

tyof

Wis

consi

nM

adis

on,W

IH

erb

1936

2.4

Air

,C

Cl 4

,p

Hori

zonta

lH

oops

round

colu

mn

0.6

MPa

Univ

ersi

tyof

Wis

consi

nM

adis

on,W

IH

erb,

1940

4.5

N2,C

Cl 4

p,d

Hori

zonta

l2

inte

rshie

lds

McK

ibben

DT

M,D

epart

men

tofTer

rest

ialM

agnet

ism

;M

IT,M

ass

ach

use

tts

Inst

itute

ofTec

hnolo

gy.

Van

de

Gra

aff’s

firs

tm

ach

ine

was

mov

edto

the

DT

Mand

equip

ped

wit

ha

Bre

it-t

ype

acc

eler

ato

rtu

be

bet

wee

ntw

ote

rmin

als

.T

he

Round

Hillm

ach

ine

was

even

tually

mov

edto

MIT

and

reass

emble

dw

ith

asi

ngle

colu

mn

and

aver

tica

lacc

eler

ato

rtu

be.

The

Wis

consi

n4.5

MV

mach

ine

(“Long

Tank”)

was

mov

edto

Los

Ala

mos

and

hel

dth

evolt

age

reco

rdfo

rte

nyea

rs.

A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 597

A.3 Commercial Production After 1945

Commercial production of DC accelerators started in the late 1930s withthe series of Cockcroft–Walton machines built by Philips in Eindhoven. Pro-duction of these machines continued for some years after 1945. During theoccupation of France in World War II, Felici in Toulouse developed cylin-drical high-voltage generators operating in compressed hydrogen. After thewar, machines of this type, manufactured by SAMES and capable of sup-plying currents of 100 µA or more at voltages up to 1 MV, were widely useduntil overtaken by improvements in solid-state power supplies and by stricterregulations about the use of compressed hydrogen.

In Switzerland, Hafely developed cascade voltage generators, both air-insulated and pressurized, for industrial use and for such scientific applica-tions as electron microscopes and synchrotron injectors. After the end of thewar, an increasing demand for industrial and medical X-ray generators andfor neutron sources led Van de Graaff and his colleagues to set up the HighVoltage Engineering Corporation in 1946. Electron and ion accelerators withenergies ranging from 0.4 to 5.5 MeV went into production and demand wassuch that in 1958 a European subsidiary, High Voltage Engineering Europa,began operation in the Netherlands. True to their origins, HVEC and itsassociated companies offered belt-charged electrostatic accelerators for mostapplications, supplemented by insulated-core transformer power supplies forlow-voltage electron beams. Production of tandem accelerators began in 1958and the first 6 MV EN was delivered to Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories in1959. Over the next 30 years more than 60 belt-charged tandems were made,with terminal voltages ranging from 1 to 22 MV.

In the USSR, production of a range of belt-charged accelerators, bothsingle-ended and tandem, began in 1955 at the Efremov Electrophysical Re-search Institute in Leningrad. Single-ended machines with voltages up to5 MV and a vertical tandem rated at 5–6 MV were designed and suppliedwithin the USSR and exported to Finland and China, and elsewhere.

In 1958 Radiation Dynamics Incorporated began to manufacture high-current accelerators, using the parallel-fed cascade generator developed byCleland. Initially they made both electron and ion accelerators, mainly foruniversities and government laboratories, including one 5 MV horizontal tan-dem. Since the 1970s, they have delivered 250 electron machines for industrialapplications.

During this period, Herb at Wisconsin was pursuing a different strategy.He developed the Pelletron chain charging system as an alternative to theinsulating belt and emphasized the importance of ultrahigh vacuum in theaccelerator tube. In 1964, he founded the National Electrostatics Corpora-tion and began construction of a vertical 8 MV tandem for the University ofSao Paulo. Subsequently NEC has developed a range of small vertical andhorizontal accelerators for analytical and research use and has constructeda small number of very high-voltage vertical tandems for nuclear physics,

598 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg

including the 25 MV machine at Oak Ridge, which holds the world record foroperating voltage.

In 1978 Purser, at General Ionex Corporation in Massachusetts, began tomake small horizontal tandems for research and analysis, using the parallel-fed cascade generator invented by Cleland. Under the trade names Tandetronand Singletron, machines based on these solid-state voltage generators arenow made by High Voltage Engineering Europa with voltages ranging from1 to 5 MV.

In 1984 Letournel in Strasbourg set up VIVIRAD to manufacture high-current electron accelerators for industrial use. The lower-voltage models useinsulating-core transformer power supplies; belt charging has been retainedfor voltages above 1 MV.

Records kept by some of these companies enable the numbers, voltagesand locations of their products to be compiled with reasonable confidence.However, lack of information about subsequent shutdowns and transfers, andreasons of security and commercial considerations (which exclude some ma-chines from published lists) mean that the tables are inevitably incomplete.Subject to these reservations, lists of research-oriented electrostatic acceler-ators, grouped by country, age and voltage, are given in Tables A.2, A.3 andA.4. These lists include a selection of home-made accelerators. In some in-stances the destination country or the voltage is not known. Consequently,the total numbers vary from table to table.

A.4 Noncommercial Developments After 1940

Construction of electrostatic accelerators by noncommercial bodies, mainlyuniversities and government agencies, did not cease in 1946. In many cases,foreign exchange difficulties or shortage of American dollars prompted insti-tutions in Europe and elsewhere to build accelerators similar in design andspecification to machines available, at a price, from the American suppliers.In other cases, the desire to develop indigenous accelerator technology led tothe formation of design and production teams that might lack experience,but were not under the same constraints of time and expense as the commer-cial companies. Finally, innovative ideas were not confined to the industrialdesign teams, and some users wanted machines that went beyond what wasspecified in the catalogues.

Many small Van de Graaff accelerators of conventional design, some pres-surized, some air-insulated, were built in university laboratories in the 1950sand 1960s in support of local research and to provide experience in nucleartechniques for students. Records of these machines are sparse, often confinedto internal reports, and most are no longer operating. No attempt has beenmade to compile a list of them. Some examples of larger projects are listedbelow. These include machines whose specifications equaled or exceeded what

A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 599

Table A.2. Distribution of electrostatic accelerators by country

Continent Number Continent Number Continent Number

Africa Europe Middle EastAlgeria 2 Austria 6 Iran 1Egypt 2 Belarus 2 Israel 4Mozambique 1 Belgium 10 Lebanon 1South Africa 4 Croatia 1 Saudi Arabia 1TOTAL 9 Czech Republic 1 Turkey 1

Denmark 8 TOTAL 8Asia Finland 2Bangladesh 1 France 48 North AmericaChina 18 Germany 80 Canada 23India 10 Greece 3 Mexico 4Japan 59 Hungary 2 USA 405Korea 4 Italy 24 TOTAL 432Siberia 4 Netherlands 17Singapore 1 Norway 3 South AmericaTaiwan 4 Poland 4 Argentina 2TOTAL 101 Portugal 1 Brazil 5

Romania 1 TOTAL 7Australasia Russia 25Australia 12 Slovenia 1New Zealand 2 Spain 3TOTAL 14 Sweden 13

Switzerland 5Ukraine 2UK 61TOTAL 323

was commercially available at the time, as well as those with innovative de-signs. The technical reports published by the builders of these machines,especially those from Debrecen, Daresbury and Kyushu, are important con-tributions to electrostatic-accelerator technology, much of which would stilllurk behind the veils of commercial security in their absence. The choice ofprojects in the list below is arbitrary. Low-voltage accelerators, cascade gen-erators, disk generators and dust generators have generally been excluded.No technical judgment is to be inferred from absence from this list.

A.4.1 Selected Noncommercial Accelerator Projects

Canada

(i) AECL, Chalk River: “Cambridge” design 4 MV vertical Van de Graaff

600 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg

Table A.3. Distribution by year of manufacture

Period Number

Pre-1935 61936–1940 71941–1945 31946–1950 221951–1955 611956–1960 1671961–1965 2031966–1970 1301971–1975 361976–1980 121981–1985 211986–1990 421991–1995 441996–2000 402001–2004 (part) 27

Total 821

Table A.4. Distribution by voltage and manufacturer

Voltage (MV) HVEC HVEE NEC Other Total

0.11–0.50 79 0 6 3 880.51–1.00 72 23 22 10 1271.01–2.00 151 41 55 19 2662.01–3.00 59 25 32 17 1333.01–4.00 24 0 6 18 484.01–5.00 1 1 7 15 245.01–7.50 69 3 1 9 827.51–10.00 2 0 3 5 1010.01–15.00 13 0 5 0 1815.01–20.00 0 0 2 1 3>20.00 1 0 1 1 3

Total 471 93 140 98 802

China

(i) Lanzhou: folded tandem(ii) Academia Sinica, Shanghai: 6 MV vertical Laddertron Tandem (Lai)

A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 601

France

(i) CEA, Saclay: 5 MV vertical Van de Graaff with liner stabilization (Win-ter)

(ii) CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette: 2 MV horizontal tandem “Aramis” (Chaumont)(iii) IReS, Strasbourg: 20 MV horizontal Van de Graaff tandem with multiple

intershields and radial insulator posts (Letournel)

Germany

(i) MPI, Mainz: 6 MV vertical Van de Graaff(ii) ZfK, Rossendorf: 5 MV EGP-10 vertical Van de Graaff tandem(iii) Siemens, Erlangen: 2.5 MV electron accelerator

Hungary

(i) KFKI, Budapest: 5 MV vertical Van de Graaff with magnetic tube sup-pression (Kostka)

(ii) ATOMKI, Debrecen: 5 MV vertical Van de Graaff with innovative elec-trostatic design and electrostatic tube suppression (Koltay)

India

(i) Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay: 7 MV folded tandem (Singh)

Italy

(i) CISE, Milan: 3.5 MV vertical Van de Graaff (Iori)(ii) CISE, Milan: 4 MV vertical tandem Van de Graaff (Caruso)

Japan

(i) Kyushu University, Fukuoka: 7 MV vertical pellet-chain accelerator(Isoya)

(ii) Kyushu University, Fukuoka: 10 MV horizontal pellet-chain accelerator(Isoya)

(iii) Kyushu University, Fukuoka: 1 MV disk generator for ion implantation(Isoya)

Netherlands

(i) Groningen University: 5 MV vertical Van de Graaff (Boerma)

602 H.R.McK. Hyder and R. Hellborg

United Kingdom

(i) AERE Harwell: “Cambridge” design 4 MV Van de Graaff (W.D. Allen)(ii) AEI Research Laboratory, Aldermaston: “Cambridge” design 4 MV

Van de Graaff, incorporating microwave terminal control (Chick)(iii) Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge: “Cambridge (Mass.)” design 4 MV

Van de Graaff (Shire)(iv) AERE Harwell: 7 MV vertical tandem Van de Graaff (W.D. Allen and

K.W. Allen)(v) AWRE Aldermaston: 7 MV vertical tandem Van de Graaff, identical to

(iv)(vi) Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Oxford: 10 MV vertical bipolar Van de

Graaff, coupled to HVEC EN tandem (W.D. Allen)(vii) Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Oxford: conversion of (vi) to 10 MV folded

tandem (K.W. Allen, Hyder)(viii) Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Daresbury: 20–30 MV vertical Laddertron

tandem with single intershield (Voss, Aitken)

USA

(i) MIT: 4 MV vertical “Cambridge” Van de Graaff with intershields (Trumpand Van de Graaff)

(ii) Los Alamos National Laboratory: 10 MV vertical Van de Graaff “P-9”with multiple intershields and separation column (McKibben)

(iii) MIT: 8–10 MV vertical “MIT-ONR” Van de Graaff with one intershield(Trump and Van de Graaff)

USSR

(i) KphTi, Kharkhov: ESU-2 2 MV horizontal Van de Graaff(ii) Kurchatov Institute, Moscow: 3.5 MV vertical tandem(iii) IPPE, Obninsk: EGP-15 7.5 MV vertical tandem(iv) INR, Kiev, Ukraine: 7 MV vertical tandem (Vishnevsky)

Acknowledgments

The authors of this appendix acknowledge with gratitude the help of thefollowing in compiling the tables: P. Dubbelman, J. Groot and R. Koudijs(HVEE); G.A. Norton (NEC); R. Repnow (MPI, Heidelberg); V.A. Romanov(IPPE, Obninsk); and F.F. Komarov (Minsk).

A Appendix: Electrostatic Accelerators – Production and Distribution 603

Literature

T.W. Aitken: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 328, 10 (1993)K.W. Allen: Nature 184, 303 (1959)W.D. Allen: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 55, 61 (1967)G.A. Behman: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 3, 181 (1958) and 5, 129 (1959)D.O. Boerma: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 86, 221 (1970)D.A. Bromley: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 122, 1 (1974)E. Caruso: Report, Centro Informazioni Studi Esperienze (Segrate, Milano), Milan,

CISE-N-176 (1975)J. Chaumont: Nucl. Instr. Meth. B 62, 416 (1992)D.R. Chick: Proc. IEEE 103b, 132 and 152 (1955)H.R.McK. Hyder: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 184, 9 (1981)I. Iori: Energia Nucleare 8, 770 (1961)A. Isoya: Proc. First Int. Conf. Electrostatic Accelerator Technology, Daresbury,

DNPL/NSF/R5, p. 89 (1973)E. Koltay: Proc. First Int. Conf. Electrostatic Accelerator Technology, Daresbury,

DNPL/NSF/R5, p. 200 (1973)P. Kostka: IEEE Trans NS-18, 82 (1971)W.Q. Lai: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 382, 89 (1996)M. Letournel: IEEE Trans. NS-30, 2713 (1983)J.L. McKibben: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 122, 81 (1974)H. Naylor: Nucl. Instr. Meth. 63, 61 (1968)V.A. Romanov: Proc. European Particle Accelerator Conference Location –

Stockholm 1998, 696U. Schmidt-Rohr: Die Deutschen Teilchenbeschleuniger, Max-Planck-Institut fur

Kernphysik, Heidelberg (2001)E.S. Shire: Br. J. Appl. Phys. Suppl. 2, S56 (1953)P. Singh: Ind. J. Pure Appl. Phys. 35, 172 (1997)J.G. Trump: Elec. Eng., September 1951, p. 1R.J. Van de Graaff: Rev. Sci. Instr. 12, 534 (1941)I.N. Vishnevsky: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 328, 39 (1993)R.G.P. Voss: Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 184, 1 (1981)S.D. Winter: Onde Elec. 35, 995 (1955)M.H. Ye, J.P. Chen: Electrostatic Accelerators (in Chinese), probably State Science

Publisher, Beijing (1965)

B Appendix: SI Units and Other Units

R. Hellborg

Department of Physics, Lund University, Solvegatan 14, 223 62 Lund, Swedenragnar.hellborg@nuclear.lu.se

Throughout this book, the International system of Units (SI system) is used.This system was adopted in 1960 by the Conference Generale des Poids etMesures (CGPM), which can be roughly translated as “General Conferenceon Weights and Measures”.

In many accelerator laboratories, a broad variety of equipment, metersetc., produced in different countries and with different ages, are in use. Thisresults in a variegated set of units – SI units and non-SI units, some ofthem very old – being in use. Also, a great deal of the existing literature inphysics and technology has been expressed in terms of older systems. It isthus necessary to understand the relationships between SI and these systemsif the literature is to be fully utilized. The presentation in this Appendix isof course not intended to be a complete review of these systems, its onlypurpose is to provide a basis for their translation into SI.

The SI system is a coherent system based on seven basic units, listed inTable B.1. In a coherent system, the derived units are expressed in terms ofthe base units by relations with numerical factors equal to unity. The presentdefinitions of the various basic units are available in the literature from theInternational Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP).

Table B.1. SI base units

Base Quantity SI Restricted Name SI Symbol

Length meter mMass kilogram kgTime second sElectric current ampere AThermodynamic temperature kelvin KAmount of substance mole molLuminous intensity candela cd

From these seven basic units, several coherent, derived SI units have beenobtained. Specific names and symbols have been given to several of these;some of them are listed in Table B.2. SI units related to ionizing radiationare not included, as they are discussed in detail and defined in Chap. 17.

B Appendix: SI Units and Other Units 605

Table B.2. Derived SI units with special names

Quantity SI Name SI Symbol Expression in Expression inTerms of Base Terms of OtherUnits SI Units

Plane angle radian rad mm−1

Solid angle steradian sr m2 m−2

Frequency hertz Hz s−1

Force newton N mkg s−2 J m−1

Pressure pascal Pa m−1 kg s−2 N m−2, J m−3

Energy, work, quantity joule J m2 kg s−2 N mof heat

Power, radiant flux watt W m2 kg s−3 J s−1

Electric charge coulomb C A sElectric potential volt V m2 kg s−3 A−1 W A−1, J C−1

differenceCapacitance farad F m−2 kg−1 s4 A2 CV−1

Electric resistance ohm Ω m2 kg s−3 A−2 V A−1

Conductance siemens S m−2 kg−1 s3 A2 A V−1, Ω−1

Magnetic flux weber Wb m2 kg s−2 A−1 V sMagnetic flux density tesla T kg s−2 A−1 Wb m−2

Inductance henry H m2 kg s−2 A−2 Wb A−1

The CGPM has recognized certain units that are important and widelyused, but which do not properly fall within the SI. The special names andsymbols of those units that have been accepted for continuing use and thecorresponding units of the SI are listed in Table B.3. Although the use ofthese units is acceptable, their combination with SI units to form incoherentcompound units should be authorized only in limited cases.

The CGPM has also accepted a few units that must be obtained by exper-iment. The energy unit electronvolt is such a unit. The symbol is eV, and itis defined as 1 eV = (e C−1) J. The atomic mass unit is another. The symbol

Table B.3. Commonly used non-SI units

Quantity Name Symbol Definition

Plane angle degree 1 = π (180)−1 radminute ′ 1′ = 1 (60)−1

second ′′ 1′′ = 1′ (60)−1

Time minute min 1 min = 60 shour h 1 h = 60 min = 3600 sday d 1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s

Volume liter l, L 1 l = 1 dm3 = 10−3 m3

Mass tonne t 1 t = 1000 kg

606 R. Hellborg

Table B.4. Conversion factors between the SI system and other systems

Given Multiply by To obtain Given Multiply by To obtain

Lengthin (US) 25.4 mm ft 304.8 mmyd 914 mm

Areacmil 0.0005067 mm2 in2 645.2 mm2

ft2 0.09290 m2

Volumefl oz 29.57 cm3 gal (US) 3.785 dm3

in3 16.39 cm3 ft3 0.02832 m3

Speedft per min 5.080 mms−1

Massoz 28.35 g lb 0.4536 kgshort ton 0.9072 metric ton

Densitylb ft−3 16.02 kg m−3

Pressure

lb in−2a

6.895 kPa mb 100.0 PammHg 133.322 Pa Torr 133.322 Paµ 0.133322 Pa atm 1.013 × 105 Pa

Powerhp 745.7 W erg s−1 10−7 Wft lb s−1 1.356 W

EnergyeV 1.60219 × 10−19 J erg 10−7 Jcal 4.1868 J ft lb 1.356 W

Forcedyn 10−5 N lb 4.448 N

Magnetic fluxV s 1 Wb Mx 10−8 Wb

Magnetic flux densityWb m−2 1 T G 10−4 Ta lb in−2 is often abbreviated to psi.

B Appendix: SI Units and Other Units 607

is u, and it is defined as 1 u = m(12C)(12)−1. Both units are accepted forcontinuing use with the SI units.

Several old units belong to a group whose use may be discontinued. Tothis group belong the length unit angstrom, the area unit barn, the pressureunits bar and torr, the quantity-of-heat unit calorie, the activity unit curie,the exposure unit rontgen, the absorbed-dose unit rad and the dose-equivalentunit rem.

Conversion factors and equivalents between the SI system and older unitsin the metric system, as well as nonmetric and related units, which may beuseful for people in an accelerator laboratory, are to be found in Table B.4.

Index

11th of September 2001, 445

aberration, 279, 531absorption, 429accelerator mass spectrometry, 33, 140,

461accelerator tube, 123–126, 128–134,

136, 138, 140, 142, 143, 145,147–150, 276, 284–287, 289, 291,292, 294, 296, 302

assembly, 140breakdown, 125conditioning, 143design, 136electrodes, 139entrance/exit aperture lens, 284–286fault diagnosis, 144functions, 123gluing technology, 140, 147, 148ideal, 124inclined-field, 133, 276, 295, 296

model, 292, 295, 296insulators, 138limiting gradient, 74mechanical design, 136model, 289, 292operating procedure, 142physical processes in, 124radiation levels, 143summary of performance, 145vacuum, 140

accelerator tube beam optics, 132, 278,280

aberration, 132analytic calculation, 132effect of suppression systems, 136effect of thick electrodes, 133emittance, 133

entrance lens, 132

entrance/exit aperture lens, 278

finite-element calculations, 132

inclined-field, 292

preacceleration, 132

acceptance, 306

adjusted normalization of decay curves(ANDC), method, 563–565

adsorbed gas, 129

aerial effects, 110, 118, 119

Agata, 416

air, dielectric strength, 64

alpha (α) cluster properties, 431

alternating-gradient focusing, 19

aluminum-26, 474

Alvarez, 5

ambipolar diffusion, 514

ammonium nitrate (AN), 452

amorphization, 507, 508

amplifier, 380

analytical techniques, 530

analyzing magnet, 165

Ancore, 455

ANDC method, 563–565

aperture lens, 285–287

archaeology, 478, 547, 553

area effect (on breakdown voltage), 78

Ariel, 383

art objects, 531, 553

astigmatism, 282, 287, 288

asymptotic breakdown gradient, 84, 85,87

atomic

branching fractions, 561, 566, 568,570, 571, 577–579

energy levels, 560

ions, 560

Index 609

lifetimes, 562, 564–567, 570, 571, 573,575–579

line strength factors, 567, 568,571–574, 578

transition probabilities, 561, 563,566, 570, 577, 578

attachmentcoefficient, 77time, 77

attenuation coefficient, 341energy absorption, 342energy transfer, 342photons, 361

Auger electrons, 338, 534automatic beam tuning, 334automatic inspection technologies, 445average energy loss, 487

band termination, 417Barkas effect, 491barn (= 10−28 m2), 447barrier distributions, 437beam

aberration, 279brightness, 225, 317, 531current, 317–322, 325, 326diagnostics, 317envelope, 300focal constraints, 288loading, 175–178matching, 280, 285–289profile, 317, 324–326profile monitor, 324, 326stopper, 326tandem, 285–288transport, 278–294, 296, 300

aberration, 279axes, 280coupling, 278, 285, 286focal constraints, 282, 283matrix, 280single-stage, 284tandem, 285

waist, 280, 283, 284beam transport

tandem, 286, 287beam–foil spectroscopy (BFS), 560–564,

567, 568, 573, 578, 579bearings, 91, 95, 99, 100

belt, 89–95, 97, 98, 101–103guides, 92–95

Berkeley, 26beryllium, 367beryllium-10, 472betatron, 11, 24BGO (bismuth germanate oxide), 452binary-collision approximation, 487,

488, 508biomedicine, 547biomolecules, 524biosensors, 524BK model, 493Bohr velocity, 184boron trifluoride, 351brachytherapy, 24Bragg’s rule, 498breakdown, 77

gas insulation, 84, 85products, 115, 121voltage, 84, 85, 87

breakup, 431, 439bremsstrahlung, 130

electron, 536projectile, 536

brightness, 225, 317, 531bunching, 380

C4 explosive, 456cadmium, 367calcium-41, 476CAMAC, 331cancellation effects, 570capacitive pickoff (CPO), 91–93capacitive pickup, 160carbon-11, 32, 408carbon-14, 33, 471carbon buildup, 175carbon ions, 30carbon stripper foils, 182, 187–189cascade accelerator, 8, 104cascade generator circuit

asymmetrical, 104parallel-driven, 106symmetrical, 105

CASINO, 514catalysts, 516CERN, 20chain, 89, 94–100

610 Index

chain scission, 522Chalk River, 56channeling, 544

contrast microscopy, 544charge, 89–94, 96–100

exchange, 181, 183, 231exchanger, 192selection, 288selector, 288, 296state, 166–169, 172, 173, 175–179,

181–185distribution, 182equilibrium, 182

charging efficiency, 92, 97–100charging system, surge protection, 81chemical agents, 445Child–Langmuir relation, 223chiral symmetry, 420chlorine-36, 473clearing dose, 523clinical oncology, 551close encounter, 540closed-loop control, 334clumps, initiating breakdown, 130clustering phenomena, 419cobalt-60, 24Cockcroft–Walton accelerator, 5, 64,

105coherent system of units, 604coincidence counting

techniques, 579collector, 382collector screen, 91, 94colliding-beam system, 20collimator, beam, 280collision cascade, 499, 510column

dead section, 74internal field distribution, 73structure, 74

complex materials, ion beam analysisof, 547

Comptonscattering, 378suppression shields, 415

computed tomography (CT), 28computer control

response time, 332

system, 164conditioning, 167, 334conductance, pumping, 169, 171–174confined space, 369–371confinement time, 194contact band, 96, 99, 100controlled corona discharge, 154, 160controlled down charge, 160conveyor, 587, 588, 591Cooper pair, 416, 417, 421core polarization model, 575Coriolis forces, 417corona, 110–115

current, 77needle assembly, 161point, 153points, 154, 164, 165stabilization, 77, see also controlled

corona dischargecorrosion process, 554corrugated waveguide, 383Cosmotron, 18Coulomb explosion, 168, 169coupled-channel calculations, 431, 438coupling, beam, 278, 285, 286CPO (capacitive pickoff), 91–93CPU (capacitive pickup), 160Cranberg theory of breakdown, 130CREOL, University of Central Florida,

384crosslinking, 522, 582, 583cross section, 341, 447, 448, 451, 534crystallography, 46current recirculation, 384cyclotron, 11, 24

AVF, 17cyclotron frequency, 194

d, T, 450damage peak, 515Daresbury, 59, 287, 418dead section, 169, 178dead-time correction, 537Debye length, 195deep inelastic, 435deep inelastic collisions, 441definition

dose, 526electron volt, 526

Index 611

fluence, 527fluence rate, 527G value, 526linear energy transfer (LET), 526mass stopping power, 526Particle flux, 527stopping cross section, 527stopping force (power), 527

delta (δ) electrons, 511density effect, 184Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,

54detection limit, 534detector, 350, 531deuteron, 340deuteron beam, 455device interface, 329dielectric constant

alumina, 126glass, 126

dielectric materials, 507differential pumping, 173differential-pumping tube, 142diffractive effects in scattering, 430diffusion bonding, 140diffusion models, 441dipole

matrix, 282dipole magnet, 275dipole radiation, 36direct voltage technique, 8discharges, high-voltage in vacuum, 128disinfection, 582, 583dispersion, beam, 279, 283, 289dissolution rates, 516distorted-wave Born approximation,

431distributed-feeedback (DFB) lasers, 520divergence, 168, 172DLC foils, 190, 191dose, 584, 586, 587, 592

about ion track, 513absorbed, 342definition, 527effective, 342equivalent, 342measurement, 351neutron, 363

personal, 343personal monitors, 352

drift matrix, 281drugs, 445dust, 78, 92, 93dynamic recovery, 516Dynamitron, 106

earthquakeprotection, 372–374protection system, 374sensor, 375

ECPSSR treatment of ionization crosssections, 534

effective charge, 182, 493einzel lens, 276, 287elastic collisions, 489elastic-recoil detection analysis

(ERDA), 540electrical breakdown, 77–80, 84, 85electrical components, surge protection,

81electrode material properties, 139electromagnetic spin–orbit coupling,

424electron, 338, 340, 581–591, 593electron affinity, 225electron and hole transport, 514electron beam lithography (EBL), 524electron capture, 181, 182, 184, 185electron cascade, 511, 513electron cyclotron resonance heating

(ECRH), 384electron–hole recombination, 514electron loading, 167, 169electron loss, 181, 182, 185electron optics, 278, 382electron–phonon interactions, 507electron storage rings, 20electron suppression, 133, 177electron surface emission, 128, 507electron temperature, 193electron tunneling, 128electronic excitation, 510, 520electronic excitation in dielectric

materials, 514electronic personal dosimeters, 353electronic stopping, 490electronic stopping cross section, 490

612 Index

electronic stopping in channels, 499electronic stopping power, 487electrostatic accelerator, 9, 299

air-insulated, 64FEL (EA-FEL), 380nuclear structure, 413

electrostatic deflector, 275electrostatic field, 67, 84

distribution along surfaces, 86systematic errors, estimate, 84

electrostatic lens, axially symmetric,312

electrostatic mirror, 326electrostatic suppression, 318–320elemental composition, 445elemental content, 456elemental features, 446ellipse, phase space, 280, 283, 284emittance, 168, 175, 224, 300, 317emittance measurement, 317empirical scaling rule, 493EN tandem, 56, 116, 382, 414energy

analyzing system, 153–156balance, 508dispersion, 156loss, 486retrieval, 384spread, 317stored, 78straggling, 495

entrance/exit lens, tube, 132, 278,284–288, 296

environment, 547Er2Zr2O7, 519ethylene-cracked foils, 189Euroball, 414evaporation–condensation, 188, 190evaporation residue, 440Exogam, 427expansion cup, 204Experimental Physics and Industrial

Control System (EPICS), 330explosive materials, 366explosives, 445exposure-age dating, 480extraction, 202

Bayly and Ward type, 214

beam, 223efficiency, 386Thonemann type, 214

extremely high frequency, 389

far infra-red (FIR), 384Faraday cup, 318–321, 323, 326

retractable, 321fast ion beams, 561fast-neutron analysis (FNA), 450FEL (free-electron laser), 378Feldmuhle, 157FEM (free-electron maser), 378field distribution, 67

column, 73cylindrical geometry, 67hoops, 72intershield, 69single-ended accelerator, 66spherical geometry, 69terminal, 72

film badge, 352filter, beam, 279, 288flammable materials, 366flat-topping, 333fluence, 318, 327, 340, 526fluorine-18, 32, 409FN tandem, 56, 116, 414focal constraints, 282focus, beam, 280–289focusing device, 531folded tandem, 67, 285, 288, 372FOM Institute, 384form factor, 435Fowler–Nordheim law, 128fragmentation of molecular ions, 181Fraunhofer diffraction, 430free-electron laser (FEL), 378free-electron maser (FEM), 378Frenkel pairs, 510fret corrosion, 99fringing field tube, 286fringing field, tube, 278full-width half-maximum (FWHM),

386fusion, 389fusion–fission, 440

gamma flash, 456

Index 613

gamma rays, 338, 456characteristic elemental, 445multidetector systems, 414

Gammasphere, 415gap lens, 285, 286gas discharge, 197

arc, 197glow, 197high-frequency, 198

linear, 198ring, 198

Townsend-type, 197gas insulation, 84, 85gas or foil, 182gas stripping, 182, 183gas-filled magnet, 470Gd2Ti2O7, 519Ge (germanium), 452General Ionex Corporation, 107generating voltmeter (GVM), 153, 155,

157, 158, 160, 162, 164, 468amplifier, 159

glazes, 554gradient bar, 93, 95grading bars, 74gray, 584Greinacher, 105gridded lens, 285, 286gridded windows, 404Group3, 331GSI, 30GVM, see generating voltmeter

half-value layer, 361hazardous materials, 445hazards

electrical, 365fire and explosion, 366mechanical, 366toxic, 367

Heavy Ion Accelerator TechnologyConferences, 62

Herb, Ray, 6, 89, 95high-resolution transmission electron

microscope (HRTEM), 516high-temperature superconductors

(HTSCs), 388High Voltage Engineering Corporation,

55

high-voltage (HV) terminal, 381high-voltage DC accelerator, 8high-voltage supplies, surge protection,

82Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 346hoop design, 72HVEE, 108hydrocarbons, 170, 171, 173, 175hyperdeformation, 419hyperfine quenching, 576, 577

Ice Man, 479ICRP (International Commission on

Radiological Protection), 360idler, 99image point, 281, 283, 284, 288, 289image slit, 156, 165imaging, portal, 29immobilization of actinide-containing

nuclear waste, 516impact parameter, 429inclined-field tube see accelerator tube,

inclined-field 133incomplete fusion, 439induced radiation, 357inductor, 96, 97, 99, 100industrial applications, 549, 581–584,

588, 591inelastic process, 448inelastic scattering, 431infrared (IR), 380instrument protection, 333insulating gas, 75, 369, 371

carbon tetrachloride, 75compressed air, 75nitrogen/carbon dioxide, 75sulfur hexafluoride see sulfur

hexafluoride 75insulating-core transformer, 107insulators, 80

properties, 138surface shape, 127, 139tracking length, 127, 139

intensity-modulated radiotherapy(IMRT), 29

interacting-boson model, 418interaction potential, 429interaction quantities, 341interatomic potentials, 489

614 Index

International Union of Pure andApplied Physics (IUPAP), 604

intershield, 69effect on maximum voltage, 70

interstitial, 510interstitials and vacancies, 516iodine-129, 475ion beam, 299ion beam analysis (IBA), 530ion beam mixing, 520ion metastable, 229ion-optical calculation, 311ion optics, 278, 285, 287, 299ion range, 508ion–solid interactions, 530ion source, 200, 274, 531

ANIS, 261Cs-sputter, 244diode, 231duoPIGatron, 204duoplasmatron, 200, 231ECR, 216external-oven, 250gas field ionization (GFIS), 219high frequency (RF)

capacitively coupled, 212inductively coupled, 212

high-frequency (RF), 212inverted sputter, 247liquid-metal (LMIS), 219multiple sample, 258of single-ended machines, 192Penning-type (PIG), 205plasma-sputter, 260RF plasma-sputter, 263SNICs, 251

ion spectrum, 317ion straggling, 510ion track dose model, 511ion trajectories, 300ionization

chamber, 469cross section, 193electron impact, 195field, 196in plasma column, 514ion impact, 196multiple, 195

surface, 196ionizer

conical, 252cylindrical, 254ellipsoidal, 256spherical, 256spiral-wound, 255

ionoluminescence, 545iron-60, 478irradiation, 587, 589, 592irradiation lifetime, 187irradiation-induced damage, 500

in pyrochlores, 516in SiC, 514

Ising, Gustaf, 6isochronal annealing, 515isochronous cyclotron, 18isoelectronic sequences, 561, 567, 570,

578isospin, 421isospin-breaking effects, 424isospin mixing, 425Israeli FEL, 384

Japan Atomic Energy ResearchInstitute, 372

K isomer, 418Kapchinskiy–Vladimirskiy density

distribution, 311kerma, 343Kerst, 16kinematic coincidence, 441Kobe University of Mercantile Marine,

372Korean FEM, 384

LabVIEW, 330laddertron, 59, 97, 98, 100Lamb shift, 576Laplace’s equation, analytical solution,

66large-angle scattering, 496laser, 378laser plasma ablation–deposition, 190lateral spreading, 510lattice disorder, 514

in pyrochlores, 516in SiC, 514

Index 615

Lawrence, 5lead, 367leakage current, 318, 321LED display, 323, 324lens, accelerator tube, 278, 284–287lens matrix, 281LHC, 7, 21lifetime

of belt, 101, 102of ion, 194of ion source, 192, 198, 202, 206, 209,

214light ions, 30linac (linear accelerator), 12, 26, 378Lindhard–Scharff–Shott (LSS) model,

492linear accelerator (linac), 12, 26, 378liner, 163linewidth, 386Liouville’s theorem, 224liquid-drop model, 441Livingston, 6, 19Livingston plot, 6LNT (linear–no-threshold) hypothesis,

347local-density approximation, 492logarithmic amplifier, 157Long Tank accelerator, 10, 55, 65, 66Los Alamos, 55low-voltage arc breakdown, 128

magic numbers, 423magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 28magnetic rotation, 420magnetic spectrometer, 433, 539magnetic suppression, 320magnetostatic wiggler, 382manganese-53, 478mass asymmetries, 441Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

54Massey adiabaticity criterion, 233matching, beam, 280, 285–289material discrimination, 446material processing, 389material-specific inspection technolo-

gies, 445materials engineering, 506materials science, 526, 539

matrixaccelerator tube, 284beam ellipse, 283beam transport, 280dipole, 282drift, 281thin/thick lens, 281transfer, 303

maximum field, safe working value, 68McMillan, 5mean free path, 193mechanical fuse, 375medicine, 24, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35mercury, 367metal oxide resistors, 116–118, 120, 121metastability, 576MeV ion implantation, 514microbeam, 31microdischarges, 130microparticles, 131microscopy, 45microtron, 11mid-column lens, 285, 286mineral, 550mineralized tissue, 552Miniball, 427minimum, beam, 283–285mirror energy differences, 424mirror nuclei, 424mm wavelengths, 380mode competition, 386modulation, beam, 289molecular dynamics, 487molecule, 168, 169, 173MP tandem, 57, 68multileaf collimator (MLC), 26, 29multimodal decay, 440multiparameter detector systems, 531multiphonon excitations, 438multiple scattering, 167, 168, 175, 176,

548multiply excited states, 575multistage depressed collector, 384

N = Z nuclei, 422n, γ, 448, 450, 451n, n′γ, 451NaI (sodium iodide), 452nanobeam, 532

616 Index

nanoscale engineering, 506nanoscience, 547National Electrostatics Corporation, 57negative-ion injector, 286negative resist, 522neutron, 340, 351, 362, 445

14 MeV, 450fast, 449thermal, 445, 447

neutron-based technologies, 445neutron capture, 356, 451neutron capture cross section, 447neutron flash, 456neutron generator, 356, 449, 450

electronic (ENG), 450sealed, 449, 450

neutron–proton pairing, 421neutron source, 448neutron therapy, 24newsprint paper, 549nickel-59, 478nickel-63, 478nitrogen-13, 32nondestructive analysis, 530nonintrusive inspection, 445Nottingham effect, 131nuclear displacement, 507nuclear material, 445nuclear microprobe, 531nuclear rainbow, 430nuclear reaction, 327, 445

2H(d, n)3He, 456nuclear-reaction analysis (NRA), 518nuclear scattering, 510Nuclear Science Centre, New Delhi, 373nuclear stopping cross section, 490nuclear stopping power, 487nucleon evaporation, 435nucleon correlations, 432

Oak Ridge, 58, 288, 373object point, 285, 286, 288object slit, 156, 165occupation probability, 434Occupational Safety and Health

Administration, 369, 370oil paintings, 554optical waveguide, 526

optics, accelerator, 278, see alsoaccelerator tube beam optics, 285,287

organic elements (hydrogen, carbon,nitrogen, oxygen), 446

organic resists, 522oscillations, Z1, 497oscillations, Z2, 497oscillator, 380outgassing rate, 142oxygen-15, 32, 407

pair condensate, 421pairing interaction, 416, 431, 435parallel beam, 278, 281–284, 292–295particle elastic-scattering analysis

(PESA), 540particle flux, 526particle-induced gamma-ray emission

(PIGE), 542particle-induced X-ray emission

(PIXE), 534parting agent, 188Paschen curves, 197peak-to-background, 534Pelletron, 58, 89, 95, 98–100, 306, 372,

380, 453permanent magnet, 275permittivity, 223perovskite-type oxides, 516personnel safety, 333perveance, 223phase space, 224, 279–281, 283phase-stabilized acceleration, 16phonons, 514photoluminescence, 524photon, 338, 339pickup, 317, 318pickup electrode, 317Pierce-type electron gun, 381pigments, 554pixel, 456planes, focal, 281, 284plant science, 551plasma

column, 514density, 193electron density, 193flare, 128

Index 617

frequency, 194electron, 194ion, 194

ion density, 193sheath, 195state, 193temperature, 193

plutonium, 476plutonium-239, 446Poisson’s equation, 223polarization effects, 423pollution, 581–583poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA),

513polyvinyl acetate, 140ponderomotive force, 380portico intershield, 59, 71position-sensitive detector (PSD), 565positive resist, 522positron emission tomography (PET),

28, 32, 396positron emission tomography com-

bined with computed tomography(PET/CT), 28

postaccelerator, 166, 177, 179potential divider, 74potential-drop accelerator, 8potential-energy surfaces, 441prebreakdown processes, 128precious artefacts, 554prompt α-decay, 426prompt emissions, 508prompt proton decay, 426proton, 340, 354proton beam writing (PBW), 523proton decay, 425proton storage rings, 20proton therapy, 26, 27, 30provenance, 554proximity exposure effect, 523pulse pileup, 537pulsed fast-neutron analysis (PFNA),

450, 453pulsed-neutron inspection (PNI), 450,

452pulsing, ns, 452pyrochlore materials, 516

Q snout, 132

quantitative analysis, 531, 537quantum beats, 562, 566quantum defects, 570quantum well structures, 520quasi-classical scattering, 511quasi-elastic collisions, 435quasi-fission, 440quasi-optical delivery system, 383

Rontgen, 24radiation

damage, 516dose, 531hazards, 326, 327ionizing, 337nonionizing, 337therapy, 27

radiation cooling, 321radiation effects, 344, 518

in materials, 507late

cancer, 345hereditary, 348leukemia, 347

pregnancy, 344skin, 344threshold, 345whole-body, 344

radiation field quantities, 341radiation protection, 337radiation user facility, 384radiative energy transmission, 389radioactive decay, 338radioactive ion beam, 414, 427radiocarbon calibration, 479radiography, 457radiopharmaceuticals, 31radiotherapy, 27radium, 24rare-earth elements, 545ray vector, 283recirculating gas stripper, 468recoil, 540recombination, 510recovery stages, 515reference particle, 279refractive effects in scattering, 430refractive index, 524relativistic effects, 569

618 Index

residual gas, 130, 141, 318–322, 326analyzer, 143ionization, 318–322, 326

resistor, 110, 112, 115–122surge protection, 82

resonance acceleration, 11resonant excitation, 511resonator, 386respiratory system, 367RF discharge source, 274Righi, Augusto, 52Rising, 426rotating shaft, 169rotational bands, 438rotational motion of nuclei, 416Round Hill, 54, 64round-trip reflectivity, 386Rubbia, 5Rutherford, 4, 538Rutherford backscattering (RBS), 4,

538spectroscopy, 518

safetyadministrative, 358confined space, 369sulfur hexafluoride, 369, 370technical, 359

saturation current, 319scaling, 334scanner, 587, 590, 591scattering, 496scattering integral, 489Schwinger, 5, 16scintillation detectors, 448screen, 90–94screening function, 502screening length, 493second stripper, 166, 176–178, 181secondary-electron-induced modifica-

tion, 511secondary electrons, 125, 318–321, 324,

325, 507, 511–514secondary reactions, 431semiclassical model, 434sheaves, 100shielded resistors, 118, 119shorting rod, 143SI system, 526, 604

base units, 604conversion factors from other

systems, 606derived units, 605non-SI units, 605

SiC, 514SiC polytypes, 514signatures, nuclear, 446silicon-32, 477silicon nitride window, 469simulation of treatment, 28single-particle motion of nuclei, 416slot aperture, 287slowing down, 486, 487Sm2Ti2O7, 519small-angle scattering, 168, 496space charge sheath, 128spark, 110–112, 115–121spark gap, 80, 140spectrum

gamma-ray, 456ion, 317

sputtered foils, 189sputtering, 175, 499stabilization, 152–154, 157, 164, 165stabilization system, 153sterilization, 34, 582, 583, 593STIM, 543stopping force, 508, 526, 527stopping power, 342, 526, 527stopping power for a heavy ion, 493stored energy, 78strength

dielectric, 101, 103interlayer connection, 101, 102mechanical, 101, 102

stripper, beam scattering, 133stripper density, 317stripper gas recirculator, 142stripping, 182

electron, 181foil, 184, 185gas, 184, 185second, 166, 176–178, 181

strontium-90, 478subcascades, 510sublattices, 515sulfur hexafluoride, 75

Index 619

biological effects, 369breakdown vs. pressure, 76

superconducting magnets, 21superdeformed nuclei, 418superheavy elements, 441suppression electrode, 318–322suppression system, 133

alternating inclined electrodes, 133axial-field modulation, 136compressed geometry, 137electron trajectories, 137spirally inclined electrodes, 134transverse magnetic, 134

surface contaminants in acceleratortubes, 130

surface tracking of tube insulators, 126surge damage, 80Swedish Work Environment Authority,

369, 370Symposium of North Eastern Accelera-

tor Personnel, 62synchrotron, 18synchrotron radiation, 31

coherence, 39facilities, 39monochromators, 40–42power, 37spectral range, 37

synchrotron undulator radiation, 378

Talbot reflector, 383tandem accelerator, 10, 107tandem accelerator geometry, 67Tandetron, 107tank geometry, 67tank, soft elastic suspension, 375Tel Aviv University, 382tension of belt or chain, 89, 92, 93,

98–100terminal

impedance, 152, 160magnet, 285pumping, 142shape, 72

therapyelectron beam, 26microbeam, 31neutron, 24photon activation, 31

proton beam, 26thermal neutrons, 445, 451thermal-neutron analysis (TNA), 450thermalized neutrons, 447Thomas–Fermi effective-charge model,

182, 184Thomas–Fermi velocity, 184Thomson scattering, 378threats, 445time of flight, 433, 450, 453, 454, 456,

470, 539, 560, 561, 564, 573tin-100, 423TL dosimeter, 352tomographic reconstruction, 544total-voltage effect, 67, 130, 148trajectory, particle/ray, 293, 294, 296transfer matrix, 303transient arc current, 79transient voltage, 127transport, beam, 278transport efficiency, 385transport, beam, see beam, transporttriple junction, 126tritium, 350, 357, 477Trump, John, 24tunneling, 436Turin Shroud, 479

Ubitron (undulating-beam interaction),378

undulator, 37, 379University of California Santa Barbara

(UCSB), 380University of Hawaii, 384University of Tsukuba, 372, 373University of Wisconsin, 54unmanned airborne vehicles, 389Uppsala, 26upright ellipse (beam waist), 283uranium-235, 446uranium-236, 477

vacancy, 510vacuum, 166, 167, 169, 170, 172, 173,

175vacuum breakdown, particle-induced,

130vacuum conductance, 141Van de Graaff, Robert, 6, 24, 89

620 Index

Van der Meer, 5vehicle explosives detection systems

(VEDS), 453Veksler, 16ventilation, 369, 370very large-scale integration (VLSI)

devices, 522VIVIRAD, 60, 108VIVITRON, 59, 288, 414voltage surges, calculation, 79volume, phase space, 279

waist, beam, 280, 283, 284wave packet, 379waveguide, 379, 526weakly bound nuclei, 431wear resistance, 101–103Weizmann Institute, 382

Widerøe, Rolf, 6Wien filter, 192wiggler, 379Wigner term, 422Wimshurst machine, 52wobbling mode, 420

X-ray detector, 532X-ray emission, 338X-spectrometry, 534

y-branch waveguide, 526Yale University, 57yrast transitions, 575

ZBL (Ziegler–Biersack–Littmark)parametrization, 494