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Islamic Feminism vs. Western Feminism:
Analyzing a Conceptual Conflict
Jennifer S. King
An Abstract of a Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science International Studies
Central Connecticut State University
New Britain, Connecticut
May 2003
Thesis Advisor
Dr. Norton Mezvinsky
Department of International and Area Studies
2
ABSTRACT
Normally public opinion about the Islamic religion is
often negative. The Muslim people are seen as violent
oppressors of women. Although it may be true in some
countries, the fact is Muslim people represent a variety of
societies and communities where there are different
interpretations of the Koran in regards to the female role
and status in Islamic societies. This thesis argues that
feminism is a global phenomenon and is unique to every
culture of the world and also examines some of the myths
and facts surrounding the Islamic religion and their
treatment of women.
Arabs and the Islamic religion are usually associated
with the oppression of women. The struggle for gender
equality exists throughout the Middle Eastern region and
even in Asia. The Christian attitude towards Islam has
discouraged Muslims and Arabs from talking about the roles
of women in a political and theological context.
Christians or Westerners do not take into account that
attitudes vary from one class or generation to the other as
well as over time, just as the attitudes may differ from
one Muslim country to another. Islam has grown and adapted
just as other world religions have. The history of Islam
3
is important in order to understand its attitude toward
women.
Islamic feminism is difficult to explain to western
feminists because a mutual incompatibility exists between
the two. No feminist movement can relate to Western
feminism because of the way feminists formed their groups.
Western feminism is grounded in Western values, thought,
and ideology and those values differ from those of Islam
and Arab tradition. Many problems exist because of a
resistance to cultural conversion.
This thesis attempts to analyze the conceptual and/or
value conflict between Western feminists and Islamic
feminists. The conflict will be analyzed using Paul Wehr’s
“Conflict Mapping Guide.” Wehr’s defines his conflict
mapping guide in his book Conflict Regulation. The guide
intends to explain how to analyze a conflict from beginning
to end and allows for an analysis of specific elements or
dynamics surrounding the conflict. A breakdown of the
conflict is as follows; a brief description; conflict
history, which includes origins and events; conflict
context; parties involved; issues; dynamics; finally,
alternative routes to solutions.
The reader will note that although the thesis is an
analysis of a conflict the underlying purpose is to educate
4
and inform. This analysis attempts to bring out the
controversial issues surrounding feminism and defines them
in order to bring women together culturally. The
intentions of this thesis is to encourage the reader to
understand that even though Americans live in the one of
the best countries in the world, not everyone has the same
goals and values as American women.
5
Islamic Feminism vs. Western Feminism:
Analyzing a Conceptual Conflict
Jennifer S. King
A Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science International Studies
Central Connecticut State University
New Britain, Connecticut
May 2003
Thesis Advisor
Dr. Norton Mezvinsky
Department of International and Area Studies
6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………7
Chapter 2: Evolution of the Conflict
A. Defining Western Feminism…………………………………………………………..10
B. Defining Islamic Feminism…………………………………………………………….15
Chapter 3: Context surrounding the Conflict
A. Geography/Cultures………………………………………………………………………………18
B. Structures…………………………………………………………………….……………………………23
Chapter 4: Parties Involved
A. Primary Parties………………………………………………………………………………………30
B. Secondary………………………………………………………………………………………………………31
C. Interested 3rd Parties………………………………………………………………………31
Chapter 5: Issues Surrounding the Conflict
A. Issues based on facts……………………………………………………………………….33
B. Issues based on values……………………………………………………….………….37
C. Issues based on interests…………………………………………………………..41
D. Issues based on perceptions……………………………………………………….42
7
Chapter 6: Dynamics Involved in the Conflict
A. Events that precipitated the Conflict………………………………54
B. Stereotyping involved in the conflict………………………………56
Chapter 7: Results…………………………………………………………………………………………………….61
Chapter 8: Alternative Routes to Solutions
A. What has been tried?………………………………………………………………………….65
B. What has not been tried?…………………………………………………….……….69
Chapter 9: Conclusion
The Future of Western and Islamic Feminism ………………………………….71
8
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Islamic feminism is difficult to explain to western
feminists because a mutual incompatibility exists between
the two. No feminist movement can relate to western
feminism because of the way most feminists form their
groups. Western feminism is grounded in western values,
thought, and ideology and those values differ from those of
Islamic tradition (Western Feminism). Many problems exist
because of a resistance to cultural conversion. Most of us
are unaware that there is a feminist movement in Islamic
countries because many Muslim women do not want to have any
connection with Western feminist. Women of Islam hold
negative attitudes in regards to Western feminism. This
thesis will analyze the apparent conflict between Western
feminism and Islamic feminism.
The point of this thesis is to note that feminism is a
global phenomenon and is unique to every culture of the
world. The main question is why is there a conflict when
all women want the same thing? This thesis also addresses
ways to unify the different cultures that are witnessing or
have witnessed a feminist movement. This thesis is an
analysis of a conceptual and/or value conflict. The
9
conflict will be analyzed using Paul Wehr’s “Conflict
Mapping Guide.” Wehr’s defines his conflict mapping guide
in his book Conflict Regulation. The guide intends to
explain how to analyze a conflict from beginning to end and
allows for an analysis of specific elements or dynamics
surrounding the conflict. Since this conflict is of a
conceptual nature and deals with values and misconceptions,
there is not an ending. A breakdown of the conflict is as
follows; a brief description; conflict history, which
includes origins and events; conflict context; parties
involved; issues; dynamics; finally, alternative routes to
solutions.
The reader will note that although the thesis is an
analysis of a conflict the underlying purpose to educate
and inform. This analysis attempts to bring out the
controversial issues surrounding feminism and defines them
in order to bring women together culturally. The
intentions of this thesis is to encourage the reader to
understand that even though Americans live in the one of
the best countries in the world, not everyone has the same
goals and values as American women.
10
Chapter 2
Evolution of the Conflict
Defining Western Feminism
Feminism began as a universalist faith during the 19th
century (Elshtain p541). The concept originated in the
West and is linked to the French Revolution when women were
concerned with being treated as “full-fledged citizens.”
When women start advocating for equal rights and
subsequently obtained those rights over time any society
that does not provide equal rights to women is considered
“barbarian” cultures.
The term feminism is credited to Hubertine Auclert who
presented the concept in 1880 in her journal, La Citoyenne,
when she criticized male domination and began to make
claims for women’s rights (Badran p17). The term may have
originated in France and the West, but feminism is not a
Western idea. A definition of feminism is hard to find
because the cells of feminism are so diverse. For
instance, there are at least three types of feminists found
in the United States.
In order to punctuate the diversity among feminism it
is necessary to provide an example from personal
11
experience. Having attended a historically Black female
undergraduate college in Atlanta, GA I am aware of the
cultural issues surrounding American feminism. On campus,
there were portraits of famous Black women throughout
history posted everywhere. One of my favorites was of
Sojourner Truth. The portrait was captivating because
under her picture is a gold engraving that says, “And ain’t
I a woman?” Sojourner Truth is best remembered for a speech
she gave at a women's rights conference where she noticed
that no one was addressing the rights of black women. As
Black women we believed that feminism was not started for
us. In actuality Black women were excluded from feminism.
To recognize the feminist movement among Black women Alice
Walker coined the term womanist. The womanist movement is
supposedly for women of color and women who love being
women. Historically, feminism only addressed the needs of
white women, but modern feminism tries to encompass
everyone. The problem lies in the fact that even though
feminism began as a universal phenomenon, feminists do not
try to unify women from all cultures. Instead, Western
feminists portray the image of women who want to impose
their beliefs and cultures onto other cultures.
Trying to identify the political aspirations of modern
feminism is difficult to do. For instance, in America
12
there have been at least two different waves of feminist
movements. The first movement is explained as the suffrage
movement and normally does not identify with the word
feminism at all because the term was non-existent. The
second wave is modern feminism and is famous during the
1960’s along with the civil rights movement. In each
feminist movement, one finds that there are different
feminist movements as demonstrated previously concerning
the Black feminist movement. Feminism is a phenomenon that
is identified with diverse ideas and are labeled as;
“radical,” “liberal,” “Marxist-socialist,”
“psychoanalytic,” “existentialist,” “postmodern,”
“multicultural and global,” and finally “ecological.” The
purpose of the labels is to show that feminism is not a
monolithic idea. However broad the labels may be the
concept tends to only embrace Western feminism and excludes
the cultures found in the East.
Nancy F. Cott’s provides an adequate definition of
feminism in her book The Grounding of Modern Feminism. She
gives her definition three core components:
1. Feminism holds the belief in what is usually
referred to as sex equality, but what might be more
clearly expressed in the negative, as opposition to
13
sex hierarchy. Equality is such a difficulty
quantity to apply to human beings (because it is
colloquially taken to mean sameness) that the point
is served better by expression in terms of
opposition to ranking one sex inferior or superior,
or opposition to one sex’s categorical control of
the rights and opportunities of the other.
2. Feminism presupposes that women’s condition is
socially constructed, that is, historically shaped
by human social usage rather than simply predestined
by God or nature.
3. Feminism posits that women perceive themselves not
only as a biological sex but as a social grouping.
Related to that understanding is some level of
identification with “the group called women,”some
awareness that one experience reflects and affects
the whole.
With these three components in mind Cott’s definition
follows;
Feminism asks for sexual equality that includes sexual
difference. It aims for individual freedoms by
14
mobilizing sex solidarity. It posits that women
recognize their unity while it stands for diversity
among women. It requires gender basis yet calls for
the elimination of prescribed gender roles (Cott 4-5).
Feminists’ goals concentrate on securing the same
rights provided to men for women in patriarchal societies.
History dates feminism as having started in the West
particularly in France. The term originated in the West,
but Egypt was the primary pioneer of feminism. Contrary to
popular belief Egypt was the one of the first countries to
demonstrate feminist thinking (Badran). There is a large
amount of literature that can document the varied and
diverse movements among feminists, but the West believes
they own the concept of feminism.
15
Defining Islamic Feminism
The feminist movement among Muslim women began after
Muslim women began to acquire literacy in Islamic matters
and became aware of Islam’s original sources and the
interpretive process (Guindi). The United States witnessed
a parallel situation with slavery and with women. Men
believed educating a woman and/or slaves was useless and
only caused discontent.
Islamic feminism began to appear as a global
phenomenon during the 1990s and it is rapidly spreading
with the turn of the new century (Badran). Although
Islamic feminism is a recent concept, the connection
between Islam and feminism can be dated as early as the
1890s. As for modern day Islamic feminism, women have had
a strong active presence since the 1970’s Islamic
reawakening in the Arab and Islamic countries (Khalil).
Women from various backgrounds- upper class, middle class,
and rural- identified with the movement. Non-western
feminists’ struggles stem from larger movements, mainly
nationalistic and anti-colonist and tend to strengthen and
empower women rather than overshadow their feminist goal
(Western Feminists).
16
As with Western feminism – and with most concepts and
ideas –finding a concise definition of Islamic feminism is
difficult to define. Margot Badran’s definition is,
It is a feminists discourse and practice articulated
within an Islamic paradigm. Islamic feminism, which
derives its understanding and mandate from the Qur’an,
seeks rights and justice for women, and for men, in
the totality of their existence. Islamic feminism is
both highly contested and firmly embraced.
Even though Islamic feminism is rapidly becoming a global
phenomenon, its use is limited and both the definition and
the concept are controversial. There are four levels of
distinction when encountering Islamic feminism:
1. As a discourse
2. As a mode of gender analysis
3. As an ideology
4. As an identity
Many Muslim women want to reread the Koran and attack
the social injustices aimed at women because of the current
or historical interpretations of the Koran. The
interpretations of the Koran are different in some
societies because of the various schools of feminist
thought throughout the Muslim world (Khalil). First, the
17
apologetic view claims that Islam has liberated women and
that Muslim women have more rights than Western women.
Another branch of this school contends that the harsh
conditions of Muslim women are the responsibility of the
male jurists who interpreted the Koran in a conservative
and misogynist way. Then there is the feminist movement
that tries to reinterpret Islamic texts from a female point
of view. Islamic feminists have a strong argument because
they can argue their point without being observed as anti-
Islamic. Though there seems to be an underlying conflict
among Islamic feminists the Koran is their common bond.
Because most Islamic feminists schools of thought are
compatible this thesis will only concentrate on the broader
conflict of Islamic feminism versus Western feminism.
Chapter 3
Conflict Context
Geography
Feminism is a concept that is unique to each culture
or geographic location. In order to get a clear picture of
the various attitudes of Muslim communities one only has to
look at predominantly Muslim countries like Saudi Arabia,
Iran, and Turkey. Each of the countries’ primary religion
is Islam, but each country has a different national
language and different attitudes towards the status of
women. Saudi Arabia and Iran actually established the Koran
as their constitution, while Turkey does not and tends to
be the most liberated towards women.
Saudi Arabia has the tightest restrictions on women.
For instance, women cannot
drive nor can they be
educated in fields such as
engineering and law
(Beyer). They are only
allowed to teach and
provide medical care to
other women. Women are
Traditional Saudi Female Dress
THOBE: A loose, long-sleeved, ankle-length garment, but, for women, the neck and front can be embroidered and decorated with beads.
ABAYA: A large, black cloak, worn either loose and flowing or wrapped around the body. The Abaya is generally made of silk or synthetic cloth. BOSHIYA: The Boshiya is a black veil, lightin weight, worn across the lower part of the face. SURWAL: The Surwal are cotton or silk trousers worn by women under the Thobe.
19
scared to walk alone because they don’t want to be stopped
or detained by the religious police and be accused of a
moral offense (Amnesty International). In a report from
Amnesty International, it stated “Despite an encouraging
emerging debate on women’s rights in Saudi Arabia, women
still face extreme forms of discrimination (9/27/2000).”
Women can be tortured like men and withstand corporal
judicial punishment such as flogging and execution.
Punishments are issued after summary trials, trials that
are not fair by basic standards. Women are discriminated
in all aspects of their lives in Saudi Arabia such as
family life, decision-making, employment, education and the
justice system. Women have difficulty in seeking
protection without risking further abuse. Saudi Arabia is
the epitome of Western feminists perception of how a Muslim
country treats women.
Iran has also adopted the Koran as its Constitution.
Iranians, however, believe existence is a “unified and
interrelated divine system.” Men and women complement
each other and should have equal status (Women in Iran).
The differences defined in the laws of Islam for men and
women are based on the roles they play and the
responsibilities each assumes. They believe the laws of
Islam give special privileges to women because of their
20
physical characteristics and their role in creation. If
they were to see women as equal in all aspects of life, it
would violate some of their natural rights. So it is best
for a woman to participate in development with
consideration of their physical and spiritual needs. Men
and women should attempt to fulfill their ideals through
“knowledge, promotion of understanding, safeguarding human
integrity, enjoyment of the gifts of life, benefiting from
individual and social freedoms and the creation of a better
world to live in (Women in Iran).” The compassionate and
deep emotional nature of women is significant for
safeguarding the morals and humanistic qualities in
society. They believe the fiber of women’s nature actually
helps to prevent cruelty and atrocities that are a
permanent threat to human survival. Because of their
influence on society women enjoy a special status in
education. An Islamic government should be committed to
enhancing a woman’s “scientific, educational, social and
political capacities” in order to allow women to have
“intellectual, logical and moral participation in the
progress of society.” They believe the Islamic dress
(hijab) actually protects women from abuse and cruelty.
Iran emphasizes the positive interpretation of the Koran
21
and should not be regarded as negatively as westerners try
to portray many Muslim communities.
Muslim women in Turkey are the most liberated because
they enjoy a professional life that is not only impressive
for other Islamic countries, but even for the European
nations (Beyer pp53). Last month (November), the Turkish
Parliament reformed family law, by abolishing the law of
men being head of household and allows women to make
decisions concerning children. The law establishes
community property in marriages and raises the legal age of
marriage for girls from fifteen to eighteen. The father of
Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, states “If a society does
not wage a common struggle to attain a common goal with its
women and men, scientifically there is no way for it to get
civilized or developed (Women in Contemporary Turkey).”
The Turkish Republic has been committed to equality as
early as 1924 when women were able to join the civil
service, in 1930 women were given the right to participate
in municipal elections and in 1934 they could participate
in national elections (Keskin). Also in 1934 women could
be elected as deputies in the Parliament a direct contrast
to the United States when only in 1920 the 19th amendment
was ratified giving women the right to vote. Women have
been politicians and members of Parliament and cabinet
22
members since 1971. Women in Turkey have been considered
equal for more than half a century. The Turks abolished
the law of polygamy in 1925 and laws were amended to give
women equal rights of divorce and inheritance. Under
Islamic law, women were not granted those rights (Women in
Contemporary Turkey). Since Turkey does not use the Koran
as their constitution, they have more freedom when it comes
to establishing laws. Turkey is still considered a Muslim
society even though they do not use the Koran as their
constitution. The country is a very positive example of an
Islamic community that treats women well.
23
Culture
Because there are countless theories of feminisms,
feminist theories, feminist methodologies trying to span
every culture is difficult. Studies conducted try to
combine cultures in a multi-cultural context. The problem
is people learn about culture in different ways. For
instance, political definitions of culture exclude groups
such as “women, people of races other than Caucasian, gays
and lesbians, formerly colonized peoples, minority ethnic
or religious groups, and indigenous populations (Okin
p661).” How can we deal with the issue of feminism, if we
cannot find a definition of culture? Culture is a very
important aspect in understanding feminism.
Trying to find a definition of culture is almost as
difficult as trying to find a definition of feminism.
Therefore, combining culture and feminism is further
complicated because of the numerous definitions found for
both terms. Dr. Avruch defines culture as having the
following six components;
1. Shared Ideas- guiding behavior or a shared
understanding of the world.
2. Cumulative- culture accumulates from generation to
generation.
24
3. Systematic- based on rules that define how we manage
our lives
4. Symbolic- lens through which we see the world
5. Passed Intergenerationally- passed from one
generation to the next.
6. Extra-genetically- is not passed genetically.
Each of the six components can be applied to every culture
and shown how there are different views from every culture.
The same difficulty exists when we define feminism.
Culture and feminism have a common link and that is
the most societies are governed by patriarchal rules.
Okin states in her article “Feminism and Multiculturalism:
Some tensions” that she uses the term feminism as “the
beliefs that women should not be disadvantage by their sex,
that they should be recognized as having human dignity
equally with men, and that they should have the opportunity
to live as fulfilling and as freely chosen lives as men can
(661).” Her statement epitomizes the ideology of feminism.
Instead of embracing her ideology we find conflict over
Western feminism and Islamic feminism and all other kinds
of feminisms. The goal of feminism needs to embrace women
from all cultures.
25
Structures
The primary structure analyzed in this conflict is
religion. Although religion was an enemy for the Western
feminist movement, Muslim women tend to embrace Islam and
believe religion is a guiding source for their movement (al
Faruqi p5). The legal rights western women sought in the
18th century are incompatible with the Islamic religion
because Muslim women were granted those same rights in the
7th century. Women are portrayed as negative beings in
Christianity whereas there isn’t a negative depiction of
women in the Koran.
The interpretation of the Koran is seen as the force
that is denying social rights to Muslim women. Similarly,
the interpretation of Christianity was a problem for
Western feminism. The interpretations of the Koran are
different in some societies because there are at least two
schools of feminist thought throughout the Arab world
(Khalil). First, the apologetic view claims that Islam has
liberated women and that Muslim women have more rights than
Western women. Another branch of this school contends that
the harsh conditions of Muslim women are the responsibility
of the male jurists who interpreted the Koran in a
conservative and misogynist way. Then there is the
feminist movement that tries to reinterpret Islamic texts
26
from a female point of view. Islamic feminists have a
strong argument because they can argue their point without
being observed as anti-Islamic (Khalil).
Many of us believe that discrimination against women
is imbedded in the religion of Islam. In reality it has
been interpretations and history that has created the
situations that activist Muslim women are trying to change
(Hussain). The Prophet Muhammed actually improved the
status of women in 7th century Arabia when he revealed the
word of God. Unwanted female newborns could be buried
alive before his revelation. Islam prohibited this
practice. Before Islam women were treated as possessions
of their husbands (Beyer p51). Under Islamic law,
education of girls became a sacred duty and gave women the
right to own and inherit property (Intro to Islam). Even
though Muhammed liberated women in his time, his teachings
are partly responsible for the current status of Muslim
women (El Solh pg 7). He determined the inequality of
women and passed it as God’s commandments and recorded them
in the Koran. In the Koran, it is written that men are
“one degree” above women in rank, and that men are
guardians to women. According to the Koran women’s
religious status and their social status is as high as that
of men. It states;
27
Lo! Men who surrender unto Allah and women who
surrender, and men who believe and women who believe,
and men who obey and women who obey, and men who speak
the truth, and women who speak the truth, and men who
preserve, and patient men and patient women and the
humble men and the humble women, and the charitable
men and the charitable women, and the fasting men and
the fasting women, and men who guard their chastity
and women who guard their chastity and men who
remember Allah and women who remember Allah has
prepared for them forgiveness and a mighty
reward.(Koran)
This verse reiterates several times that women can attain
every good quality to which men can have access and posits
that in the Koran women stand on the same spiritual level
as men (El Solh). However, when the Koran gives man a
slight edge over women it is not due to any inherent
weakness of the female sex, but because of the social
context (Engineer). According to the Koran, “men are
maintainers of women as Allah has made some to excel others
and as they spend out of their wealth (on women) (Koran
4:34).” In order to give an idea of how women came to lose
28
the social status given to them by Islam, there is a quote
from a Muslim writer who mentions what he thinks an ideal
woman should be:
An ideal woman speaks and laughs rarely and never
without a reason. She never leaves the house, even to
see neighbors or her acquaintance. She has no women
friends, confides in nobody, and relies only on her
husband. She accepts nothing from anyone, excepting
her husband and her parents. If she sees relatives,
she does not meddle in their affairs. She is not
treacherous, and has no faults to hide, nor wrong
reasons to proffer. She does not try to entice
people. If her husband shows the intention of
performing conjugal rites, she is agreeable to satisfy
his desires and occasionally rouses them. She always
assists him in his affairs. She does not complain
much and sheds few tears. She does not laugh or
rejoice when she sees her husband moody or sorrowful,
but shares his troubles, and cheers him up,, till he
is quite content again. She does not surrender
herself to anybody but her husband, even if abstinence
would kill her… Such a woman is cherished by everyone.
(Engineer pg 57)
29
The verse shows how men thought of women in medieval times,
but not how the Koran has portrayed women. Many Islamic
states view women in their medieval image and not in the
image portrayed by the Koran (Engineer).
30
Chapter 4
Parties Involved
Primary
There are two primary opposing parties involved in the
debate over Islamic feminism. One party looks at the
interpretation of the Koran and concentrates on women’s
interests within a social and political context. This
party consists of feminist social scientists who understand
the interpretations of the Koran and are educated enough to
understand Western views about Islam.
On the other side there is the party who oppose the
idea that activists and scholars can function in an
“Islamic framework.” They believe that there can not be
any improvement of the social status of women as long as an
Islamic Republic exists. This party primarily consists of
Western feminists who are educated in Western feminism and
with thoughts grounded in Western ideology.
Christians play a major role in this conflict because
they attack the religion of Islam. Out of all the
religions, Christianity is the least tolerant towards other
religions. Because of this distinction, Christians and
Westerners are used interchangeably in the analysis of this
conflict. Therefore, the conflict is chiefly comprised of
Muslim women and Western feminists. There are over one
31
billion Muslims found in the world today, but Western
feminists still think Muslim women are in need of
enlightenment. In the Westerners mind there is no
separation among the religion. Their view is, “all Muslim
women are oppressed.”
Secondary
The majority of the Muslim women targeted in this
conflict are Middle Eastern women. The major contenders
supporting the Western ideology are women in the United
States. The problem many Americans have is they are quick
to say what is right and what is wrong in their view, but
they need to recognize that not all women have the same
values and desires.
Interested Third Parties
Other parties involved in this conflict among
feminists are women against American feminism. The way
women perceive Western feminism varies and usually revolves
around the social status of women in that particular
society. Women who cannot identify with the American
feminist movement are not interested in helping the Western
feminist.
32
In her article Exporting feminism. (Transcending
National Boundaries) Jan Bethke Elshtain mentions an
interview she had during a trip to Central Eastern Europe.
She interviewed a young Czech journalist, Marketa Spinkova,
who says;
The Americans act like missionaries-as if there is
something wrong with us, with Czech women, if we don’t
believe we are victims. We think Americans must have
this problem, but they act as if we are backward and
as if mothers are less important than career women.
But we Czech women feel proud and sure of ourselves.
We have no doubt about our mental abilities. Also, we
are used to doubting everything. We are ironic and
this feminist fundamentalism doesn’t go with our
mentality. When I tell them, ‘I can’t take what you
are saying seriously,’ they cannot believe I mean it.
They are very strident in their beliefs. They hate
our doubts. It seems the Americans don’t care much
about what the Czechs have to say. They came here to
save us, it seems. But they don’t really listen to
us.
33
Chapter 5
Issues surrounding the Conflict
Issues Based on Facts
Although gender inequality is prevalent in the Middle
East, sexism and misogyny are not exclusive to Middle
Eastern countries. Gender inequality is a global
phenomenon and exists in countries throughout the world.
Muslim women are as diverse as Christian and or Western
women are but this fact is rarely noted. The stereotype of
Muslim women is as women who are weak, passive, and
oppressed because of the veil they wear. The truth is many
women of Islam have many political and social rights in
various Muslim countries. A few Muslim countries have had
women as leaders. A few examples are Bangladesh, Pakistan,
and Turkey.
Christianity, Islam, and Judaism have all subjugated
women at one time or another. Theologians –generally male
–have used the strictest interpretations of religion and
used those interpretations to obtain positions of authority
in order to “Lord” over women. Christians believe Eve was
created from Adam’s rib as interpreted by the Bible. The
Koran, however, does not make the distinction that Adam was
created first:
34
O mankind! Be conscious of your sustainer, who has
created you out of one living entity (nafs), and out
of it created its mate, and out of two spread abroad a
multitude of men and women. And remain conscious of
God, in whose name you demand your rights from one
another, and of these ties of kinship. Verily, God is
ever watchful over you! (4:1)
There is some discord about the meaning of “nafs” in the
translation of this verse. The word is translated in some
circles as “living entity”, while others believe the
translation to be “person.” Also the word mate is
questioned because in the verse “zawj” (mate) is considered
neutral and may be used to describe a male or female.
Because the verse doesn’t choose one sex over another many
Islamic feminists believe it proves that Islam is non-
biased and doesn’t advocate gender inequality. The verse
shows that God didn’t intend for women to be treated any
different than men. It also shows that since there isn’t a
distinction on who was created first man should not take it
upon themselves to “Lord” over the woman.
Another common theme found in the Koran is spiritual
equality among men and women. Islam believes all human
kind are held accountable for every facet of human behavior
35
(Gender Equality). As shown in a previously mentioned
verse and reiterated in the follow verse:
I shall not lose sight of the labor of any of you who
labors in My way, be it man or women; each of you is
equal to the other. (3:195)
The most important fact about this conflict is women’s
issues are important for all cultures because they address
the needs of the family and have an impact on society in
general (Fernea). Western feminists need to recognize
other forms of feminism and try not to impose their beliefs
on other cultures. The goals of Western feminists are not
compatible with Islamic feminists and shouldn’t be forced
upon Muslim women.
The feminist movement among Muslim women began after
Muslim women began to acquire literacy in Islamic matters
then they became aware of Islam’s original sources and the
interpretive process (Guindi). Women have had a strong
active presence since the 1970’s Islamic reawakening in the
Arab and Islamic countries (Khalil). Women from various
backgrounds- upper class, middle class, and rural-
identified with the movement. Non-western feminists’
struggles stem from larger movements, mainly nationalistic
36
and anti-colonist and tend to strengthen and empower women
rather than overshadow their feminist goal (Western
Feminists). There are many gender reforms appearing
throughout the Muslim world. A few examples are:
1. In Syria 26 of the 250 members of Parliament are
female, and in Iraq there are 19 women out of 250.
2. Four Muslim countries have had women as their leaders.
In Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia the women
became leaders as a result of death of a father or
husband. But in Turkey, former Prime Minister Tansu
Ciller won the election by her own merit.
3. Egypt banned female circumcision. Egypt has also made
it easier for women to obtain a divorce.
4. In Qatar women have the right to participate in
municipal elections.
5. Bahrain has assured women voters and candidates that
they will be included in the new elections (Beyer).
Christians or Westerners do not take into account that
attitudes vary from one class or generation to the other as
well as over time, just as the attitudes may differ from
one Muslim country to another. Western feminists have been
criticized because of their callous treatment and lack of
concern for learning about other cultures. The primary
37
country targeted for criticism is America. Westerners do
not take into account that feminism is “pluralistic and
complex.” Therefore, Western feminists need to understand
that non-Western women do not and will not have the same
ideas as Western women.
Issues Based on Values
The social status of the women of Islam is steeped in
many social, psychological, and economic traditions. If
Westerners were to try to understand the traditions then
they could push forward and understand the roles of the
male and female and maybe come up with ideas that improve
the situation of women in some Muslim countries. Muslim
women have a negative view in regards to the Western family
structure. They believe Western societies move away from
bonding and instead choose to have smaller alternative
family styles. Those styles are opposite the traditions
and customs found among Islamic societies. Islamic
societies normally have an “extended family’ rather than a
nuclear family system. They also believe the family as a
whole should participate in preserving and contracting
marriages (al-Faruqi). Muslims believe the Koran advocates
the concept of an “extended family solidarity.”
38
Another tradition that is hard for Westerners to
understand is the concept of arranged marriages.
Westerners believe arranged marriages have a negative
connotation because the idea lacks consideration of an
individuals freedom. Muslims, on the other hand, believe
arranged marriages have distinct advantages for the
individual and for society as a whole. There belief is the
marriage is more substantial if the marriage is based on
more than mere “physical attraction and sexual
infatuation.” Because of the extended family, Muslims do
not have the marriage problems that most Westerners face.
For instance, when a couple argues the whole family is
involved and there are mediators who provide advice and
counseling following disagreements. Because of familial
mediation, parental discourse is not a major problem among
Muslims as it is among Western societies. Since the home
is always occupied there isn’t any need for parents to feel
guilty for working as the single mom does in western
society.
A problem Muslim women have in regards to Western
society is the concept of “Individualism vs. The Larger
Organization.” Islamic society falls in to the category of
a high-context society. A high context society is a
society that concentrates on family and the community
39
rather than individual goals as described in the following
passage;
Islam and Muslim women generally advocate molding of
individual goals and interests to accord with the
welfare of the larger group and its members. Instead
of holding the goals of the individual supreme, Islam
instills in the adherent a sense of his or her place
within the family and of a responsibility to that
group. This is not perceived or experienced by
Muslims as repression of the individual (al- Faruqui
p2).
A Muslim woman would not disregard her relationship to the
family in order to pursue separate goals. Muslim women
believe the separate roles given to males and females are
honorable roles. They believe in equality in the family
rather than destroying the family.
Even though Muslim and Westerners have a wide range of
incompatible issues, some of the goals of Muslim women are
compatible with Western feminists. Some examples are;
equal access to divorce, equal access to child custody, and
equal inheritance. However, Muslim women believe religion
is the means to achieving their goals. They don’t regard
religion as a barrier to women’s rights. The religious
40
structure is a basis for change. They believe they will be
able to challenge the traditional dominant male view and
try to provide a different interpretation of the Koran that
will benefit Muslim women (Fernea).
41
Issues Based on Interests
The challenges of reforming attitudes toward gender in
Islam are found when we analyze the intellectual, legal,
and theological context (Elias p 3). The primary problem
is in the theological context alone. For an example, if
one is going to do a theological interpretation of the
Koran one has to know how to read the language. The
problem is the Koran is taught in a theological context
only to men. When women try to interpret the Koran they
have little or no education in any theological institutions
and therefore cannot debate theological matters.
Then the question is “how else can one interpret the
religious text or source, other than by engaging in the
traditional interpretive institutions?” One solution is to
systematically reject the religious interpretation that
dates back over 1400 years. This implies that one has to
derive inspiration straight from the Koran without any
references to the traditional theological context. The
problem with this method is one would have to reject
tradition and not only leaves room for feminist
interpretation, but interpretation for everyone. Another
problem is that with this method is basically saying that
people who are against this position represent 1400 years
of patriarchal reign.
42
Issues Based on Perceptions
It is hard to pinpoint countries that are witnessing
Islamic feminist movement. The main reason is the
definition of rights for women vary from country to
country. Westerners typically believe Islamic women are in
need of guidance. The way westerners regard the veil or
burka (veil) is a prime example. Westerners believe the
women of Islam who wear the veil are oppressed. In
actuality, coverings are technically optional in most
Islamic countries. Some women wear the veil because they
like them. They believe they are free from unwanted gazes
and hassles of men when they are covered. It is
understandable that women don not want to have the unwanted
attention of men. In our society where breast implants and
liposuction are the norm, it must be beneficial not
worrying about such things. One American Muslim women
states, “When non-Muslim Americans meet Muslim Women, they
“tend to feel sorry for you. ‘Your husband makes you wear
that?’ They don’t understand it’s a personal choice
(Republican pp 3D).” Another woman says, “Oppression is
not the scarf.” She believes “oppression is wearing the
western fashion, which (she believes) turns women into
objects to be coveted by men.” She goes on to say, “I get
43
more respect now than I ever did before. It’s nice to know
men are listening to me rather than checking me out.”
Identifying the reasoning behind the veil is important
for understanding women of Islam. Sexual anxiety is the
main purpose for many of the strict rules regarding Muslim
women (Beyer). The fear of arousing lust in men is why
they have to cover their bodies in the strictest
interpretation of the Koran. The Koran states women must
“guard their modesty” not to “display their beauty and
ornaments” and to “draw their veils (Introduction to
Islam).” Many other religions have had practices in order
to curtail women’s sexuality (Bodman p 41). Female
circumcision or female genital cutting (FGC) is a crucial
example. There are three types of female genital cutting
(Kouba). They are:
1. Sunna circumcisions- Where the prepuce (the tip of the
clitoris) is removed.
2. Clitoridectomy- This procedure consists of removing
the entire clitoris (both prepuce and glans) and the
adjacent labia.
3. Infibulation- This is the most extreme form and
consists of removing the clitoris, the adjacent labia
44
and joining the scraped sides of the vulva across the
vagina. The sides are secured with thorns or sewn
with catgut or thread. There is a small opening left
to allow the passage of urine and menstrual blood. An
infibulated woman must be cut open to allow
intercourse on the wedding night and is closed again
afterwards to secure fidelity to the husband.
These procedures are performed around the age of three
sometimes much older, depending on the ritual or custom of
the region. It is done in unsanitary conditions in which a
midwife uses unclean sharp objects such as razor blades,
scissors, kitchen knives, and pieces of glass (Kouba pp
96). Sterilization and anesthesia are not used, causing
the transmission of viruses such as HIV and other
infections. Some women have even died from the procedure
as a result of hemorrhaging or going into shock. In
various cultures FGM is performed to “cleanse” the woman.
The woman is perceived as unmarriageable and a great danger
to a man if her clitoris touches his penis (Kouba pp 98).
Female circumcision is usually associated with Islam
primarily to continue the negative image of Islam by
Westerners (Bodman p42). The practice of FGC dates by to
ancient times. Many sources believe the custom began in
45
the Nile Valley in ancient Egypt. In the beginning the
type of circumcision depended on the class. For instance,
clitoridectemy may have been a premarital rite of upper
class women, and infibulations was more common in enslaved
women. Infibulated women were priced higher on the market
because men believed they were less likely to get pregnant.
FGM did not originate with Islam, but actually predates it
by 2500 years. The custom is not found among most Muslims,
Sunni or Shi’a (Bodman). In Saudi Arabia, the cradle of
Islam, the practice is unknown. Iran does not practice the
custom and they have the largest Shi’a Muslim population
(Bodman). The custom does not coincide with Islamic
teachings because the main reason for practicing FGC is to
suppress a woman’s sexuality. The Prophet Muhammed does
not only state women have the right to sexual satisfaction
within the context of marriage, but also can initiate
sexual intercourse (Koran 4:1). The Prophet is also known
to have granted divorce to a woman whose husband was
sexually impotent (Bodman pp 43). In Islam sexual
intercourse does not have the stigma of sin as with
Christianity it is also considered a meritorious act within
the context of marriage. Even though westerners are
enraged by the practice of FGC, they need to acknowledge
that Africa and Middle Eastern countries weren’t the only
46
countries concerned with suppressing women’s sexuality. In
the mid-nineteenth century to early twentieth centuries,
clitoridiectomies and oophorectomies (removal of the
ovaries) were practiced in the United States and England as
cures for female masturbation, hysteria, and insanity. In
1936,just over sixty years ago, L. Emmett Holt’s text
Diseases of Infancy and Childhood recommended removal of
the clitoris as treatment for masturbation. In essence,
FGC should not be thought of as an Islamic practice, when
Christians have been known to perform the ritual.
Education about the dangers of FGC will no doubt eliminate
the process altogether.
Non-Western women, on the other hand, believe Western
feminists’ concerns are frivolous and not conducive to
establishing a stable nation (Elshtain p541). For
instance, issues in developing countries revolve around
government sponsored abductions, torture and lacking goods.
Worrying about reproductive rights and patriarchal religion
is not a priority for non-Western women. Non-Western women
have a different way of life, hold different values, and in
this particular analysis, follow a different religion.
Because of these differences women in non-Western societies
have different criteria for evaluating ideas and behavior.
Muslim women actually view western feminists negatively.
47
There are reasons Muslim women do not want to be
recognized as “feminists.” There are misconceptions on
both sides of the coin in regards to Western women and
Muslim women. For instance, Muslim women have the
following difficulties that they identify with the feminist
movement in the United States
1. Middle Eastern women view United States feminism as
all flash and no substance. If women are able to vote
and participate equally in society, then why is it
that women in the United States do not receive equal
pay, nor do they receive maternity leave.
2. The feminist movement in the United States is not
involved in politics and does not focus on improving
the nation. An example of patriotism of the feminist
movement in the Middle East is when Egyptian women
protested against the British during colonialism.
3. United States feminist movements are secular, rather
than religious. Islamic women believe that religion
is a force for freedom, unlike individuals in the
United States who often view religion as oppressive.
It is clear that there are definite misconceptions from
both sides. Each point or perception listed above is
48
based on myth or a half-truth. Muslim women typically
believe that Western feminists want to move towards a
androgynous society. They think Western feminists want to
have one set of roles and concerns that can be pursued by
everyone in society, regardless of sex or gender.
Many women in Western societies do not understand
feminism, so how can we question an Islamic woman’s
perception of feminism? A good explanation of feminism can
be found in Sexual Politics, written by Kate Millet.
Millet explains feminism by using literary passages and
quotes found in books by D.H. Lawrence, Henry Miller, and
Norman Mailer. The passages she uses show how men use sex
for power. She illustrates how our patriarchal society
uses biological differences between men and women in order
to make men always appear to be dominating or aggressive
and women are always subordinate or passive. By using
pornographic passages she shows how men are often unaware
or do not care about women’s pleasure or consent. Millet’s
passages are important in understanding Western feminism
because one of the problems of our patriarchal society is a
women’s pleasure is often seen as a taboo. Millet’s book
is a bit dated, because society is coming to terms with the
possibility of women achieving sexual pleasure. Women in
Western societies now have as many sexual relationships as
49
men. It is no longer important for a woman to be “pure”
before she gets married.
The message Millet is trying to convey is “destroy the
sex/gender system-the basic source of women’s oppression-
and create a new society in which men and women are equals
at every level of existence.” Millet’s book seems to be a
fantasy because although it is true that oppression of
women is due to our patriarchal sex/gender system there is
no way women and men will be treated equally on all levels.
The legal status of women will begin to change over time,
but it is as one radical feminists argues, “unless God is
dethroned from both men’s and women’s consciousness, women
will never be empowered as full persons.”
Muslim women have the same problem with
“differentiation of sex roles.” As previously stated,
Muslim women believe there is honor in what is considered
traditional female roles. They believe Western society
belittles traditional female roles such as childrearing and
give reverence to those positions identified with males
such as providing financial support. This concept is a
major dispute for Muslim women because they believe that
both types of roles are necessary when coupled with
religion and the division of labor is a great benefit for
all members of society. Islamic tradition maintains that
50
women’s rights are equal to man, but they are different
rights. In Islamic societies it is necessary to maintain
the individual rights and complement one another rather
than competing for the same positions in society.
When analyzing Islamic societies we need to analyze
equality for women in a larger context. Muslims see the
physical differences among men and women as an honor. They
believe that because women can have babies they must be
provided for economically by males. Women have a much
greater responsibility by having babies and because of this
“special ability” it is seen as a duty for men to provide
for women. Bearing children is not a burden as portrayed
by Western feminists. Because of the duty for the male to
provide for females the differences in the amount of
inheritance giving to male and females are often
misconstrued as discrimination against women. The system
is only trying to make it known that women don’t have a
legal responsibility to provide for other members of the
family, while men are legally bound to provide for all of
their female relatives.
Muslims, however, do believe the status of women could
stand some evolving. Many men and women of Islam believe
their societies are not following Islamic ideals and
traditions as written in the Koran. As note previously,
51
women did not historically have a less equal status in
Muslim societies. These men and women also believe that
one should not blame Islam for mistreatment of women, but
the men who choose to misinterpret the directives of the
Koran.
Another problem facing the evolution of feminism in
Islamic societies is the question of, “separate legal
status for women.” Islamic tradition considers every male
and female have a separate identity in society. In Islamic
societies women have the right to “have contracts, conduct
business, and to earn and posses property independently.”
Because of this marriage has no consequence regarding a
woman’s legal status. Western feminist also support the
same legal status for women in marriage. The misconception
is Western feminist do not know of Muslim women’s legal
rights. Western feminists channel all their misconceptions
of the fact that women of Islam “have to wear the veil.”
Because of the veil Western feminist believe Muslim women
need to demand the same rights that they have historically
fought for. Muslim women believe they have already achieved
separate legal status, whereas Western feminists have only
recent achieved this very same goal. Even in Saudi Arabia
women own banks and run their own hospitals. One can argue
52
that women achieved this great feat out of necessity, but
no one can snub this achievement.
Western society also tends to criticize the concept of
polygamy found in Islam. Polygamy is a misunderstood
concept because Westerners typically believe that Islam
uses polygamy to subjugate women of Islam. Although it is
true that Islam allows men to have more than one wife as
written in the Koran, polygamy is not a common practice for
all Muslims. Muslims resort to polygamy only in
exceptional circumstances. For instance, a man may marry a
widow who lost her husband during a war. Another instance
polygamy may be used is as a tool to unite different
families in order to maintain peace. Polygamy is not a
widespread phenomenon among Muslims. Therefore, the women
of Islam would not support Western feminists ideas of
eliminating this practice.
53
Chapter 6
Dynamics Surrounding the Conflict
Precipitating Events
The concept of feminism is grounded in history. Women
in the United States would often use the term, “you’ve come
a long way baby.” The Hubertine Auclert founded the term
feminism in the 1880s when she criticized male dominance in
her journal La Citoyenne (Badran). Feminism has many
sides and exists in diverse communities throughout the
world. The concept first appeared in Britain during the
18th century and appeared in the United States during the
1910s. Feminism has origins in Egypt as early as 1920.
Feminism may have originated in the West, but the concept
is fast becoming a global phenomenon. Feminist movements
began to appear in various countries throughout the world.
The concept began growing in the 1960s, but became a
phenomenon in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1986 Sri Lankan
scholar Kumar Jayawardena wrote about the feminist
movements that were appearing in Asian and Middle Eastern
countries. Even though feminism existed among diverse
backgrounds, people still see the concept as a Western
ideology.
Islamic feminism came into play during the 1990s.
Scholars used books to spread the word about Islamic
54
feminism. The term was appearing in books by Iranian women
in 1992, one Saudi Arabian scholar wrote about feminism and
Islam in 1996, finally a Turkish woman wrote about Islamic
feminism in Turkish in 1991 and the book was written in
English in 1996.
The United States was not concerned with the plight of
the Muslim women until the rise of the Taliban in
Afghanistan in 1995. There were e-mails generated (before
September 11, 2001) petitioning a signature to send to the
White House in order to get the United States to recognize
the horrible torture of women in Afghanistan. The point of
the e-mail was to get the United States to intervene as
they had in Bosnia. After the attack on September 11, 2001
Muslim women everywhere are seen as victims. The United
States did not try to intervene with the human rights of
Muslim women until the attack on America. The Department
of State issued a pamphlet in order to justify going to war
with Afghanistan. The plight of the Muslim women was not
the primary issue involved.
55
Stereotyping
The Taliban’s War on Women is a prime example of how
the Koran is misinterpreted and used to oppress women. The
Taliban’s example is not a model of the women of Islam.
Islamic feminists have been trying to challenge the whole
notion of a patriarchal society and attack the basis of
what Islamic law is today. Islamic feminists have been
trying to argue that over 1400 years of interpretation is
wrong. The challenge is trying to come up with another
interpretation of the following verse in the Koran:
Men are the protectors and maintainers of women,
because Allah has given the one more than the other,
and because they support them from their means.
Therefore, the righteous women are devoutly obedient,
and [guard in their husbands’] absence what Allah
would have them guard. As to those women on whose
part you fear disloyalty and misconduct, admonish
them, refuse to share their beds, and then strike
them; but if they return to obedience, then do not
seek revenge against them, for Allah is Most High,
Great (4:34).
This verse is the basis of Western feminists’ argument
against Islam. One Islamic feminist (Rifat Hassan)
believes the interpretation of the verse is wrong because
56
of the way differences in medieval grammar. She sites the
errors in the verse by stating, “where the Koran says that
‘men are protectors and maintainers of women’, it means
that men are supposed to take care of the women when women
are preoccupied with duties where they cannot take care of
themselves, such as child rearing and childbirth. She goes
on the interpret or reinterpret, “Allah has given the one
more than the other,” as one man might have more than
another, therefore men should maintain women according to
their own person capacities, relative to other men (39-64).
The part about striking women she says the verse refers to
instances where large number of women are disobedient and
when women refuse to cooperate and thereby causing a crisis
in the community. Then it is acceptable to strike women,
but only as a final resort. This is one of the examples of
how Islamic feminists have been trying to reinterpret the
Koran based on gender.
Islam varies from one extreme to another with no mid-
level. The first extreme concentrates on “Islamic-
exceptionalism,” which states that Islam isn’t like other
religions and therefore it doesn’t allow for any separation
between church and state (Elias p1). Muslims usually say,
“Islam is not just a religion, but a way of life.” The
other extreme is to say Islam is just like any other
57
religion, Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism etc. The reality
is that Islam falls in between the two extremes.
Muslims contend that Islam cannot separate church and
state. However, when a twentieth century Islamic society
is analyzed one finds that the religion engages debates and
arguments that is quite different from other religions,
especially Christianity. Many Muslims believe that
separation of church and state is impossible. Elias
introduces term laicization in his article “Secularization,
Laicization, and Challenges to Feminist reform in the
Islamic World,”
Many Muslims argue that it is impossible for a Muslim
to be secular, and are not ready to accept this term
for any Muslim majority society. In contrast to that,
“laicization” is a better term. Laicization is the
systematic separation of religious institutions from
those of the state. That’s where a lot of the debate
in Islamic societies tends to lie, today and in the
last century. There is, in fact, no substantial
secularizing in the history of modern Islamic
societies. The only exceptions are the Islamic states
that have emerged from the communist umbrella or that
are still under residual communist control, such as
Kazakhstan and perhaps Albania. There are obviously
58
secular space and secular individuals in Islamic
societies, but they don’t really interact with anyone
else. For example, social elites are secular in many
Islamic societies, but these same social elites cease
to be secular if they want to communicate effectively
with anyone outside their own social group, because
mass governance doesn’t operate in secular terms. So
laicization works better as a term than secularization
does because the whole debate ends up being about the
role of religion in society and whether or not
characters who, in fact, had reputations in their own
time as misogynists, and that their misuse of
interpretation was propagated in the canonization of
this literature, while another set of traditions that
did not have that kind of attitude was suppressed.
A positive example of a laicising society is Turkey.
Turkey’s history of laicising begins at the start of the
19th century. However, people do not become conscious of
the terms secularism and laicization until the 20th century.
After the Turkish Republic was created at the end of the
World War I, there was approximately two decades when a
conscious attempt was made to secularize at the national
level and the state level. The creation of a secular
59
republic was followed by twenty-five years of religious
persecution, and then lifting of that persecution and the
establishment of some religious institutions under the
control of the state. In the 1980s, under the religious
right party called Anavatan, or Motherland, the distinction
between religious institutions and state institutions began
to blur, the blur was further pronounced under Refah, the
Salvaltion Front, which was in power in Turkey for the
first half of the 1990s, primarily at the municipal level.
During this period, there was a intentional public debate
on laicization; in fact, when Refah came to power the major
Turkish journal of the study of religion devoted an entire
special issue to the laicization question. This is
remarkable because journals are used to historically
document the issues involving separation of church and
state. The conflict of church and state serves as the
primary obstacle when debating Islamic feminism.
60
Chapter 7
Results
The conflict between Islamic feminist and Western
feminists is an ongoing conflict and does not seem to have
an ending. Western feminists need to acknowledge Islamic
feminism as a global phenomenon. Islamic feminism can be
found in various Muslim countries throughout the world and
has an enormous impact on a lot of those countries. For
instance, Saudi Arabia and Iran have felt some of the
impact of Islamic feminism and has had many reforms to
enhance the status of women.
In Saudi Arabia women have a high level of educational
opportunity (Amnesty International). Women represent 55
percent of university graduates, own 40 percent of private
wealth, and own 15,000 commercial establishments, but they
cannot participate in any dealings regarding their
businesses. In spite of the harsh conditions that confront
women in Saudi Arabia, there has been an attempt to expand
the volume of interaction with women. The Saudi Arabian
government has pledged to start giving women ID cards
(Beyer). A woman has her name on her husband’s ID card in
order to show proof of identity. If she is granted a
divorce, her name will be placed on her father’s card. If
her father is dead, then she has to use her brother’s card,
61
and if she has no brother she is to use her closest male
relative, even if she doesn’t know him. A Riyadh
translator believes once women have a separate identity
then other things will come. Muslim women in Saudi Arabia
have a lot to look forward to as far as things to come.
The establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in
1979 has enhanced the status of women in their society
(Women in Iran). Women in Iran enjoy a high degree of
liberty, they drive cars, buy and sell property, run their
own businesses, vote and hold public office (Beyer pp54).
But they cannot travel overseas without permission from
their husband or father, even though the rule is basically
ignored in Iran.
When the United Nations’ “Decade of Women” established
the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies and focused global
attention on women’s affairs, the Islamic Republic of Iran
offered new guidelines on women’s development to be
reviewed by the international institutions. The guidelines
stem from the idea of equality of all men and women,
women’s tutorial guidance of human society, defining men’s
and women’s social relations in regards to ethical and
human values upheld by Islam and most importantly on the
need for women’s participation in decision-making processes
at all levels. The constitution of Iran states;
62
Article 20- all the nation, men and women, are equally
protected by the law, and enjoy every political,
economic, social, cultural and human right in
accordance with Islamic principles.
Article 21-the government is obligated to assure the
rights of women, in every dimension, in accordance
with Islamic principles and to carry out the following
tasks;
1. Creation of appropriate grounds for the growth of
women’s personality ensuring their material and
spiritual rights.
2. Creation of a support system for mothers,
particularly expecting mothers
3. Creation of a social security service for the
widowed and the elderly women.
The Islamic Consultative Assembly, Iran’s Parliament, has
nine women representatives out of 270. The number of women
in the parliament has more than doubled compared to
previous numbers. The ratio of men to women is small, but
there is a substantial increase in he number of women
running for office.
63
Women in Iran are overcoming many constraints that
hindered their education, and the academic gap between men
and women is closing. The illiteracy rate is still higher
among women and school enrollment is still higher for men.
Women have been able to pursue their education at the
university level and are able to obtain jobs suitable for
their talents and abilities. Also Iranian women have a
five percent higher average than the men of Iran. Women
also seem to prefer professional jobs and have obtained
prosperity in different employment sectors.
Iranians believe the Koran emphasizes equality of men
and women and a true Muslim is one who unconditionally and
willingly steps in the direction of attaining the status of
“The Perfect Human Being.” Iranian women are empowered
with moral excellence and are active in the various
material aspects of life because of the intellectual
changes of the past fifteen years.
64
Chapter 8
Alternative Routes to Solutions
What has been tried?
There have been a number of conferences held in honor
of Muslim women. George Washington University (GWU) held
such a conference in 1996. The conference titled, “Beijing
and Beyond: Implementing the Platform for Action in Muslim
Societies,” concentrated on women as leaders and their
participation regarding civil society building in Muslim
societies and the effect of social and cultural segregation
of women and contradictory and conflicting legal codes on
women’s human rights. The central issues revolved around
the relationship between legal rights and women’s
participation in interpreting religious texts; religious
higher education for women as a human rights; literature as
a tool for civic awareness; and legal literacy.
Holding conferences is a viable way to get an
important message across, but it doesn’t do any good if we
are unaware of these conferences. These conferences need
to be advertised just as if we advertise the coming of
Black history month every year. Women’s issues seem to be
miniscule and are used as ways to divide women. Instead of
dividing the women, these conferences should be used to
65
unite women as easily as the “Million Man March” held by
the Honorable Louis Farrakhan in 1995. By the same token,
a “Million Women March” held in 1997, but received little
press. Therefore, how can women come together if women’s
Conferences are treated as unimportant?
If this conference were advertised on CNN or the Oprah
Winfrey show then some of the issues would be known to our
society today. The women at the conference called for
redefining Muslim women and challenging the myriad of
political interests. While other women wanted to ignore
Western feminists’ ideology and fight within the system of
Islam and still maintain their identity as Muslim women.
One woman reasonably suggested that there should be a
constructive quality in these conferences and not as
confrontational. The feeling of us against them was
radiating from the article I read about this conference.
Recently, the United States has had to come to terms
with issues involving gender congruent with issues of
class, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation in order to
understand the various feminists movements found in the
United States. An example of an issue that needed to be
addressed can be found in Millet’s book Sexual Politics
because she quotes a famous speech by Sojourner Truth
completely out of context (p 72). Truth’s speech became
66
famous among Black women because she is advocating the
rights of Black women. Millet’s underlying assumption is
that all women are going through the same experience as
White women. After she quotes Sojourner Truth she goes on
to say how women are always portrayed as ladies and should
act a certain way. However, images of black women are
never seen as ladies and that is the heart of Sojourner
Truth’s famous speech. The stereotypes of black women are
usually “mammy, matriarch, Sapphire, whore, or bulldagger.”
Presently women are having to come to terms with this type
of grouping together. Feminists are coming to understand
the historically feminism addressed the problems of the
privileged such as Western, white, middle-class,
heterosexual women. Now feminists need to address not just
another culture, but another religion as well. Western
feminists see themselves as saviors. They are trying to
help Muslim women by depicting roles Muslim women should
want to imitate. The problem is Muslim women do not want
to imitate a model that they regard with such disdain.
Islamic feminists have been trying to engage Islamic
values and teachings rather than trying to reject the
religion as Western feminist have done. One of the reasons
is that when feminists groups attempt to ignore religion
and pursue a Western based view of feminism has failed.
67
They have met with failure because Islam does not provide
secular positions when discussing feminism. Therefore, any
movement that does not embrace Islam has no effect on those
they are trying to “help.” As Elias notes, “The notion of
secular space in Islamic society is an oxymoron, because
simply by referring to it as ‘Islamic society,’ we’re
talking about a society that is defined in religious
terms.”
Islamic feminists are also trying to engage religion in
their writings because the only way to communicate with the
women of Islam is through their religion. As noted
previously many Islamic feminists have been taking the
apologetic stance towards religion. Leila Ahmed addresses
this issue in her book Women and Gender in Islam by
stating, “a lot of Islamic feminists have seen or felt
within the Islamic texts an egalitarian message which is
not apparent to non-Muslim readers of the text, nor is it
even apparent to a lot of the anti-feminists among the
Muslims themselves (pp 65-66).”
68
What has not been tried?
The problem the United States has is lack of education
about other cultures. In our society we don not take the
time to learn about other cultures that exist here in the
United States so there is no way we can began to understand
international cultures. Our education is so lacking that
after the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 President
Bush had to announce that not all Muslims are “bad.” If
the United States had some literature about other cultures
taught in our elementary and secondary schools there
wouldn’t be a need for an announcement say that all Muslims
aren’t bad. It can be argued that we learn about other
cultures in college, but that is by choice. My proposed
plan of study is to have one year mandatory cultural
studies at the high school level. If we expose ourselves
to other cultures, we probably will not be so quick to
judge one another so harshly.
Western feminists and Muslim women need to think of
ways to present a united front. From my understanding
Muslims tolerate other religions and have respect for any
religion of the “Book.” Western feminists do not try to
understand other religions. A prime example is the recent
incident in Florida. A woman was granted permission to
wear the veil in her driver’s license photo. E-mail were
69
generated by some ignorant person saying how foreigners
need to adapt and do what is American. The problem is
there are Muslim women in America. The woman could very
well have been a member of the Nation of Islam for all this
person knew. We need to confront our prejudices and try to
understand that there are other cultures here in America.
Not all incidents involving another religion necessarily
involve another country.
70
Chapter 9
Conclusion
The future of Western and Islamic Feminism
Two major questions that remain important for
integrating Western feminism and Islamic feminism are:
1. What can we learn about the future compatibility or
incongruity of feminism in a Muslim environment from
facts about Islamic traditions?
2. Are there any general principles to be gained, any
directives to be taken, by those who work for
women’s rights and human rights in the world?
The most important point of this understanding is that
many of the goals of Western feminism are not as important
when evaluating other cultures. As we learned, the
historical evolution of each of these two schools of
thought has a different outlook when examined side by side.
Because of the differences found in history and Islamic
feminism, an analysis of women in Islam is going to be
decidedly different. In order to find a feminism that
women of Islam are going to identify with we must identify
what ideology Islamic feminist follow. Since Western
feminism began by trying to establish legal rights already
granted to Muslim women it is useless to try to advocate
71
these rights in an Islamic feminist movement. A feminist
movement that is not indigenous to Muslim societies is sure
to be a failure.
Muslims contend that a successful feminist movement
will embrace Islamic traditions and culture. Islam has
traditions and cultural aspects that do not necessarily
mirror a Western feminist movement. For instance, the fact
that Western feminists attack religion in their movement is
a sore subject among Islamic feminists. As al-Faruqi
states, “Muslim women view the teachings of Islam as their
best friend and supporter.” The directives found in the
Koran embody the ideal which Muslim women want to encourage
not denounce. Muslim women do not see their religion as
an enemy. They believe other societies need to learn more
about true Islam and not be preyed upon by, “ignorance,
distortion, and exploitations of individuals” found in
Western societies.
The gynocentric concept found in Western feminism
needs to be addressed when establishing a successful
Islamic feminist movement. Because Islam is a high-context
society the goal of a feminist movement needs to benefit
the society as a whole. They believe in establishing a
good for all instead of one or as in this case one sector
of society. Succinctly put, if Muslims were to concentrate
72
only a women’s needs it would be because it is beneficial
to society as a whole. Western feminists tend to
concentrate on the advancement of women, but they never
mention what happens to family. In order to involve Muslim
women in any feminist movement we must address the issue of
family.
In order to establish unity among feminists we must
understand that Islam influences every aspect of Muslim
societies. Islam has an effect on the political, social,
economic, and psychological aspects of Muslim societies.
The traditions found in Islam serve as a main source for
uniting Muslims. If Western feminists continue to deny or
try to eradicate Islam than any attempt at an Islamic
feminist movement will fail. We need to understand that
the women of Islam are not oppressed in all Muslim
societies. They are as diversified as the American woman.
Even though some women exist in harsh conditions, others do
not. All religions have positive aspects as well as
negative ones. Western feminists need to acknowledge the
fact that women have just recently attained equal status in
Western societies. Women in Western societies had to come
over obstacles just as many Muslim women may have to.
Their style of dress, however, should not be the only
73
reason we consider them oppressed. Especially when we find
women who believe Islam gives them “freedom (Beyer).”
74
Bibliographical Essay
After the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001
America’s curiosity about religion of Islam escalated.
Normally public opinion about the Islamic religion is often
negative. The Muslim people are seen as violent oppressors
of women. Although it may be true in some countries, the
fact is Muslim people represent a variety of societies and
communities where there are different interpretations of
the Koran in regards to the female role and status in
Islamic societies. Although, there are a myriad of
articles written about the women of Islam the articles used
for this thesis concentrated on Islamic feminism.
Margot Badran’s articles were very helpful in defining
Islamic feminism. For instance, Badran gives a definition
of Islamic feminism in “Islamic Feminism, What’s in a
name?” Badran goes into detail about the cultural aspects
of Islamic feminism and she explains the differences among
feminisms in “Feminisms and Islamism.” Finally, Badran has
a third article that explains the essential differences
regarding feminism and religion among women of Islam in
“Understanding Islam, Islamisms, and Islamic Feminism.”
The articles that compare Islamic feminism and Western
feminism are helpful in trying to see what specific issues
needed to be addressed regarding this conflict. An example
75
of an outstanding article is by Jean Bethke Elshtain.
Elshtain goes to the heart of the cultural problem in
various feminists societies in “Exporting Feminism.
(Transcending national Boundaries).”
One of the most influential classes that helped
understand conflict and culture was “Culture and Conflict”
taught by Dr. Kevin Avruch at George Mason University. Dr.
Avruch’s class gives a basis for what culture is and helped
in explaining how one should look at the women of Islam.
Other articles that helped in understanding culture were
Shahrzad Mojab’s “’Muslim’ Women and ‘Western’ Feminists:
The Debate on Particulars and Universals.” Susan muaddi
Darraj’s “Understanding the Other Sister: The Case of Arab
Feminism.”
Although many of the works consulted were good reads
some of the articles were repetitive to the works already
cited. With that said if some of the less important
articles were read first they may have had more impact on
the research for this thesis.
76
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___________________________________________________________
Biographical Statement
Jennifer Saporia King is a Presidential Management Intern
for the class of 2005. She will begin working as a Foreign
Affairs Officer for the United States Department of State
in September 2003. Prior to completing her Master’s of
Science Degree in International Studies at Central
Connecticut State University, she earned a B.A. in English
from Spelman College in Atlanta, GA, a Paralegal
certificate from Augusta State University in Augusta, GA,
and a Arabic certificate from the Defense Language
Institute in Monterey, CA. She served six years as an
Arabic linguist in the United States Navy.
