DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 358 712 FL 021 255

TITLE Training for Sustainability of ELT Aid Projects.Dunford House Seminar Report (England, UnitedKingdom, July 23-28, 1990).

INSTITUTION British Council, London (England).PUB DATE 91NOTE 77p.; For other Dunford House Seminar proceedings,

see FL 021 247-257.AVAILABLE FROM English Language Division, The British Council,

Medlock Street, Manchester M15 4AA, England, UnitedKingdom.

PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Case Studies; Developing Nations; *Economic

Development; Elementary Secondary Education; *English(Second Language); Foreign Countries; HigherEducation; Instructional Effectiveness; *Long RangePlanning; Models; *Program Effectiveness; ProgramEvaluation; Second Language Instruction; *SecondLanguage Programs: *Techrical Assistance

IDENTIFIERS India (West Bengal); Pakistan; Philippines; SierraLeone; South Africa; Tanzania; Togo

ABSTRACTProceedings of a seminar on English second language

teaching (ELT) in technical assistance programs, focusing on elementsthat contribute to program continuance, are presented in the form ofsummaries of presentations and case studies. Topics include: theeffects of the training provided on the sustainability of thetraining projects themselves; large classes; placement policy;sustaining programs in normal circumstances; host institutiondevelopment; factors contributing to project breakdown and projectsustainability; categories of personnel involved in projects;training for the management of local institutions; conversations ofBritish agents with their overseas counterparts concerning their roleand needs; the host organization's role; effects of training in theUnited Kingdom to project sustainability; creating models of projectmanagement; teaching and learning in context; evaluation of technicalcooperation training; and the principles underlying the evaluation oftraining. Case studies for West Bengal (India), Togo, Tanzania,Sierra Leone, the Philippines, Pakistan, and South Africa are alsoincluded. (MSE)

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Dunford Seminar Report 1990

Training for sustainability of ELT aid projects

The British Council promotes Britain abroad. It.provides access to British ideas, talents and experiencein education and training, books and periodicals; theEnglish language, the arts, the sciences andtechnology.

All enquiries to

English Language DivisionThe British Council10 Spring GardensLondon SW1A 2BN

Engraving of Dunford House, near Midhurst, WestSussex, where the seminar has generally been heldsince 1979, by Sue Scullard

Published byThe British Council 1991

c The British Council 1991

Cover printed in Britain byTWP Services Ltd

4

The Dunford House Seminar

This is an annual residential seminar run by the EnglishLanguage Division of the British Council. It focuses onODA-funded ELT projects and serves as a forum for theexchange of ideas and experience through theparticipation of ELT professionals involved in variousareas of project delivery. These include BritishCouncil career officers, British Council contract,ODA-funded, English Language Teaching Officers(ELTOs), UK Higher Education ELT specialists andrepresentatives from private sector institutions. Theseminar functions as a think-tank on the design,implementation and evaluation of ELT projects. Thereport is distributed to a wide readership in theprofession in the UK and throughout the developingworld.

Previous seminar topics

1978 ESP course design

1979 ELT course design

1980 Communicative methodology

1981 Design, evaluation and testing in Englishlanguage projects

1982 Teacher training and the curriculum

1983 Design and implementation of teacher trainingprogrammes

1984 Curriculum and syllabus design in ELT

1985 Communication skills training in bilateral aidprojects

1986 Appropriate methodology

1987 ELT and development: the place of Englishlanguage teaching in aid programmes

1988 ELT in development aid: defining aims andmeasuring results

1989 Managing ELT aid projects for sustainability

English Language DivisionThe British Council10 Spring GardensLondon SW1A 2BN

5

Acknowledgements

The English Language Di vision of the British Councilwould like to thank the staff of Dunford House and itsPrincipal, Dr Denis Payne, for their continuedassistance and co-operation which ensured the smoothrunning of this year's seminar and the comfort of theparticipants.

Further acknowledgements are due to:

Longman Group UK Ltd for permission to quote fromAn introduction to English language teaching byJohn Haycraft.

Macmillan and Co Ltd for permission to quote fromLarge classes by Rob Nolasco and Lois Arthur.

Oxford University Press for permission to quote fromThe teaching of English abroad by F.G. French.

Contents

Overview

Programme

List of participants

Training for sustainabilityRoger Bowers

Large classes and training for sustainabilityHywel Coleman

UK training - placement policyRoger Woodham

Sustaining ELT in normal circumstancesGerry Abbott

Institutional developmentKevin Sparkhall

Why do projects break down?Patricia Ahrens

What are the factors that contribute to sustainability?Jim Morrison

Case study - West BengalPatricia Ahrens

Categories of personnel involved in a projectThelma Henderson

7

9

11

12

14

15

15

16

17

17

18

19

Training for the management and administration of 20local institutionsPaul Fordham

Conversations with counterparts 20Lorraine Lawrence

The role of ELTOs: knowledge and skills 21Meril Bloor

The contribution of UK training to the success and 22sustainability of projectsThelma Henderson

Modelling the management of ELT aid projects 24Fred Chambers

Teaching and learning in contextTerry Miles

Case study - TogoEddie Uprichard

Case study - TanzaniaPaul Simmonds

24

27

36

Case study - Sierra Leone 38Jane Carey

Evaluation of Technical Co-operation Training 39Norman Leigh

Principles underlying evaluation of training 41Pauline Rea Dickens

Case study - Philippines 45Mike Smith

Case Study - Pakistan 52Rab Shiel

Case study - South Africa 58Charles Nuttall

Final day recommendations and suggestions for 59action

61Appendices

Overview

Training for sustainability

'While education provides the base on which theacquisition of skills is later built, training is thevehicle by which knowledge and experience arefocused. It is the means by which we help to developthe human resource base in developing countries byoffering the opportunity to improve vocational orprofessional skills.'

Into the nineties: an education policy for British aid,ODA, 1990

Training is the core activity in the overwhelmingmajority of ODA-funded ELT projects. It is the mainmeans of delivering institutional development andenabling educational systems in the developing World tomove towards greater self-reliance in this field. InELT, as in all human resource development projects, itis a strong factor in promoting sustainability. Hencethis year's Dunford Seminar theme.

'Training for sustainability' owes its origin to the 1989Dunford Seminar, 'Managing ELT aid projects forsustainability', when a debate was held on the relativeimportance of project inputs for sustainability. Sixdifferent forms of input were considered: training,consultancies, educational technology, professionaladvice, university links, and books. Of these, trainingwas judged to be pre-eminent. This year's seminarattempted to determine methods of enhancing thesustainability of ODA-funded ELT projects byinvestigating current means of delivery, both ofin-country and UK-based training. Seminar inputscomprised guest speaker presentations, discussions andcase studies which were based on selected live ELTprojects. This report is a tangible output and it ishoped that it will be read by all decision-makersinvolved in the design and implementation of ELTprojects.

The report consists of summaries of the variouspresentations and accounts of the different casestudies. A number of recommendations were made andthese are included at the beginning for consideration bythose in positions of authority concerned withproject-related training. These capture some of theprominent concerns currently being voiced byrepresentatives of UK higher education institutions,seven of which were represented at Dunford on afull-time basis, as well as recommendations made byEnglish language teaching officers ( ELTOs) andELT-aid recipients. Among the issues raised were therole of training within the project, the provision ofinformation to all participants in a project involved intraining, channels of communication, evaluation oftraining, placement of trainees in the UK, appropriate-ness of training, and the balance between UK andin-country training.

The seminar keynote address was given by RogerBowers, British Council, who examined a range ofrelationships between projects and training, raisingnumerous issues which have profound implications forsustainability. In doing so, Dr Bowers provided anintellectual framework for analysing the seminar themein depth. The issues raised were further examined insubsequent seminar sessions.

Appropriate training was examined in the context oflarge classes and low-level resourcing in terms of bothhuman and physical factors. Presentations were givenby Hywel Coleman of Leeds University and Gerry Abbotof Manchester University. Both underscored theimportance of understanding the local educationalcontext and ensuring that UK training courses are fullycompatible with it.

The placement of training award holders on UK ELTcourses was discussed by Roger Woodham, BritishCouncil, who described British Council placement policyand the services provided. He identified means ofimproving placement procedures that included a betterdialogue with the UK institutions and the closermonitoring of trainees' progress.

Factors that affect institutional development werepresented by Kevin Sparkhall, ODA. The design ofprojects should take on a broad perspective and includean institutional appraisal examining such aspects asmanagement, the economic environment and commitmentat the appropriate level of government. On the basis ofthis information, suitable training for sustainableinstitutional development can be better determineC

Evaluation of training was handled systematically byPauline Rea Dickens of Ealing College. The importanceof using an appropriate evaluation system cannot beunder-estimated if training is to be appropriate andlead to project sustainability. Norman Leigh gave anaccount of the British Council's own evaluationprocedures for UK training which have been developedby its Technical Co-operation and Training Department.The chief concern is quality control, to ensure thatgood standards of administration and support are beingachieved. Until the A2 and A2a forms have beenredesigned to cater for projectization, inefficiencies inproject training will remain a risk, and rigorousevaluation of training will be problematical.

This year's seminar departed from previcm. practice byinviting collaboration from Moray House College and theUniversity of Warwick. Each institution took over theorganization and presentation of a day's session withinthe overall structure of the seminar. Monty Houseinvestigated a wide range of issues connected within-country training, while Warwick scrutinized UKtraining, but also looked at the roles of ELTOs and'counterparts' (nomenclature which, incidentally, is notfavoured by the project partners who attended theseminar). The involvement of these two institutionscontributed significantly to the success of the seminarand their crests are featured on the cover of thisreport in recognition of their invaluable co-operation.

A further innovation this year was participation for thefirst time by project staff from Brazil, Pakistan and thePhilippines. They added a new and essential dimensionto the Dunford seminar. For the first time it was notexclusively a forum for UK experts; aid recipientstakeholders were also able to present their views andconcerns. Their participation made case studies moremeaningful. It is hoped that their attendance atDunford will directly affect the work of the projects inwhich they are involved and assist in promotingsouth-south dialogue in ELT. Similarly, theparticipation of ELTOs should be looked on as inputs totheir respective projects. This is now the basis for

ODA funding and is likely to remain so for subsequentDunford seminars.

This was the thirteenth Dunford seminar, an indicatorof its sustainability. The evaluation conducted during thefinal session confirmed that the participants felt thatattendance had been extremely worthwhile. It is hopedthat the seminar report will succeed in raising awarenessof the issues among the ELT aid constituency and leadto a resolution of some of the significant problems inproject-related training and thence to imurovedsustainability. This was my fifth Dunford seminar, myfirst as course director. I should like to express mygratitude to the guest speakers, Moray House Collegeand Warwick University, Kevin Van Cauter foradministrative support, financial support from ODAgeographical desks and the sustained abilility shown bymy co-director, Tony Jones, in assisting with theplanning, implementation and evaluation of thisseminar.

David J ClarkeAdviser ELT Aid

8

Seminar programme

Dunford House Seminar 1990

23-28 July 1990

Seminar programme

Theme: Training for sustainability

Monday 23

11.00 Participants arrive

11.30 Welcome to Dunford House - Denis Payne,Director Dunford House

11.35 General introduction to seminar - DavidClarke, Tony Jones and Kevin Van Cauter,British Council, ELD

11.45 Keynote address - Roger Bowers, ControllerELD, British Council

13.00 Lunch

14.00 The Lancaster/Leeds Project on Teaching LargeClasses: Hywel Coleman, University of Leeds

15.00 UK training: placement policy - RogerWoodham, British Council

15.30 Tea

15.45 Sustaining ELT in normal circumstances -Gerry Abbot, University of Manchester, Schoolof Education

16.45 Institutional development - Kevin Sparkhall,ODA

19.00 Dinner

Tuesday 24

(Day organized and presented by Moray House)

Topic: Planning for sustainability inin-country training projects

09.00 Why do projects break down? - Patricia Ahrens

10.15 What are the factors that contribute tosustainability? - Jim Morrison

11.00 Coffee

11.30 Workshop: background to the West Bengal casestudy/planning task

13.00 Lunch

14.00 Groups work on planning task

15.15 Tea

15.45 Poster display of groups' frameworks

16.30 Identificat' on and summary of main means ofensuring the sustainability of the project

19.00 Dinner

Wednesday 25

(Day organized and presented by University ofWarwick)

09.00 Introduction: categories of personnel involved ina project. An examination of issues connectedwith their relationship - Thelma Henderson

09.30 Training for the management and administra-tion of local institutions - Paul Fordham

10.30 Coffee

10.45 Workshop - conversations with counterparts -their perception of their role and needs -Lorraine Lawrence

12.30

13.30

Lunch

Workshop - the role of ELTOs. What knowledgeand skills do they need? - Meriel Bloor

15.00 The contribution UK training makes to thesuccess and sustainability of projects -Thelma Henderson

16.30 Round-up meeting

19.00 Dinner

20.00 Co-operative development - Julian Edge(optional session)

Thursday 26

09.00 Modelling the management of ELT aid projects:defining competencies for training

10.15 Video use in TEFL teacher training- Terry Miles, Geraldine Kershaw

11.15 Coffee

11.30 Introduction to case-studies

12.45 Lunch

14.00 Case-studies:TogoTanzaniaSierra Leone

19.00

1U

Dinner

- Eddie Uprichard- Paul Simmonds- Jane Carey

9

Friday 27

09.00 TCTD and evaluation of TC - Norman Leigh,TCTD, British Council

10.30 Evaluation of training - Pauline Rea Dickins,Ealing College of Higher Education

11.30 Coffee

11.45 Introduction to day's case studies

12.30 Lunch

14.00 Case studiesPhilippines - Mike Smith/Eunice TorresPakistan - Rab Shiell/Shazreh HusseinSouth Africa - Charles Nuttall

19.00 Course dinner

Saturday 28

09.00 Action plans

10.45 Seminar evaluation and closing remarks

12.30 Seminar closes/lunch

10

Dunford 1990 participants

ELTOs

1 PatMcLaughlin

2 SimonIngram-Hill

3 Jane Carey

4 Mike Smith

5 EddieUprichard

6 CharlesNuttal

7 Rab Shiel

8 PaulSimmonds

9 Chris Pearson

Overseas participants

10 Rosinda Ramos

11 ShazrehHussain

UK participants

12 ThelmaHenderson

13 PatriciaAhrens

14 EricGlendinning

15 John Burke

16 Rosalyn Hurst

17 Pauline Barr

18 Jim Rose

19 Tony Wright

Turkey - Mid East TechnicalUniversity - INSET, syllabusand materials development

Sudan - Ahlia College,Omdurman

Sierra Leone - University ofSierra Leone - INSET,syllabus revision

Philippines - University of theVisayas Fisheries Project -materials development

Togo - University de Benin -INSET, Syllabus andmaterials development

South Africa - Molteno Project- INSET in primary schools

Pakistan - National Academyof Higher Education,Islamabad - INSET

Tanzania, English LanguageTeaching Project

Turkey - Bogazici University,Istanbul - INSET

Brazil - Catholic UniversitySao Paulo

Pakistan - National Academyof Higher Education,Islamabad

University of Warwick(Centre for EnglishLanguage Teaching)

Moray House (Scottish Centrefor Education Overseas)

University of Edinburgh(Institute for AppliedLanguage Studies)

College of St Mark and StJohn

West Sussex Institute ofHigher Education

Ealing College of HigherEducation

International House, London

Christ Church Canterbury

Seminar staff (British Council)

20 David Clarke - Course organizer

21 Tony Jones - Assistant course organizer

22 Kevin Van - Course admin officerCauter

British Council participants

23 John Whitehead ELO Colombia

24 Gill Westaway ELO Kenya

25 Leslie Hayman Assistant DirectorPhilippines

11

Training for sustainability

The first day was dedicated to examining issuesconcerning training and its effect on the sustainabilityof ELT projects. Following a general introduction tthe seminar and its objectives given by David Clarkeand Tony Jones there were five sessions presented byguest speakers.

Training for sustainability

Roger Bowers, British Council

Dr Bowers asked the participants to discuss thefunction of training in projects. He identified threefunctional areas in which to consider project-relatedtraining

training for organic growth, which he described as acommitment to the objectives of the project taking rootin the recipient country

training for sustainability, which can be considered asensuring an 'afterlife for es_^.11 project, whetherpredictable or not

training for extendability, which can be thought of asthe way it which a project can generate furtherdevelopments in the education system

The speaker discussed key training decision-makingissues. Who decides what training is required in aproject? There are several potential decision makers inthe UK and in the recipient country. Who has theauthority to make decisions on training? Whatinformation is the decision based on? When are suchdecisions best taken? How much flexibility is desirable?Whoever decides on the nature of the training package,the following factors should be considered

its relevance to project objectives and mode of delivery

its integration with other project components

its role in institutional development

the form of qualification to be obtained

its 2rricuIum content, structure and strategies

-.,....1.1uation of training

Other factors to be investigated include

roles. Who is to be trained? What will the traineesrole be after training?

skills. What do the trainees need to be able to do thatthey cannot do already?

availability. How much of the trainee's time can besecured for training?

commitment. How involved will the trainees be afterand as a result of training?

contact. What support networks exist and how awareare the trainees of these?

12

autonomy. How capable will the trainees be ofestablishing their own agenda?

The speaker identified several further issues forconsideration

is training provision led by supply or demand?

when can training be judged to be successful?

what is the relationship between local and outsideexpertise?

who arbitrates where project and non-projectrequirements conflict?

Four models illustrating the relationship betweentraining and project were presented (see fig 1).

a a training component serving a wider project

b a project serving a wider training programme

c a training programme existing alongside anindependently focused project

d a training programme co erminous with a project

A fifth model was briefly considered: a project withoutany training.

Finally, five sequential models of the relationshipbetween training and project

1 training precedes the project

T

2 training follows the project

3 training increases as the project develops

4 training decreases as the project develops

Models of the relationship of training to project

a)

c)

Figure 1

-4 - 13

5 training cycle continues throughout the project

Large classes and training for sustainability.

Hywel Coleman, University of Leeds, OverseasEducation Unit.

Informed by data gathered by the Lancaster/Leedsresearch project on Language learning in large classes,this presentation considered the nature and possiblecauses of teachers' problems with large class teaching,and suggested ways in which a deeper understanding ofthe phenomenon may help teachers cope better.

The first section of the presentation outlined twophenomena, the distinctive patterns of teacherbehaviour and teachers' own reports of their difficulties(see Appendix 1, Phenomena). The first of these, itwas suggested, arise from teachers' attempts toreconcile their 'training' with the realities of theclassroom situation; teachers' reports, furthermore,suggest that there is a conflict between what a teachermay want to do and what the situation in the classroomallows. Both of these may be seen to arise fromassumptions about teaching and learning derived from,for example, training, publications teachers may haveread, and so on (see Appendix 1, examples 1-3). Thisraises issues of the relevance of aspects of much UKtraining to teachers whose classroom realities are remotefrom those assumed by many teacher trainers.

Among the implications of the relationships andinfluences between training courses, pre- andin-service, in-country and in the UK, are the following

non-native speaking teachers attending UK trainingmay not easily make links between the training andtheir home situations

UK institutions need to show that they have insightsand something to say about the problems of teachinglarge classes

for native-speaker trainees there is the problem ofawareness of the need to consider the problem of largeclass teaching

The proposals suggested (see Appendix 1) are based onthe premiss that a deeper understanding by teachers ofthe problems of large class teaching would help themrealize what is and is not feasible and within theircontrol, and help them to think of ways in which theymight address those issues that they may have thepower to do something about.

Two final points were made. Firstly, the problem ofteaching large classes must not be side-stepped; UKinstitutions and the ELT profession as a whole must domore to address the issue of large classes inunder-resourced situations. Secondly, there is theneed to realize that this issue will need to be consideredthroughout a teacher's professional life, and not simplyas a one-off module on one training course.

14

UK training: placement policy

Roger Woodham, The British Council

The role of ELD's UK TEFL Adviser in the placement ofoverseas students in Britain was outlined. Laterdiscussion focused on complementary adviser roles,overseas and in the UK, and the manner in which closerco-ordination might guarantee speedier placement.

The Council's placement policy does not rest onensuring equitable distribution around the higher andfurther education institutions in the UK which offerTEFL/Applied Linguistics programmes. Rather, in thefirst place, it seeks to ensure that trainees areaccommodated on the course which it is considered willbest satisfy their needs. Equitable distribution amongUK institutions comes second.

The procedure adopted, as far as stand-alone trainingis concerned, is one of matching the requirement asreceived from post and as expressed on forms A2 andA2a and supporting documentation, with what isconsidered to be the best available matching programmein the UK. Thus, the main areas of academic interest,listed in order of priority, together with considerationof the trainee's background, are reconciled with the UKinstitution which can best provide value-for-moneytraining in these areas.

In volume of activity terms, there are 500-600longer-term placements each year (Diplomas, MAs,MEds, etc.), and roughly the same number ofshorter-term placements of typically three to six monthsduration. The trend towards projectization will requirethe placement adviser to act more as a moderator, wherenecessary, of project proposal and less as anindependent decision maker.

Whatever the function, maintaining an updatedspecialist knowledge centrally of the UK resourcerequires and will continue to require constant carefulmonitoring and evaluation of activity. Specialistknowledge is maintained through a continuously updatedcollection of course brochures and other literature,formative evaluation based on monitoring visits andmeetings, discussion with both course providers andcourse consumers, oral and written reports, andsummative evaluation based additionally on completedcourse evaluation questionnaires and post-courseperformance.

In the discussion which followed, the importance ofbalance between project implementers' perceptions ofneeds and the British Council's role in matching theseto the most suitable institutions was stres.-ed. Greatercontact between projects and institutions might maximizeopportunities for more appropriate matching and clearchannels of communication among those responsible forimplementing decisions would facilitate appropriate andfaster placement.

Sustaining ELT in normal circumstances

Gerry Abbott, School of Education, Manchester

Background

Over the last two decades ELT has increasingly becomea profit-making business concentrating on training inthe 'paid' sector. The emphasis has therefore shiftedaway from the majority of learn-rs who are involved ineducation at school (the 'aid' sector).

The rapid growth in this sector has been boosted byELT research based on out-of-school and post-schoolinfluences and on 'training and use (cf Wilkins'Council of Europe research which was based on adult,not school children's, needs; and the ESP boom whichdealt particularly with the identifiable needs atpost-school level and focused specifically on trainingrather than education). Even the theoretical inputsfrom socio/psycho-linguistics drew from out-of-school/pre-school contexts.

Social influence led to the growth in anglocentrictextbooks that were oriented at the post-schoolcustomer.

This emphasis on the paying customer/anglocentrictextbook contradicts the reality which is that the vastmajority of ELT learners are in state schools,(especially in SE Asia and West Africa,) and aredirectly involved in 'education' rather than 'training .

Differences between the 'aid' and the 'paid'sectors

The critical difference between operating in 'reality' ,i.e. the 'normal' state-school system, and theprivileged 'abnormal' (non-school) sector, was outlinedas differences in

class size

teacher qualifications

provision of resources (both low vs high tech)

amount of pressure/public expectation

aims and focus

teacher status and professionalism (especially of payand conditions)

preferred learning style

exposure to English

staffing

opportunities for innovation

Recommendations

on-the-spot training

national groups to go to UK for training given bysomeone who knows their needs

task force of aid personal with substantial experienceof local normal conditions.

(See Appendix 2)

Institutional development

Kevin Sparkhall, ODA

ODA has always been involved in institutionalstrengthening from the very early days. Originally theemphasis was on the training of individuals forlocalization programmes at independence. Sustainabilitywas an issue even at this early date. By the 1970s,emphasis was switched to improved planning andmonitoring as these factors were seen to constraindevelopment. By the late 1970s, institutionalweaknesses led to the development of projectframeworks as a response to a need to focus on keypriorities and co-ordinate the different sources of aid.Planning, managing, monitoring and sustaining of aidprojects especially on the withdrawal of direct TCassistance, became important considerations. In themost recent past there has been a much greaterrealization of the need to strengthen institutions toensure that improvements ate sustained once directassistance is withdrawn.

Implications for institutional development

A wide perspective should be taken to include itemssuch as management, budget and external policy.Development efforts are thus more complex, withmulti-faceted policy issues. Identification of the bestsustainable growth system is difficult, as attention tolocal issues and integration of local partners in acommitted policy for change is required. This processis long-term, two way, and often high risk, demandinga high level of flexibility. Flexibility and accountabilitydemand flexible and appropriate monitoring systems tofollow changes through a clear framework. Projectframeworks emphasize conditionality and stagedapproaches. In such ID projects, personal skills areparamount and personnel continuity highly desirable.

Key elements in institutional appraisal.

The above builds up a picture of the context in whichthe project will be working and the ID requirements.Good understanding is not obtained in the short-term oras an outsider, although the outsider does provideskills and comparative knowledge to help produce ideasfrom within the institution. Frameworks are not limitedso that some activities provide immediate practicalreturns whilst understanding and confidence is builtup. Important facets

review external environment

agree /define objectives

review institution structure

1 u 15

assess management systems

review management style

review human resources

review finances

Conditions for successful implementation

There are no simple prescriptions. Project stagesshould be seen as a process of iteration rather than asseparate entities. A summary of points would include

commitment at appropriate governmental level

support and participation within institution

economic environment

identification of key constraints and strategy torespond to them

availability and retention of adequate staff

access to good consultants, appropriate trainingresource

donor willing to take long term view

Documentation

Required. Framework and memorandum are an attemptto ensure that the complexities of a project are fullyexplored. If a project is first prepared withoutthorough planning then subsequent completion offramework and memorandum is oppressive andencourages a retreat into bureaucracy.

Comment

this applies 100% to ELT operations

the effect of the bureaucracy on rapid change

devolution of responsibility for decision making ...where are the limits?

management skills required by ELTO and recipientinstitutions as appropriate

publicity/awareness/aid/hardware is the beginningpoint but it ought to be the planning stage asbeginning point

distorted image take-up of funding. Institute take upfor hidden agenda reasons

chaos theory management possibilities?

(see Appendix 3)

16

Why do projects break down?

Patricia Ahrens, Moray House College

The decision to extend the teaching of English toclasses five, six and seven in Gujarat in the 1970sentailed the in-service training of 30,000 teachers.These teachers were non-graduates who had studiedEnglish for only two years at school and had no EFLtraining. There was an immediate need for widespreadtraining and radio was chosen as the medium. The firstprogrammes appeared in 1979.

Three institutions were involved in the programme.

a All India Radio commissioned scripts, paid scriptwriters, recorded programmes and broadcast on thelocal network in open time.

b The State Institute of Education (SIE) publishedand distributed support material, organized teachers'and script writers' conferences and elicited evaluativefeedback on programmes.

c The H M Patel Institute of Education, whichfunctioned as the English wing of SIE, designed theradio series, recruited script writers, acceptedscripts, edited the support material, ran workshopsfor script writers and teachers, and carried outevaluation.

There were problems associated with the work of eachinstitution.

a All India Radio. The programmes that werebroadcast during school hours were used as input,but those that were broadcast at noon on Saturdayattracted no listeners. The script writers could onlybe used for two six-month periods and thereforethere were many of them. Their payment was low buttheir real reward was fame. The watchdog panelwas educated and Westernized.

b The State Institute of Education had little interestor knowledge of skills at the primary level. Theyhad to use Government of India Press which was slowand inaccurate, and the distribution of supportmaterials was erratic.

c The H M Patel Institute of English had littleknowledge of the primary school level and it had tofind large numbers of script writers with goodEnglish, ELT abilities, and primary skills andknowledge. Its job was to co-ordinate the work ofthese script writers, who had to produce supportmaterial before they produced the scripts so thatteachers would know what to do with the scriptswhen they arrived. Although H M Patel was thefocus and generator of most of the work, it had noexecutive authority in the project. The radio workwas in no one's job description.

Unfortunately although ideas and solutions wereproduced, the project broke down. A number of causesof breakdown have been identified

It

there was a lack of focus in objectives and inexecutive authority. A large project like this mightbe better handled as a cluster of smaller projects.Each project must have clear objectives and executiveauthority must be lodged with a stated person orpeople

there was a lack of adequate management structure;such a structure must be evident to and accepted byall concerned. Without it there is no clear placewhere change can be initiated

there was a lack of motivation and incentives forparticipants in the project. A project plan shouldtake these into consideration. For example, thetraining should lead to some reward, such asenhanced job satisfaction or financial reward

there was a lack of adequate evaluation and/orfeedback. Procedures for regular evaluation shouldbe included in the plan and these should lead to thethe plan being amended where necessary

there was a lack of interest in and awareness of theproject. This problem could be overcome if everyoneconcerned with the project were better informed andinvolved in it

there was over-anxiety about project materials.Where the work of a project depends on materials suchas books or radios, the people accountable for thematerials must have the confidence to use them, evenlose them

there was a lack of follow-up. Project plans shouldallow for maintenance work, e.g. replacing materials.They should also aim to develop long-term spin-offsfrom the main project such as self-study packages,better PRESET and teacher support groups

there was a lack of commitment by key people. Suchpeople must be prepared to support the work of theproject

tine degree of ELT innovation was too big. Theproject should plan to deliver only the degree ofinnovation which the receiving system can tolerate

the general educational innovation was too big.Account must be taken of how the ELT innovation fitsin with the general educational ethos of the receivingsystem

the language skills of the English teachers were low.Support for the development of teachers' languageknowledge and skills, as well as for their professionalknowledge and skills, must be included in the projectplan

the model of project transmission was not suitable.All aspects of the chosen mode of project transmissionmust be examined in the local context

What are the factors that contribute to sustainability?

Jim Morrison, SCEO, Moray House College

The project framework in its current form is concernedwith events and not with people. It does not indicatehow the participants relate to each other within thepi oj ect.

There are three possible project outcomes: success,temporary success, or failure. The reasons for thesecond and third possibilities were explored withreference to the CDELT project at Ain ShamsUniversity, Egypt.

Difficulties with this project included: inadequateattention at the planning stage to issues such as theenvironment of the project (was it housed in the mostappropriate institute?); consensus between the instituteproviding the services and the intended recipients;executive authority and the appointment of local staff.

As a means of anticipating and avoiding suchdifficulties, two checklists were proposed for makingthe project framework more sensitive. The first ofthose, ORACLE, poses six sets of questions

1 Object what are the objectives of the plannedchange?

2 Resources what resources are required toimplement the change?

3 Authority whose authority is required for theimplementation?

4 Consensus how is consensus built in? How is itensured that all participants are stakeholders?

5 Linkage how are the components of the projectlinked? How is authority communicated?

6 Environment is the project housed in the mostappropriate institution?

It was also felt that framework column 'Importantassumptions' should be retitled 'Necessary conditions',as too many assumptions were made without checking.

A second, and simpler checklist, SEKS, was described.Its components are

1 System Are aid personnel in the right place forMaximum effect? What alternative locations exist? Arethe project objectives compatible with the location?

2 Executive authority whose office has responsibilityfor this project?

3 Key personnel who are the key personnel withinthe host system?

4 Stakeholders what incentives are provided tomotivate participants at each level? How arestakeholders created?

17

Applying these checklists to project frameworks mayhelp ensure sustainability. Neither of them involvequestions of ELT training; they are both concernedwith the management of people. Management trainingmay be the factor which can ensure the sustainability ofa project.

(see Appendix 4)

Case study - West Bengal

Background

In the early 1980s the West Bengal Board of SecondaryEducation (WBBSE) changed the place of English in theschool curriculum. Until then English had been taughtfrom class three to class ten, that is, for three years inthe primary school and five years in all state schools.Now no English is taught in the primary school;instruction begins in the secondary school, and lastsfor five years, class four to class ten, the examinationclass. Parents saw the withdrawal of English fromprimary school as detrimental to primary education.

Change of textbook

With the changed place of English in the curriculum,came a need for a new textbook for the secondaryschool. The previous textbook had assumed that pupilshad covered a certain amount of work; the new series,Learning English, begins from zero. It exemplifiescurrent ELT methodology by, for example, includingauthentic materials, using task-based learning andassuming that teachers will organize their class to dogroup work. The Learning English course book is notsupported by an accompanying teacher's book.Textbooks were written by UK participants. As thenew course was progressively introduced into theschools, the teachers realized that the examinationswould have to be changed from a memory/content baseto a skill based one. There was concern about where tofind competent examiners.

Teachers' perceptions of their needs

As the new series became established in class six andbegan to work its way up the secondary school, itbecame clear that teachers of English needed a lot ofhelp with the new approach. The problems the teachersraised were

pupils have contact with English only during classtime

the quantity of the materials is too great for theallocation of class time

the approach advocated by the materials cannot beimplemented with large classes

there is no formal grammar teaching

there is an excessively high vocabulary load

there is a wide range of topics

18

the demands for preparation and implementation whichthe materials make on the teacher are too high

it is difficult to assess pupils' progess on the newmaterials.

In addition, many teachers themselves have difficultywith the language of the textbook: very few understandits underlying rationale. Furthermore the textbook isvery dense, and demands advanced reading skills.Added to this, teacher confidence and competence inEnglish is insufficient, and few have had ELT training.Because pay and morale are low many teachers teachprivately. The textbook demands supplementarymaterial which the teachers do not have time and energyto prepare.

Current provision for INSET

West Bengal already has in place a number of tools forin-service teacher education, including the following

two four-month courses per year, ach for eightyteachers, at the Institute of English in Calcutta

week-long training camps for large numbers ofteachers held in various places during the holidays

services of resource persons, most of whom have beentrained at one of the above

in some districts, the resource persons haveestablished teachers' committees to facilitate INSET

a weekly radio programme for teachers of Englishscheduled during school hours when, althoughteachers were supposed to be released so they couldlisten to it, few did. Programmes were not systematicor theoretical,and not at the right level

a regular slot on the teaching of English available inthe monthly magazine of the WBBSE, Parshad Varta,distributed to all secondary schools

However, West Bengal has around 3,000 teachers ofEnglish. All of these teachers are graduates, but notall are graduates in English, or have had pre-servicetraining in ELT. West Bengal covers a large area,divided into seventeen districts, from the foothills ofthe Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal; within it live peopleof different caste, language, religion and ethnic origin.These divisions in West Bengal present a number ofconstraints.

Resources available for a major INSET project

From the West Bengal Board

two university appointments seconded for five years

services of the Board's two academic officers, one withTEFL training

the services of the Board's media officer (anex-literature teacher)

1 5

administrative support

transport

accommodation

release of teachers to be trained by the project(supply cover was provided)

the focusing of the resources described above, exceptfor the courses in the Institute

From the Institute of English

the services of two UK trained members of staff for upto three months a year. These were not always thesame people because the Institute regarded theattachments as a form of in-service training.

From the ODA/British Council

the services of UK consultants; because ofGovernment of India regulations any consultants maynot be resident for more than three months per year

UK training

administrative support

books and materials

zIntroduction: categories of personnel involved ina project. An examination of issues connectedwith their relationship.

Thelma Henderson, University of Warwick

The presenter began by listing the categories ofpersonnel involved in a project:

Government

Overseas Ministry UK Aid Agency

Institutions

Overseas UK

Project

Director (in hostinstitution) ELTO

Example

Warwick University were asked to take four Angolanstudy fellows (SFs), following their pre-sessionalcourse in Edinburgh.

problems

at the time Warwick were unaware that they were partof a group of eight SFs destined for another receivinginstitution (Moray House)

a request was received from the project that, inadd:tion to completing a one-year diploma course, they

should be given help with a dissertation forsubmission to the local institution. As this work wasdifficult to fit into such an intensive course, it wouldhave to take place after the completion of the diploma

the group was divided in half according to their levelof English. The group at Warwick had scored band 5on ELTS and therefore would be able to cope with thediploma course. The other group at Moray House,however, were expected to do the diploma and write adissertation with an ELTS score of only 3.5

a special meeting was held at Warwick with the fourSFs to find out more details on the project so that thediploma course could be made as relevant as possibleto the students' needs. Appropriate dissertationtopics would also be set. SFs were unable to providedetails on the project. They stated that they wantedto complete as much of the dissertation as possible inthe UK as back in Angola work demands wouldprevent them from doing so

a letter was therefore written to the ELTO ProjectCo-ordinator requesting further details on theproject, proposing an extension of two months to SFstime in the UK, and suggesting an institutional link.The Project Co-ordinator became angry at such'interference' and there was a temporary breakdownin communication. The request for a two-monthextension was turned down

The dismay felt by all parties concerned led to ananalysis of the issues to be sorted out in terms ofrelationships between partners.

Issues

the way different partners view each other, e.g. aidagencies vs UK institutions. Do aid agencies takeinstitutions into their confidence, or treat them likecafeterias where they buy courses? If they decidethey do not like the courses they take away theircustom. Aid agencies should be aware that ifunexpected decisions as to the placement of SFs aremade, institutions may be seriously affected (economicconsiderations, staffing levels, provision ofaccommodation). The degree to which courses can becustomized may be affected if groups must be mergedowing to last minute cancellations

the level of English/ELTS/IELTS scores of SFs sent.Institutions are often requested to accept SFs to doMAs with only 3.5 on ELTS. This puts the institutionin a difficult position, as even with extra languagetuition during their course, SFs are unlikely to makesatisfactory progress

the lack of knowledge on the part of the receivinginstitution about the project, and on the part of theproject about the institution and its procedures.Breakdowns in communication occur through lack ofinformation and territoriality

students were despondent, feeling that there was nohope of completing their dissertations in either the UKor Angola. Was the writing of a dissertation really onthe project agenda? If so, surely better arrangementsfor its completion should have been made

r-,A

19

Conclusion

All parties involved in a project must strive to improvecommunications and work together more closely so thatproblems such as those reported in this session can beavoided.

Training for the management and administrationof local institutions

Paul Fordham, University of Warwick

Professor Fordham began by emphasizing the paradox ofthe rigidity of institutions, as against their potentialfor rapid growth and change. In the context of aid..driven projects, he pointed out that the question didnot derive from local concerns, but from the receivedwisdom of metropolitan institutions imposed on localinstitutions. Change was usually initiated with the aimof bringing about the growth of institutions, and it isassumed that change and growth are somehowsynonymous. However, local concerns did notnecessarily coincide with metropolitan concerns or

The main part of the talk was focused on generalprinciples for local training, including the relationsbetween research, education and development, and theways in which we think about these, both in isolationand in relation to each other.

Professor Fordham spoke on four themes to illustratethe general points referred to above. From these heextracted four principles for understanding thesecomplex relationships.

1 Sustainability is guaranteed by changes in attitudeand the acquisition of skills to cope with change.Thus the training comext needs to be flexible andresponsive in order to deal with the rapid changes.In this context, top-down development was mentionedas a demotivating factor. The example of shifts ineducational thought from the colonial school ideal tothe objectives-driven model of the 1960s; both ofthese are regarded as inappropriate. A furthercomplicating factor is the speed at which the changesare introduced.

2 Failure of training is likely when there is a gapbetween the beliefs of the leaders of the movement tochange, and those who implement the change, forexample the bureaucracy. Tanzania in the 1970s wascited as an example, where the leadership (Nyrere)and the expatriate consultants implemented a top-down, strongly ideological model, very distant fromthe values, attitudes and beliefs of those who it wassupposed to benefit. The result was failure,particularly because the economy was not sufficientlywell managed to support a fundamental change such asthat proposed by Nyrere.

3 A static state of affairs should never be assumed.The research Professor Fordham carried out atSouthampton University in 1980 was cited as anexample of this problem, in which a major mismatchwas found between course provision at Universitiesand the reality of local contexts. The study itselfmirrored the problem, as it too had only assumed a

static context. The notion of an experience-basedcurriculum was proposed as a solution.

4 Success is most likely when there is a considerableinvestment of time and energy in a project by thoseat the grass roots. The case of a literacy project inBangladesh was cited, in which the context wasdiscussed as a preliminary to the education ofilliterate peasants in order to demonstrate the value ofthe project for these people. This led to fundamentalchanges in attitude which enabled the landless to usetheir literacy skills to better themselves and theirfamilies' social circumstances.

Key themes in project design and implementation whichemerged were

top-down vs bottom-up approaches

personal and individual commitment to ideals,ideologies before and during projects

flexibility vs accountability

the need for careful exploration of contexts prior toproject design and implementation

personal change and development in the context ofprojects

Conversations with counterparts: their perceptionsof their role and needs

Lorraine Lawrence, University of Warwick

The speaker began by saying that she had observedareas of weakness in the counterpart system

counterparts are unhappy with the term

they are unclear about their role(s)

the relationship between ELTOs and counterpartsvaries enormously and depends both on theinstitutions and the personalities involved

they neither take over the ELTOs job in its entirety,nor - in many cases - remain long in the post afterthe departure of the ELTO

With this in mind the speaker had devised twoquestionnaires, one for counterparts to fill in, and onefor ELTOs, to investigate their perceptions of the roleof the counterpart in a project and the relationshipbetween counterpart and ELTO.

The ELTOs were also asked to reflect upon the validityof the counterpart system.

After a discussi.n of the responses to thequestionnaires, the above hypotheses were indeedborne out. In addition, the following key pointsemerged

the reasons for the lack of clarity about the role ofthe counterparts were the wide range that theyperform, lack of a clear definition of roles at the

planning stage, and inadequate briefing onappointment

counterparts perceived their status as being lowerthan that of the ELTOs

the training opportunities deemed to be most importantto the counterparts by both groups of respondentswere on-the-spot experience and the chance toparticipate in decision-making from the very start ofthe project

neither group considered academic training overseasto be particularly relevant to the needs of projects,despite the status such training confers

counterparts can only be trained and informed to thelevel of the ELTO if they participate fully indecision-making and are of equal status

In the round-up, the following suggestions were made

more than one counterpart needs to be trained foreach project

a group of people from a project - e.g. senior staff inan institution - might be involved in different kinds oftraining in the UK, thereby becoming stakeholders inthe future of the project

the word 'counterpart' should be abandoned

training programmes should be an integral part ofthe project design so as to ensure adequate funding

The role of ELTOs: what knowledge and skills dothey need?

Meriel Bloor, University of Warwick

This was an exploration into the knowledge, skills andexpertise that might be required by ELTOs, and intothe training programmes that could meet these needs.

Approach:

Groups:

Materials:

Tasks:

workshop

four

eight post descriptions, two pergroup

for each post: to identify the sortof experience or trainingprogrammes (including optionalcomponents) that the applicantsmight have taken, and todetermine priorities asappropriate.

Summary of feedback

A wide range of skills, knowledge and experience wereidentified by participants for each post. These couldbe broadly classified as in two main areas

Professional: concerned with ELT in its variousaspects

2

Administrative: including financial, computing,organizational and interpersonalskills, over and above what onemight reasonably be expected tohave 'picked up' on the job

There was a very definite feeling from the group that,while many of the skills needed could be acquiredthrough normal training courses and their variouscomponents and would form part atypical ELTObaggage, there was also a wide and increasing range ofrequirements that might, in the interests of all, be bestacquired through short training courses for ELTOs.The latter includwi not only general items such ascomputer skills at an increasing level of complexity, butalso job-specific items such as ODA and BC financialar..I reporting procedures, which applicants could notreasonably be expected to have picked up as part ofELTO baggage. It was generally felt that some smallinvestment by the employers in improved shortinduction and training courses would result in moreeffective and efficient ELTOs.

It was also felt that some post descriptions lackedsufficient clarity in that they required to be readtogether with other documents (e.g. reports/frameworks) in order to be properly understood, and sowould give would-be applicants only the vaguest idea ofwhat the jobs would actually entail. Others seemed todemand a vast and unlikely range of attributes, andinvolve an enormous if not impossible range ofresponsibilities. Greater care was felt to be needed inthis area.

Minimum qualification: Masters degree and at least fiveyears' relevant experience.

ELT training non-ELT requirements/and/or attributesexperienceidentified:

materialsdevelopment

media skills

ESP

needs analysis

syllabusdesign

project managementtechniques

database/WP skills

financial management

office management skills

knowledge of (an)otherlanguage (e.g. Arabic,French, etc.)

testing ability to delegate,communicate

library/resourcecentre

self-accesslearningtechniques

knowledge of current(ODA/BC) administrativeprocedures

sensitivity to otherpeoples/cultures

21

The contribution of UK training to success andsustainability of projects

Thelma Henderson, University of Warwick

UK course provisions

Aim to give students experience of what they will needon their return.

Data is required on the students geographical andprofessional circumstances. Their work on the MAdissertation should be project-related.

Courses should be as individualized as possible withinthe framework of foundation course, options anddissertation.

The considerable database usefulness of the BritishCouncil's guide to TEFL/TESL courses in the UK shouldbe stressed.

Content

Selection of course content by students and ELTOs isimportant. There is room for adaptation within theuni versity courses for local needs.

Range

A wide range of nationalities, and irregular contact withthe area by UK institutions, detracts from theusefulness of many programmes.

Single-nation groups of students are useful for UKinstitutions, but the institution may then find itself atthe mercy of political events.

Documentation

Documentation received from overseas may tell theinstitution that students can cope but nothing of theirindividual circumstances.

Students are not always qualified in the way the UKinstitution would wish for certain courses. There is noagreement on common standards between institutions onadmission.

Post selection, full information packs are sent out, butthere is little feedback from students until they arriveon their needs or what jobs they are going back to.

Project culture

Projectization has had a profound effect on UKinstitutions as projects carry specialized trainingneeds. Often, however, there is no special relationshipwith a project, and the UK institution feels itself to bea mere delivery system. UK institutions would welcomemore link projects.

The foregoing affects courses offered. Old courses,particularly MAs, are being revamped and restructuredin a modular fashion. Modules can be offered as free-

22

standing units as well as for non-award purposes.Specialized courses can be constructed around clientneeds. Thus institutes are beginning to specialize.

Teams of staff with knowledge of particular areas canbe deployed to meet the needs of projects. There areno systems, but there is a good deal of interest anddesire to operate a free-flow between UK institute staffand ELTOs. Problems centre around informationnetworks, flexibility of UK institutions, knowledgematching and time of release/attachments.

Conclusion

UK training can produce personnel who can go back andperform successfully but real success is only possible ifthe following conditions are met

UK training must be embedded in the project/institution

systems working and communication are essential tosustainability

4-)4. a

Counterparts, roles, UK institutions and training -feedback on University of Warwick sessions

In the final session four questions were presented fordiscussion. There was only time for an exchange ofviews on questions one and two.

1 What are the chances for ELTOs and ELOs to establisha professional base and the opportunities forupdating?

2 What have we identified as problems or weaknesseswithin the system of counterpart training and have weany solutions to offer?

3 What is the most efficient way of getting in touch withpeople overseas and also of placing people in Britishinstitutions?

4 How can training institutions be embedded within aproject?

Question 1

it was suggested that the framework of British Councilstaff and specialist courses could be used by ELTOsand the service paid for via ODA funding

that budget courses encapsulating particular trainingneeds should be more widely available. This refers tothe modular items mentioned by Thelma Henderson inthe last presentation of the day

advertising was considered to be a major expenditurearea in disseminating information about courses.Costs in this area could be reduced

the notion of ELTOs being deployed in UK institutionsfor periods of time between contracts was raised.This was attempted several years ago (by LancasterUniversity). In this way ELTOs get professionalrefreshment and institutions get an injection ofrelevant practical experience from projects overseas.Both groups stand to benefit from such a system. Itis, however, the system that is the pr blem; there isno delivery system to keep all parties aware ofpossibilities except word of mouth and personalconnections which are hardly satisfactory. Thiswould require a database. Large portions of thelatter (re ELTOs and their movements) already existsin the British Council; if information from UKinstitutions could be added to this, matchingoperations could begin to be extracted

Question 2

the titles and roles of the 'adviser' , plus the rank andstatus, should be passed on to the counterpart onELTO withdrawal. Some concrete provision needs tobe made here to secure the status of the counterpart

counterparts were seen as an integral part of aproject. There was, however, a groundswell ofopinion that considered that groups of peopleidentified within a project would be preferable to pointidentification on a one-to-one basis

'counterpart' as a label was not greeted withenthusiasm by some participants

it was felt that detailed training plans should be anintegral part of the project framework

uncertainty was expressed over the position and roleof counterparts within systems prior to the arrival ofthe ELTO, whilst the ELTO is in position, duringextended UK training and on return to the system

Modelling the management of ELT aid projects:defining the competencies for training

Fred Chambers, West Sussex Institute of HigherEducation

This paper was concerned with presenting a model ofELT management, considering how it was devised andthe advantages of such a model.

Types of model

There are several types

iconic

analogic

analytical

conceptual

perfective

changing scale

changing the form

mathematical/logical

pictorial/symbolic

qualitative

Here the focus is on the conceptual model.

Why we need a model

Although this offers no guarantee of success, amongthe advantages are that it

saves time, costs and sometimes reputations

identifies weaknesses

makes non-explicit values explicit, unstated ideasovert, and assumptions clear

Process of designing the model

The conceptual model here uses the business procedureof soft-systems management.

Stage 1

Deciding what the system is going to achieve, i.e. whatis the purpose of ELT aid? This was done by

gathering statements on the purpose of ELT Aid fromODA/BC etc.

23

sending these statements to informants in different aidsectors, asking them to decide which statementconformed most closely to their own view

This resulted in five modified statements defining thepurpose of ELT aid.

Stage 2

Setting up a model for each of the five statements anddrawing up a list of activities associated with each one.Of the forty activities listed, only four were common toeach of the five models. These were

design

implementation

establishing the effects

evaluating

Stage 3

Introduction of a conceptual model of activitiesnecessary to manage an ELT project (see diagram 1).

Each of the eight main categories can be expanded intoa sub-system with a greater level of specificity (seediagram 2).

Advantages of the model

as a planning aid, it provides a checklist, especiallyfor the neophyte manager

it helps in the monitoring/evaluation process (internaland external), providing a bank of questions that canbe asked

it can be used for training

it can provide a framework for discussion

Teaching and learning in context

Terry Miles

Terry Miles, Technical Director at the London School ofEnglish, made a short presentation focusing onprogress made to date with the teaching and learning incontext project, and on the different means which arebecoming available for contact between ELTOs workingin different parts of the world.

ELD has commissioned a training package on vic .oteacher training materials production. The package willbe usable in a variety of ways. The presentationconcentrated on how it might be possible to update thepackage continuously, thereby promoting the creationand development of a kind of global workshop on videoteacher training materials production and related areas,and the problems and advantages of differentapproaches.

24

There was a brief demonstration and discussion of howan 'on-line' facility might work and also of the differentlevels of technical, sophistication which are relevant tothe project; in terms of materials production this cancover the full range from slide-plus-audio-tape to avideo produced in a studio and professionally edited. Interms of the workshop idea, the fact that there will bescope for E-mail and on-line communication in no wayprecludes communication by more conventional means,such as paper sent by regular mail.

Much interest was expressed in the project; some of theinstitutions represented at Dunford wished to be keptin touch with its progress, and there was a lot ofinterest in the techniques for producing materials fromaudio-plus-slide and in the idea of the global workshop.Some participants seemed to believe that possession ofa computer is essential if one is to participate in theglobal workshop; this is definitely not the case.

Conceptual model of management of ELT project

Constraints

identifyareas likelyto provideconstraints

design process identify those& tools of likely to beenquiry affected by

the project

conductenqu ries t& IP- planningconsultation,

inform

providefeedback forconsultation

Administration

maintain controlinformation '41 budgetaryflows matters

maintain S.O.P.

design S.O.P. know commonactivities

make explicit .4 know structureproject of projectstructure

know existingeducationsystemstructure

identifypossiblecandidates

1

Staffing

recruit monitor jobto project performance

I 1tra'n inrequiredskills

kno cbudgetaryconstraints

Resourcing

store &distributeas required

obtainresourcesas required

knowresources& centres

Planning

plan suitablestructurefor project

know plan suitable establishmanagement nal,. ales resourcesset and other to achieve requiredconstraints i objectives

cost proposals

identify a know establishrequired objectives ordering &pedagogic & of ELT timing ofmanagerial project eventsskills

ensure team do planned establish ensure teamunderstand activities team in situ has facilitiesproject & resources& roles

conductprocess forwithdrawal

Implementation

monitor andcontrol

diagram 1

be aware of establish compare determineunintended effects of ---0" desired & appropriateconsequences project actual effect action

select tool -41-- determinecriteria ofeffectiveness

establishinvestigators

Monitoring& control

25

Conceptual model of activities necessary to manage anELT project (low resolution)

monitor andcontrol

identify socialpolitical &culturalconstraints

Ntrain local staff -4-- plan ELT

project/monitor project

organize formalstructures& procedures

Ndo plannedactivities

obtain resources

diagram 2

t) "

26

Case study - Togo ELT project in teachereducation and training

Case study leader: Eddie Uprichard

The project

The Togo ELT project consists of two sub-projects

1 Sub-project A, based at DIFOP (see Annex 6 forglossary of acronyms) and dealing mainly with thedevelopment of training programmes and theinfrastructure for general English within thesecondary sector

2 Sub-project B, based at the University of Benin andfocusing on the development of ESP/EAP, mainly attertiary level

The case study

Partly because of the limited time available and alsopartly because sub-project B is still at discussion stageand has not yet been initiated, it was decided to focusthe case study on sub-project A, which is entering aphase of consolidation and development.

The task

To suggest how training might be used to strengthenthe infrastructure of inspectors, advisers and resourcecentres within the regions with a view to long-termproject sustainability.

Procedure

Description and E Uprichard 45 minscontextualizationof sub-project A anddefinition of task

Discussion insub-groups

Synthesizing ofsub-grouprecomnien ations

Preparation ofpresentation

Presentation ofreoort to plenary

Report

a in-servicetraining

b resourcecentres 30 mins

whole group 45 mins

whole group 30 mins

Ros Hurst &Tony Wright 20 mins

The Togo resource infrastructure was perceived asconsisting of three categories

1 human resources: inspectors, advisers, teachers

2 institutional resources: the institutions concerned(DIFOP, DEDD, DETD)

3 physical resources: books, materials, buildings

It was agreed that under-utilization of any of theseresources or lack of co-ordination between them wouldresult in a weakening of the whole. Trainingprogrammes, whether based in-country, in the UK or athird country should, in order to be valid, take thesefactors into account. As Togo has a reasonablywell-trained body of inspectors and advisers, it wasdecided to examine two aspects of the project, theresource centres and the DIFOP-based INSETprogramme, in order to see what inferences could bedrawn about improving utilization of the existinginfrastructure and planning for future developments.

Conclusions

While it is obvious that recommendations based on theTogo study are case-specific, it was felt that they hadgeneral implications for other projects, especially thosewithin the francophone zone but also other areas aswell.

The local advisers are perceived as key personnel withimportant catalytic roles to play in the development ofphysical (resource centres) and human (teachers)resources.

Training programmes for personnel should include suchcomponents as interpersonal management and 'book'management, as well as more standard ELT elements.

Local advisers (and ELTOs) should be aware of localsensitivities and take care to cater for these in such away that more traditionally-minded and long-servingpersonnel (inspectors, for example, tend to be in thiscategory) should not feel threatened by innovationsintroduced by ELT projects. New roles need to bedeveloped for these cadres.

Awareness, roles and investment were thought tr Deof special importance and it was felt that these wouldneed due consideration when planning and implementingany programme of innovations. It was felt that if thesewere ignored, there would be serious doubts aboutsustainability.

<4 27

Annex 1

Summary of subgroup A recommendations:resource centres

to improve accessibility to resource centres forteachers

to situate advisers within resource centres

to make advisers responsible for routine management ofresource centres

advisers to catalogue and classify current materialswith a view to their becoming familiar with same

inspectors, advisers and teachers to makerecommendations for supplementing current materials

inspectors and advisers to conduct an awarenesscampaign amongst teachers to familiarize them withwhat is available at resource centres

to train teachers in usirg resources

to develop resource centres as meeting places forINSET

supplementary materials for teachers to be producedby teachers and advisers, inspectors to be involvedwhere possible

teachers in training (PRESET) to be familiarized withresource centres

DIFOP to play centralizing and co-ordinating roles inabove

229

Annex 2

Summary of sub-group B recommendations: in-servicetraining

advisers to act as catalysts for future developmentsin conjunction with school-Lased teacher groupsleading to networking and the creation of a group ofmentor teachers.

a consistent programme for the development of mentorteachers to be developed

to develop mutual trust among teachers for self-help/observation groups

to develop teachers' observation skills

to include practical teaching within the INSETprogramme

resource centre materials to be exploited duringseminars

to involve teachers in the development of resourcematerials

inspectors to chair regional INSET steering groupsand to be responsible for communications regardingINSET

inspectors to be responsible for promotion andpublicity of INSET

District/Regional Teacher Associations to beencouraged

DIFOP to play centralizing and co-ordinating roles inabove

3 u

30

I

Annex 3

Key personnel

Institution Officer Training profile

DIFOP Adviser 1 MA USAAdviser 2 MA USAAdviser 3 MA Christchwch (in traini ag)Adviser 4 MA ULIE (recently appointed)

DEDD (Junior Sec)

DETD (Upper Sec)

Advisers 1-5Advisers 6-10Inspector 1Inspector 2Inspectors 3-5Resource person 1Resource person 2

Inspector 1Inspector 2Resource person 1

0 1

Adv Dip WSIHE (appointed Sept 1989)Adv Dip WSIHE (as from Sept 1990)CAIEN FranceCAIEN France, Diploma/WSIHECAIEN Togo, three months ULIEMA LancasterCAP CEG Togo

CAIEN France, MA USACAIEN France, MSc EdinburghMA Southampton

31

Annex 4

Background notes

Sandwiched between Ghana on the west and Benin(ex-Dahomey) on the east the ex-German colony ofTogo land was jointly administered by France and Britainuntil the British area became part of Ghana in 1957.The French zone - modern Togo - became independentin 1960. The loss of the British zone is still a sorepoint with many Togolese. There is a rapidlyincreasing population of about 3.5 million. There arenumerous vernacular languages (how many depends onwho is counting but numbers range from eight totwenty-two), two of which (Ewe and Kabiye) have beenadopted as national languages and are taught in school.The official national language is French but mostTogolese speak at least some English and a significantnumber speak German.

Despite suffering like many African countries fromeconomic recession, Togo fares more favourably thanmany. Utilities such as water, electricity and thetelephone system work well and the road networkalthough small is generally good. The economic situationhas prevented any increase in the number of teachersand, as pupil numbers are steadily rising, class sizesare often very large.

The educational system was inherited from the Frenchbut has been greatly expanded and in theory reformed,although little real change is obvious. Althoughtechnical and vocational education is now consideredimportant, and a separate Ministry created to be incharge of it, most pupils at secondary and tertiary levelstudy the traditional academic subjects, includingEnglish which is taught from lower secondary levelupwards.

British support to ELT has been for twenty years ormore in the form of a new post in the EnglishDepartment of the University. In 1987, a new post wascreated at DIFOP to provide support for ELT atsecondary level, primarily in the form of in-servicetraining for CEG teachers.

Although there are nominally about 630 English teachersat this level, only about 550 are actually teachingEnglish, the others teaching either French or Eweinstead. About two-thirds of those teaching have beeneducated in Ghana and so speak fluent (Ghanaian)English. Although many are trained teachers, mosthave had no training in ELT. The remaining one-thirdare products of the local ecole normale superieure andhave received at least some ELT training. Their levelof English varies greatly.

Most lycee teachers are products of the University andhave received nominal training. Their general level ofEnglish is reasonably good.

The recent decision (August 1989) to create in Lome afree trade import-export zone in which English isexpected to be the main working language, has given agreat impetus to ELT. This has encouraged thedevelopment of sub-project B which is intended toimprove the teaching of ESP and EAP at mainlyUniversity level. Most teachers of English at this levelhave had no training in ESP/EAP. The majority arelycee teachers on part-time contracts.

32

Annex 5

Togo education organization

Minister Minister(Nation& Education) (Technical Education)

I

Cabinet CabinetI I

Directions Directions

I I 1

INSET Primary Lower Uppercentre schools secondary secondary(DIFOP) DEPD? (DEDD)

I

(DEImo)

(EP) (CEG) (Lycees)

11 I I I

Tertiary Tertiary Lower Uppereducation education second- second-

1 1

auI

aryI

(VB) (VB) (CET) (LT)(ENS)

3 033

Annex 6

DIFOP Direction de la Formation Permanante, del'Action et de la Recherche Pedagogiques:institution responsible for in-servicetraining, materials and syllabus development -base for sub-project A

DEPD Direction de l'Enseignement du Premier Degre- responsible for primary education

DEDD Direction de l'Enseignement du DeuxiemeDegre - responsible for lower secondaryeducation

DETD Direction de l'Enseignement du TroisiemeDegre - responsible for upper secondaryeducation

EP Ecoles primaires - primary schools

CEG Colleges d'enseignement general: lowersecondary schools - first four years

Lycees Upper secondary schools - final three years

UB Universite du Benin - the University of Togo

ENS Ecole normale superieure - lower secondaryteacher training college

CET Colleges d'enseignement technique- lower level technical and commercial schools

LT Lycees techniques - upper level technical andcommercial schools

3

34

Annexe 7

Project related institutions

Ministry of National Education Ministry of Technical Education

DIFOP DEDD DETD tertiary lower upperINSET lower upper education secondary secondaryetc. secondary secondary technical technical

centre schools schools schools schools

4 ELT 230 CEG 40 LYCEES ENS VB CET LTadvisers 550 Eng trs 120 Eng trs 2} Eng trs 7 perm Eng tr: 25 Eng trs 15 Eng trs

5 inspectors 2 inspectors 20 student-tr Many part-time No insp/ad No insp/ad10 advisers No advisers 8000 students ? pupils 2000 pupils56000 pupils 17000 pupils

[Sub-project A1 ELTO

Sub-project A: 1 ELTO based in DIFOP: in-servicetraining and support for upper and lower secondaryEnglish teachers. Started in March 1987 linked topre-service training at UB (now suspended in favour ofsub-project B). Annual budget of £5,000 ascontribution to local seminar funding.

Sub-project B: One ELTO (post under recruitment)based in university; development of ESP mainly attertiary level with incidental support for Englishteachers in CET and LT. Effect: .re from September1990. Annual budget of £5,000 fc: seminar funding.

Significant sub-project A activities/achievementsto date

1 In-service training (secondary)

CEG teachers

Lycee teachers

1989-90: 6 x 5-day .;eminars:180 participants in all1990-91: 8 x 5-day seminars:250 participants in all(projected)1g39-90: 5 x 3-day seminars:all teachers x 21990-91: 4 x 3-day seminars:120 teachers

Sub-project B1 ELTO

Shared A + Bno ELTO

2 Pre-service training (university)

education component of degree course now an option

improvements in organization of methodology courseand related TP

improvements in English language courses withinEnglish department

lycee syllabus revision: initiatsd in 1988 and ongoing

introduction of English Africa (Cripwell, MacMillan) atlycee level

introduction of new style exam for baccalaureat

4 Significant project related TCT

1988-89: 5 ELT advisers trained for lowersecondary schools

1989-90: 5 ELT advisers trained for lowersecondary schools

1990-91: 1 lycee inspector to receive trainingin UK: first of a projected group often inspectors/advisers

35

Case study - Tanzania ELTSP

Case study leader: Paul Simmonds

Background

The English language teaching support project aims toimprove English in secondary schools through theprovision of books and INSET. Language skills aredeveloped through reading, and to this end the projecthas adopted the Edinburgh project on extensive reading(EPER). Teacher training involves in-countryworkshops and sending forty teachers to the UK eachyear for short methodology courses. Allowing forwastage and a further year of training, there should be120 UK-trained teachers available by 1991.

The problem

How can the trained teachers be best utilized on theirreturn to Tanzania?

Solutions

The team identified two possible solutions andrecommended adoption of the second.

Solution 1 School-based

Trainees with teacher-training potential are identifiedduring their UK training. They are designated'Advisory Teachers' with a salary and status midwaybetween Head of Department and Deputy Head. Thisenhanced status is required to allow them to exercisetheir training responsibilities. Approximately thirtykey schools are selected and at least one AdvisoryTeacher posted to each, spending two-fifths timeteaching within the school and three-fifths runningshort INSET courses for the area. Other locally basedtrainees, VSO and the inspectorate will assist.

Advantages

1 trainees would not be lost to the school system

2 local INSET would be cheap

3 piloting would be easy

Disadvantages

1 creation of 'Advisory Teacher' status would bedifficult

2 once project-funding ended, the Advisory Teacherrole could not be sustained

36

Solution 2 Teacher training college (TTC) based

TTCs provide pre-service training, five offer diplomacourses in English. Trainees with the best trainerpotential are appointed to these TTCs with no fewerthan two in any one college. Their responsibilities aretwo-thirds outreach INSET and one-third contributionto pre-service courses in the TTC. Outreach coursesare largely held in schools in the area. Other traineesbased locally assist. This latter group also serve asagents of change in their own schools. TTC-basedtrainees are supported by ELTOs with further trainingin Tanzania and UK.

3o'

A necessary condition for solution 2 is that the besttrainees are appointed to the TTC posts. This may benegotiated at the time the project extension is discussedwith the government of Tanzania.

Concerning materials

UK readers are supplemented by Tanzania-authoredbooks. Authors are trained in the UK and their textsmade ready for publication. Printing is done inTanzania.

Timing

Year 1 2 3 4 5

Training TrainTTs

InstallTTs

RunINSET

RunPre-service

Books Writereaders

Publishreaders

Advantages

trainees are based in an appropriate environment forteacher-training

trainees are well-placed to respond to a shift ofemphasis from INSET to pre-service training so thatthe need for INSET is reduced

TTC status will provide sufficient authority

Disadvantages

trainees may evuive into academics

TTCs are not well-distributed

General issues

solutions should involve planning for the long-term toallow flexibility to changing circumstances as theproject evolves and funding is withdrawn

it is crucial to define the roles of participants.Sufficient authority must be provided

existing structures (the TTCs) should be usedwherepossible

the question of how the candidates best qualified toserve the project are appointed must be tackled

professional links must be provided

a sustainable supply of materials must be established

projects should be evaluated quickly so that staffcontinuity can be maintained

37

Case study - Sierra Leone

Case study leader: Jane Carey

Preamble

This case study has as its subject the sustainability ofa curriculum implementation project in Sierra Leone.The stated wider objectives of the project are tosupport the strengthening of English as a firstlanguage, to support the use of a harmonized syllabusand recommended textbooks, and to upgrade thestandard of teaching throughout the country. The case3tudy began by considering the salient features ofExigliP:i language teaching in the Sierra Leone statesystem. In the interests of brevity, this report willfocus on the primary sector, which emerged as the focusof this study.

Background

Schools

English is the official medium of instruction in alleducational institutions in Sierra Leone, though Krio,the lingua franca, is also commonly used in theclassroom. There are approximately 25,000 primaryclass teachers working in 2,500 primary schools. Amuch smaller number teach English in one of the 240secondary schools. New syllabuses for English haverecently been introduced at both primary and secondarylevel, and the primary teacher training colleges are alsousing a new syllabus, drawn up to reflect the changesmade to the primary syllabus.

Teachers

In primary schools, some teachers are secondary schoolgraduates with no pre-service training, whilst othershave been trained at one of the primary teachertraining colleges. At these colleges, the failure rate ishigh, but many failed trainees do find jobs in theprimary sector.

Increasingly, graduates of the primary teacher trainingcolleges work in the secondary sector, although thetraining route for such teachers is designed to be auniversity degree or a course at the secondary college.

Primary teacher training

Staff at the five primary teacher training collegesrarely have any experience of teaching in primaryschools. They are recruited directly on graduation fromuniversity, where staff do not like to teach methodologythemselves. At primary level, INSET is theresponsibility of a group of teacher supervisors, all ofwhom have previously held senior posts in primaryschools. The teacher supervisors have all attended athree-month course in the UK. Their numbers havediminished from the original eighteen in 1982 to aboutsix. Another eighteen, who are inspectors, are alsosupposed to carry out INSET.

National curriculum development centre

The English Department here has two highly qualifiedand hard-working local staff.

3638

Organizational structure

The primary teacher training colleges are overseen bythe Institute of Education, itself part of the University.The teacher-inspectors, however, work for theMinistry of Educatioxi.

The effectiveness of previous ELT aid

The approach has been to provide training in the UK atMA or Diploma level for key personnel involved in pre-service teacher training, and for staff in curriculumdevelopment. ELTOs were also placed in four teachertraining colleges from 1982 to 1987. Although thecurriculum development staff have succeeded inproducing new syllabuses, college teacher trainersreceiving UK training have tended to move up thesystem, away from primary teacher training. The UKtraining of a selected group of teachers to form theteacher-inspector group has not been altogethersuccessful, since there are few of this group still inactive employment. Those that are can no longer reachthe schools they should be visiting, since no one canafford the transport costs.

An analysis of key problems

the economic situation in Sierra Leone is causingconcern. Inflation is high, and funding for educationis scarce. Effects of this include a drift away fromschools by teachers in search of a more adequatesalary which is paid more regularly. Transport coststo attend workshops can no longer be paid by theauthorities or by individuals

education is no longer viewed as a valuablecommodity, since it does not impove employmentprospects

previous ELT aid has been largely top-down. Thishas failed to trickle down to primary level and can besaid to have moved up the system instead

training has not taken place in, nor established, acoherent structure for curriculum development acrossthe school system

Reasons for focusing on the primary sector

despite all the current difficulties, enthusiasticteachers can still be found in primary classrooms. Aconsiderable proportion of these are women who arenot the main bread-winner of the family and canafford to stay in education. These two factorssuggest training might be more effective here than inother sectors

there is already a system of teacher-supervisors inplace, though this would need strengthening

given the results of a top-down approach to aid, thereis a case for attempting a bottom-up strategy

strengthening English for use across the curriculumat primary level rather than secondary may improvethe success rate at the lower levels of school

all the pre-service training, and the in-servicetraining for secondary schools, is reasonablyeffective so could continue without extra support forthe time being

Strategies for supporting primary INSET

rather than planning primary INSET around the needsidentified by those unfamiliar with the classrooms, thesuggested strategy is to find out what the primarysector itself perceives its needs to be

the vehicle for ascertaining these needs will be ameeting of a consultative forum, a specially invitedgroup consisting of teacher-supervisors andrepresentatives of head teachers and other keyteachers from all of the districts, and the ELTO andher colleagues. Needs will be the main topic ofworkshops and discussion groups at this forum

a small steering team will plan the consultative forumcarefully beforehand. This team will devise aprogramme and select suitable consultative activitiesdesigned to establish such outcomes as

how and whether the training packages, preparedsome years ago by previous ELTOs, can be mademore usable

a catalogue of existing resources for INSET

an inventory of classroom teaching difficulties whichmight be reduced through INSET activities requiringminimal resourcing

an organizational framework for providing INSET atthe local primary level

a list of prioritized training needs

Comment

The suggested strategy is not without risk, and thepreparatory work of the steering team is absolutelyvital so that the forum will produce the necessarycommitment, despite the lack of resources.

Evaluation of Technical Co-operation Training

Norman Leigh, Head Quality Control Section,Technical Co-operation Training Department, TheBritish Council

The British Council arranges training on behalf of theODA for some 13,000 study fellows a year. Half ofthese are new placements, the remainder beingcontinuers from the previous financial year. In roundfigures, the programme costs £84 million a year.Administrative costs world wide add another 15%. Howdo we know that we are getting good, or indeed any,value from this input of money and effort? And are weachieving good standards of administration andsupport?

Evaluation Unit of TCTD was set up in 1978 at therequest of the ODA to carry out research which mightinform future policy and enable corrective action to betaken when things appear to be going wrong. Theyhave developed three ways of doing this

1 Overseas interview exercises. We aim to carry outsix or eight of these each year. A sample offorty-five returned study fellows is chosen from thosewho have been back from training for about eighteenmonths - this is a compromise between havingsufficient post-training experience to assess the valueof the skills obtained and still having a reasonablyfresh memory of experiences in Britain. Historically,we have picked a sample from an entire countryprogramme, but increasingly we now choose a subjectsector or project (or a group of either of these) asthis makes an effective assessment of impact morelikely. Each study fellow is interviewed for aboutninety minutes, covering every aspect of the awardfrom initial selection and choice of course, throughacademic linguistic and personal experinces in Britain,to work experience and use of training since return.Line managers are also interviewed where availableand a supplementary questionnaire is used to assessthe special needs of women study fellows. An awardrating is given in each case, and conclusions drawn asto causes of and lessons derived from high and lowratings.

2 Headquarters desk reviews. We carry out two orthree of these each year. A sample of severalhundred files is selected at Headquarters and studiedto establish the incidence, causes and possibleremedies of a perceived problem. Recent examplesinclude fee escalation, medical problems,speed-of-placing and training failures.

3 End-of-training questionnaires. These aredistributed to 50% of all study fellows departing at theend of their training, using a random samplingtechnique. About 70% of these forms are returned,giving a 35% overall sample of the around 6,000 studyfellows who complete their awards each year. Thequestionnaire covers all aspects of time spent inBritain and whether the study fellow considered thetraining relevant to development needs and likely tobe of value on return.

The returns are analysed using the user-friendlysurvey package (USP) devised at the University ofKent. Tables are produced relating replies to eachother, e.g. difficulties with the course can be related

39

to the amount of ELT received and a self-assessment oflinguistic ability. Satisfaction with training can berelated to country of origin, subject studied, institutionattended, British Council region, age, length of noticereceived, or adequacy of briefing.

Incoming questionnaires are also scanned immediately onarrival to pick up serious disquiet and where possibleto arrange for an adviser to interview the study fellowbefore departure from Britain. A report is derivedfrom the tables and bench-mark figures compared yearto year. Ad hoc data can be drawn off at any time toanswer particular enquiries.

From 1991/92 onwards, our partnership with ODA forthe running of the programme will move to a more formalcontractual basis. The administrative work of runningthe programme will be negotiated country by country bythe geographical desks; some country programmes willbe tendered out on a competitive basis. Formalagreements will be established on costs per head forrunning the programme, and on performance measureand standards for the delivery and outcome of trainingand administrative services.

To prepare for this, TCTD has merged itsAdministration, Evaluation and Finance Units into aQuality Control Section which will have the task ofensuring the maintenance of standards across thescheme; this will be of greater importance when theformer TCT Programme is broken up into its 109component country programmes. The opportunity willbe taken to set measures and targets and new systemsfor gathering the data required to judge whetherstandards are being met.

The merger of finance with quality review will enableconnections to be made between resources input andvalue output. 'Evaluation' , which has a technicalmeaning for our clients, the ODA, will be retitled'Quality Review' ; this will emphasize the importance ofcomparing cost with quality of return to assess thedegree of value for money which is being obtained.

It is impossible to decide whether the objectives oftraining have been met unless these objectives havebeen set down clearly from the outset. It is not evenpossible to make accurate placing recommendationsunless this is done. Redesign of the A2 applicationform and A2a covering comment form will be a priority:this will guide nominating departments overseas intostating precisely what the trainee needs to be equippedto do on return from training: the Council or diplomaticpost overseas will have the framework for checking thatobjectives have been clearly identified, and for statingthem where this has not been done. TCOs and ELTOscan help, when they are initiating nominations fromtheir projects, by promoting discussion and formulationof clear objectives.

We also intend to make it possible to pick up potentialproblems at an early stage when corrective action canbe taken for the immediate benefit of current studyfellows as well as for their successors. This will bedone by means of a start-of-training questionnaire to beissued within a few weeks of arrival. This will pick upearly comments on arrival arrangements, but moreimportantly it will enable actual or perceived misplacingsto be resolved at a point where course change ormodification is still possible.

40

The principles underlying the evaluation of training

Pauline Rea Dickins, Department of English LanguageTeaching, Ealing College

Introduction

This paper has four main aims:

to examine the purposes of evaluation

to examine the nature of evaluation associated withthe different purposes identified

to present a framework for the implementation ofevaluations

to suggest ways in which aspects of the frameworkmay be applied to the evaluation of training

By way of introduction, training may be identified inseveral different ways, to include the following.

A Overseas

(a) One year/9 month MA/Diploma (qualificatory)(b) short specialist course

- one-off- continuing

(c) PhD (split, with data collection in students' own context)(d) individual attachment

B In-country

(a) integrating trainee within the project(b) preparatory to overseas training(c) short courses (one-off /continuing)(d) regular in-service

Figure 1: Sample types of training

1 Purposes of evaluation

Within the context of training, three main purposes forevaluation are identified: (1) accountability,(2) curriculum and training development and(3) awareness raising. These are summarized inFigure 2 below.

41

1 Evaluation for purposes of accountability:

to examine whether the training has been effectiveto determine whether the indicators of success of the training/project have been achievedto determine the value for money invested in the training

2 Evaluation for purposes of development (curriculum and training):monitoring with a view to improving the functioning of the project

(a) to confirm existing practice(b) to gather information for innovation (curriculum development

which includes staff training)

3 Evaluation for awareness-raising purposes

- evaluation as an awareness-raising activity

Figure 2: Purposes of evaluation

The first purpose relates to evaluative judger ...its madefor purposes of decision making. Here the aim is topronounce a judgement about the training itself, theinformation from which may not be used in any majorway to improve the functioning of the training. It mayhowever be used to curtail a sponsor's financialinvolvement in a project.

Evaluation for purposes of development of the trainingcurriculum, on the other hand, is concerned withdescription and explanation. It may be used to gatherevidence to confirm the quality of aspects of theexisting training provision. Alternatively, it willgather information to be used as the basis for futureaction leading to improved training. It is more likely tohave a selective, rather than a global, focus and itsprimary motivation is to seek feedback that can be usedto enhance the quality of the training.

Evaluation as an awareness raising activity links closelywith the development of training. It is intended thatthe enhanced awareness of the trainees or trainers willfeed into the curriculum (i.e. training curriculum)renewal process. The aim of this evaluation is solelyformative and it responds to particular issues and/orproblems. It is thus very selective in its focus.

The evaluation purposes identified above are notnecessarily mutually exclusive. However, the mainmotivations for the three different evaluation purposeshave been outlined. The practice of evaluation may besummarized in the following way.

Evaluation is practice OK?Yes

No

confirm/continue

innovate/cut

42

Figure 3: Evaluation - summary

4-2

2 Characteristics of evaluation for specific purposes

The nature of evaluation may change according to thepurpose(s) for which it is undertaken. Thecharacteristics associated with the three main purposesof evaluation are summarized in Figure 4.

Accountability

grade: explicit or impliedinformation used for major training decisions, e.g. terminate training/project prematurely- imposed externally- undertaken by agent external to the training/project- quantitative- formal- weighted, influential in decision making process- limited participation by those involved in the training/project- little feedback from the evaluation into the training/project- information largely used exclusively by those external to the project- summative- product/ends focused

Development

- information used internally for purposes of improving the training/functioning of the project

- nature of and approach to the evaluation agreed within the project,(external advice not precluded)

- undertaken by the trainers and trainees, i.e. the project participants- qualitative, descriptive, some quantitative data- undervalued by external agents- maximum participation by user groups- feedback both into the project and into the external (accountability)

evaluation- information used largely by the project but should also be taken into

account in any external evaluation- formative- primarily process and means-focused (versus product-focused)

Awareness-raising

- no grade- qualitative, descriptive- initially guided by participants internal to the training- of foremost relevance to the trainees, but also provides information

for project monitoringundervalued as part of formative (internal) and summative (external)evaluationsfeeds back into the training programme and project directly. Isindirectly related to external evaluationformativeprocess and means oriented

Figure 4: Characteristics of evaluation

434

In terms of the development of the training itself andthe personnel involved in the training project,evaluation for purposes of development andconsciousness raising are of most relevance. Evaluationfor purposes of accountability will be relevant tosponsors, however the information provided from thistype of evaluation will contribute little to overalldevelopment and sustainability, i.e. the quality of thetraining. The relationship between these threeevaluation purposes may be summarized thus.

Evaluation purpose Year 1

accountability

development

awareness raising

Year 2 Year 3

GOO 000 0 0 0rTraining

A-A -A-A -A-A -A-46,

Figure 5: Relationship between levels of evaluation in training projects

A comprehensive evaluation should take into account theinformation provided at eaci of the three levelsidentified above. However, accountability evaluationshave invariably assumed greater significance than moreinformal developmental and awareness raising evaluationactivities. There are no grounds whatsoever for this tobe the case. In essence, '... different areas ofevaluation are important to different people, atdifferent times, and for different reasons' (Rea 1983).The relationship between the evaluation levels is thatawareness raising data will feed into the developmentprocess which in turn will feed into overallaccountability evaluations.

3 Framework for evaluation

A framework for evaluation activities is presented in theform of eleven questions (Rea Dickins and Germaine,forthcoming 1991). These are intended to be used as achecklist when preparing for evaluations. Eachquestion raises key principles underlying the evaluationprocess.

Framework for evaluation

1 Who is the information for?Why do they want to evaluate the training?

2 What are the criteria to be used in the evaluation?Who establishes these criteria?

3 What will be evaluated? What aspect of the training will beevaluated?

4 When shall the evaluation take place? What are the timescalesfor the evaluation?

5 What procedures will be used to obtain the data?

6 Where and from whom are we going to get the information?

7 Who are we going to involve in the evaluation?

8 How are we going to manage the evaluation?

9 What are we going to do with the information we get?This depends on

(a) the purpose of the evaluation(b) the nature of the evaluation(c) the audience to whom the information will be available?(d) the nature of the feedback from the evaluation(e) the way in which the evaluation data is reported

10 What are the constraints and/or problems that need to betaken into account when planning for/implementing the evaluation?

11 Evaluating the evaluation process; are the evaluationseffective?

Figure 6: Framework for Evaluation

It is important to recognize the interdependencebetween these questions. The information elicited bythe framework is not to be seen in isolation. For.example, if you identify a need for evaluation for.purposes of teacher development (question 1) then thisdetermines a range of other considerations: what willbe evaluated (question 2), the criteria to be used(question 3), who will be involved (question 7) and howthe information will be used (question 9).

Question 10 refers to constraints which need to be takeninto account when planning and undertaking anevaluation. Some of these constraints will arise fromthe context in which the evaluation is taking place(e.g. very large numbers of trainees widely dispersedwithin a big country). It is crucial to identifyconstraints at the outset and to be aware of the(potential) effect(s) that these may have for theevaluations.

In question 11, the idea of keeping a track on theevaluations themselves is introduced. In other words,it is considered important to evaluate the usefulness ofany evaluations that are carried out. Are theyachieving the purposes set? If they are not, then issomething being done about it?

45 45

4 Case study

A context is provided within which to analyse some ofthe ways in which training may be evaluated. Thiscontext is summarized in Figure 7 below.

Case study: Teacher training project for primary/secondary schoolteachers in an EFL context. Based in regional TTCs andprimarily related to INSET.

Aims- to improve ELT in the school sector- to provide training and materials for some teachers and teacher

trainers and inspectors

The project

This involves:

Details of Context

support to the TTCs and ELTOsin-country seminarsoverseas short courses (10 weeks) training for the targetteachers, inspectors

level of ELT is lowteaching is low status professioninadequately trained teacherslittle/no in-service traininginadequate pre-serviceteachers' lack of confidence in using Englishunresponsive to potential for classroom innovationinflexible to change

The training

a in-country seminarsb overseas short course of study

The aim of this training is to introduce innovation in classrooms

Evaluation of training

There are a number of questions to ask which include the following(NB this is not an exhaustive list)

how can the trainees be assisted in the process of implementingchange?

what constraints inhibit change?

do trainees transfer their skills from the course of training into thetarget work (teaching) situation?

what changes are there in classroom practice?

what can students do after the training that they cannot do beforetraining?

46

Figure 7: Outline case study

46

f

The five evaluation questions given above are indicativeof the type of questions that may be asked regarding theeffectiveness of training.

Three stages are identified at which evaluationactivities are important.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

pre-training the training post-training

What is the How effective/ What evidence isbaseline? efficient is it? there for the

transfer of skills?

Figure 8: Stages in the evaluation of training process

The appropriate time to undertake the first evaluationis prior to the training itself. Issues of interest forevaluations at this stage include the following

Stage 1

1.1 evaluate tenders for the overseas training at level of workplan

1.2 define baseline teacher performance/classroom practice = evaluatingcurrent practices

1.3 evaluate/identify the trainees who will be taken onto the project/sent for overseas training

1.4 sensitize trainees to aims of training

NB: Important to articulate the baseline competencies at the beginning

Figure 9: Evaluation of the pre-training stage

An example of how the issues above could be elaboratedis given in Figure 10 below with specific reference to1.2.

Define baseline teacher performance and classroom practice

level of teachers' language proficiency: formal abilities, the fourskills, summary skillsnature of classroom managementsocial organization of the classroomnature of classroom interaction: TT talk, PP talk, question types etc.approaches to teaching grammaruse of visual aids

Figure 10: Evaluating the baseline

Z.t,747

An analysis of this kind will provide different types ofbaseline data to which subsequent training andevaluations may be related.

At Stage 2, the training provided is evaluated in termsof the baseline aims and also in terms of its process ofdelivery.

Stage 2

Evaluate whether practice reflects the workplan: is the training promisedbeing delivered?

Figure II: Evaluation of the training

The main issues in the evaluation of training at Stage 3are summarized below.

Stage 3

evaluate teachers and teaching: outcomes in terms of process

evaluate teachers and teaching: outcomes in terms of products

Figure 12: Evaluation of the post-training stage

Evaluation at the post-training phase may focus onprocess or product outcomes. The following questionsrelate to changes in classroom testing practices that mayhave taken place between the pre-training and thepost-training stages. They reflect a concern withtrainee outcomes in terms of process:

what changes are there in classroom practice: what isthe same, what is different?

which test types are used: same or different? Whatare the differences? Why?

when are tests used? Why?

how are the tests introduced and administered inclass?

how are the tests marked? What marking schemes areused? Does the teacher do all the marking? To whatextent are pupils involved in the marking process?

what works well? The teacher to identify this

what does not work well? The teacher to provide thisinformation

48Li 0

how does the teacher manage the feedback from thetests?

Evaluations concerned with outcomes in terms of endproducts will be expressed differently. Three examplesare given below.

do the trainees plan/run training sessions forteachers? Do they do this well?

have the trainees set up their own teacher network/support systems? How effective and efficient arethey?

can the trainees produce suitable test materials/writeappropriate tests/handle feedback sessions well?

Notice how questions that might be asked in anaccountability evaluation study are more concerned withmaking evaluative judgements in terms of good and/orbad practices. By way of contrast, evaluations forpurposes of development and awareness raising focusmore on the better understanding of training and theapplication of training skills to the target use context,thrc igh description and explanation.

Other considerations

Where evaluations are undertaken by externalconsultants it is crucial that the evaluation strategiesadopted are conceptually appropriate to the trainingpedagogy of the training project and the country Inwhich the training skills are to be applied.

In terms of the management of evaluations, it isimportant that contributions are gathered from all therelevant user groups. Hitherto, evaluations have beendominated by external experts who, by the nature oftheir task, will only have access to product data. It isthus essential that process data collected in themonitoring of training is available to any externalevaluator. This can only happen if the training projectand the internal evaluation of the different aspects oftraining is well managed and co-ordinated.

Conclusion

Evaluation is a crucial tool for trainers and trainees.In many contexts it is insufficient, or even irrelevant,to evaluate what trainees 'know' . Rather, it isnecessary to understand what trainees actually 'do' intheir target work situations. We can find out thesedetails of classroom practice through evaluationactivities.

There are several means by which we may evaluate theperformance of trainees. These include observation,diary keeping and self assessment. Evaluation providesthe means whereby we may determine progress towardsthe target, that is to determine the extent to which thetraining has moved the trainees away from the baselinelevel of performance towards the attainment of thetarget performance criteria. For evaluations to besuccessful, however, it is essential for those involved inthe evaluation process (e.g. those providing thetraining, those buying in the training, and otherrelevant professionals such as inspectors) to have ashared conceptual framework.

Case study - Philippines: ESP project at UP

Case study leader: Mike Smith

Project background

The ESP project at the University of the Philippines(UP) in the Visayas is based in Iloilo City and was setup in November 1987 with a view to producing relevantand suitable materials for students following fisheriescourses in the Philippines where the main language ofinstruction and communication in higher education isEnglish. This particular area was targeted asfisheries-related activities are a vital sector of thePhilippine economy. There was also an expressed needby industry for fisheries college graduates withrelevant and effective English abilities.

Including UP Visayas there are eight major tertiarycolleges of fisheries in the country, six of which haveuniversity status. These were the major initial targetof the programme. The baseline was effectively zero atcommencement. The aim was to produce a textbook withintegrated audio and video components and to providein-service support and training for the ELT staff. Theproblems of the physical spread of the colleges through-out the Philippine archipelago and the communicationproblems that this brings were recognized from theoutset. At the time of Dunford 1990, the textbook wasabout to be published, audio materials were completeand the video materials were in final editing stages.Two national seminars had been held and a third wasscheduled for October. The materials were all network-created and trialled, based on a very flexible set offree standing modules in order to fit in with collegerequirements and the needs of the fisheriesprofessionals who have been involved from thebeginning of this project.

The task

At the Dunford seminar the group concentrated on thetraining of ELT staff within the network and thecontribution that this would make to the long-termviability of the project as a whole. Those involved inthe project wished to consider a method for theevaluation, assessment and continuing active involve-ment of the ELT teachers in the project. Particularconsideration was given to overseas training and howUK institutions could usefully be more activelyinvolved. We found it difficult to separate this from thematerials side of the project but recognized the humanresource in our context as probably the most significantfactor in sustainability.

Output report

We considered two factors connected with sustainability.The first was the concept of the 'self-destructingELTO' ; the second, a training strategy for the teachingstaff in the colleges beyond the in-country visits,networking and national seminars which we already hadin place.

In the case of ELTO involvement we considered how theELTO function within the project framework shiftsemphasis from the training of counterparts to the point

A 49

where on withdrawal the counterparts themselvesbecome the trainers. The procedure adopted in ourcase was to involve all the staff in the colleges in'anetworking system from the very beginning, therebygiving every teacher the chance to contribute to theshaping not only of the materials but of the networkphilosophy. The role of the ELTO was to shape theoverall role of the staff and to promote interdisciplineco-operation in the colleges by example. The ability ofthe project organizers to educate, change attitudes andbring about innovation is as much of a key factor in thesustainability as the final product in terms of materials,which in themselves must be seen not to be enshrined.

The effective use of trainees prior to UK training andon their return was examined within this context andthe chart below illustrates our thinking in this respect.

Pre-departureInformation link UK-Philippines

Minimum links while on course.

Dissertation etc. fed into systemimmediately on return or piecemealwhile under training if appropriate.

Arrival home.

Reaction questionnaireprior to interview, to beused as guidelines forreport to home college andlocal British Council office.Also useful as pre-prep forinterview (BC staffer).

Role re-evaluated (thisshould have already started).

Project gains on return.

Echo seminars.

Extended attachments in othercolleges in the system.

Act as innovator and catalystfor organic growth in system.

Adds to the notion of diminishingcentral control and accrual of localresources and responsibilities.

Next trainees.

Different objectives, as need 1 satisfied;redirected to need 2 in light of previousexperience.

50

Conclusions and comments

Since the Dunford seminar in August 1990 the ELTO haswithdrawn from post leaving a multi-layered networkwith seven staff either in training or having completedUK courses. Another three will certainly be sent andthere are strong indications that a further eight will besent by the academic year 1992/3. The strategyoutlined for staff training and feedback has beenstarted following the annual seminar in early October1990. Early indications of UK-trained staff being movedaround the network to 'guest at other networkcolleges, and outreach training by the collegesthemselves at fisheries schools at a lower level thanundergraduate have been positive and encouraging.

The two key human resource areas of this project, thenetworking and the staff themselves, seem to be awareof the importance of continued innovation and evaluationin order to keep their system both operational andevolutionary.

51

Case study - Pakistan: NAHE

Case study leader: Rab Shiel

Background

NAHE, the National Academy of Higher Education,Islamabad, offers a Diploma in Teaching English as anInternational Language for tertiary level teachers.Since 1983, 160 teachers have been trained. Scholarsare nominated from diploma holders for UK masters leveltraining. The preferred candidates, the highestachievers, are not always nominated.

The Director of Studies is an ELTO. His counterpart isundertaking Ph.D. studies in the USA and will notreturn until September 1991. Her replacement has notbeen confirmed in her post due to severe administrativeproblems. Lack of an oficial counterpart theatens thecontinuity of the project. The ELTO will be withdrawnin September 1990 unless counterparting can bearranged.

The task

Formulate a plan of action for both the 'insider' (theacting counterpart) and the 'outsider' (the ELTO) inthe event of both the worst and the best scenariocoming to pass.

The worst scenario

The acting counterpart is not confirmed and resigns inprotest.

The ELTO is withdrawn in September 1990.

The other counterpart returns from the USA inSeptember 1991 but moves to a university the followingyear.

Few high achievers are nominated for scholarships.

Action plan. The 'Outsider'

1 brief a NAHE administrative officer to act as a stop-gap Director of Studies until counterpart returns

2 prepare full teaching notes so that the diploma can berun by tutors drawn from the best UK-trainedteachers and from members of SPELT, the nationalELi teachers association

3 hold a one-week briefing session for this group

The best scenario

ELTO's contract extended by twelve months with thelast six months in a consultative role.

Acting counterpart officially appointed courseco-ordinator.

Two diploma courses are held in Year 1, the firstdirected by the ELTO and the second by thecounterpart.

52

The other counterpart returns from the USA and isappointed Project Director (September 1991).

Both counterparts run the diploma.

The course extends to university centres.

More high achievers are nominated for scholarships.

The best help staff the new diploma courses.

Action plan. The 'Outsider'

1 plan a phased withdrawal with a paved handover tothe counterpart

2/3 as above

Action plan. The 'Insider'

Year 1 - Baseline study

1 identify potential trainers

2 identify factors contributing to success in previousprojects

3 identify new/further training needs

4 consolidate resources

5 carry out follow-up visits to students writingassignments

Year 2

1 with Project Director plan regional centres,university-based, to teach DTEIL and short trainingcourse

2 seek UK short courses training for trainers,administrators, resource persons and in research andevaluation

3 seek collaborative consultancies from UK institutions

J4,

Annex 1

Reasons for concern

After more than six months the appointment of a l'calcounterpart to the British Director of Studies is stillunresolved. This appointment should be seen asessential to ensure continuity and to sustain anddevelop what has been achieved so far.

The former counterpart left NAHE almost three year:;ago for Ph.D. research in the United States. Since thenthe continuity of the project has been under threat ongrounds of the lack of a counterpart. The Director ofStudies will be withdrawn in September unlesscounterparting can be arranged. Effectively this willmean the collapse of the project in its present form.

Extremely slow processing of scholarship candidatesnominated for UK training (DTEIL four candidates nowbeing nominated for September 1990, three years afterleaving NAHE).

Of particular concern to NAHE for the continuity of thecourse is the fact that high-achieving candidates haveto wait their turn while mediocre and even low achievingcandidates are sent for UK training. It is the highachievers who will be the future resource people, andthere are not yet enough of them to sustain the course.The processing of 'A grade' candidates needs to takepriority: six A graders from DTEIL 5 and six fromDTEIL 6 await nomination.

t J 53

Annex 2

Reasons for optimism

projected appointment of highest achieving formerparticipants as counterpart to British Director ofStudies

gradual increase of well-qualified resource persons toteach the future courses

continuing massive demand by teachers of English forthe diploma course (approximately six applicants foreach place in summer, three for each place in winter)

impressive standards of participants achievements atupper end of the scale (A grades)

there is now a great deal of evidence (bothdocumented in participants' assignments and fromanecdotal feedback) that methodological innovationsare being introduced widely in university and degreecollege classrooms as a direct result of the diplomacourse

some of these innovations, and the approaches of thediploma course in general, will gain a wider audienceshortly with the publication this summer by the UGCof half a dozen of the best assignments from thediploma course. This 300-page publication will coverthe spectrum of tertiary level ELT in Pakistan and willdeal with needs, syllabus, materials, methodology,English for specific purposes and teacher training

the diploma courses are having a perceptible influencein changing university English departments' under-graduate and postgraduate courses from their formerexclusive concern with literature to an increasinginterest in TEFL and applied linguistics. Syllabuseshave already moved in this direction in theuniversities of Karachi, Punjab, Multan and AJK,Muzaffarabad

54

Annex 3

The teaching of English in Pakistan

English is taught as an academic subject: learners aremade to study texts at the linguistic level of theeducated native speaker and memorize rules ofgrammar

syllabuses for English consist for the most part ofpassages by half-forgotten British writers of the inter-war period. There is a heavy emphasis on literarytexts

teachers lack TEFL training. They provide studentswith synopses of texts through lectures. Mostlysynopses are given either entirely in Li or in amixture of 1,1 and English. Teachers and studentswhose proficiency is such that the text can bediscussed in English are a small minority

students, confronted with texts beyond theirproficiency level in English, turn to guide-books forsummaries which they learn by rote

slassroorn,:. :-.re over-crowded (60 to 250 students)

teacl-,r.-ig aids are virtually non-existent: blackboardI chalk is all that is Bailable

the examinauon system tests students' knowledge ofthe content of prescribed texts and not theirprc 'Aency in English

55

Annex 4

SPELT

SPELT, Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers,was founded in 1987 with the following objectives

to provide a professional forum for English languageteachers in Pakistan

to serve as the centre for the dissemination of currentideas and developments in ELT

to provide in-service courses, seminars andworkshops in ELT

to build up a resource centre complete with up-to-dateELT materials

Formal training opportunities

SPELT runs a year long teacher-training course inELT. Four courses have been successfully completedand the fifth is now in progress.

SPELT has recently been recognized by the RSA andCambridge University, and participants whosuccessfully complete the course now in progress will beawarded the COTE (Certificate of Teaching English).

Informal training opportunities

SPELT runs a two hour workshop on ELT every monthin Karachi. Ch. )ters in Peshawar, Islamabad, Labore,and Multan also run workshops but less frequently.

Every year since its formation SPELT has run a seminarwhich has been an international affair for the past twoyears with contributor and participants fromBangladesh, India, the USA and the UK. The 1989seminar was attended by 450 teachers.

r u56

Annex 5

NAHE: (Brief description)

The National Academy of Higher Education, UniversityGrants Commission was established under a resolution ofthe government of Pakistan in 1983. It is mandated toundertake academic development of the universitiesincluding faculty development.

The affairs of the Academy are vested in a Board ofGovernors whose chairman is the chairman of theUniversity Grants Commission. The Director General,the Head of the Academy, is one of the SeniorAcademicians appointed by the UGC. He is responsiblefor carrying out the objectives of the Academy.

In addition to its own faculty members, NAHE invitesresource persons covering a wide range of expertisefrom universities and other institutions.

The functions of the Academy are

to organize pre-service/in-service trainingprogrammes and diploma courses in the teaching ofEnglish for college and university teachers

to undertake research and development curricula forthe subjects taught at college and university level

to organize conferences, seminars, symposia andworkshops, to further improve education and researchin colleges and universities

to serve as a centre for the dissemination ofinformation on curriculum, administration andevaluation of higher education

to establish centres/institutes/units for research andtraining

to seek co-operation and provide professional servicesand support to educational institutions and otherrelated agencies/institutions

to appoint study/task groups to identify issues andsuggest measures for the improvement of highereducation in the country

to publish monographs, dissertations, researchreports, journals and other such materials as may beconsidered necessary for the promotion of highereducation

to perform such other functions as the UniversityGrants Commission may assign to it

57

Case study - South Africa: the Molten project

Case study leader - Charles Nuttall

The Molteno project is a programme of research anddevelopment aimed primarily at teaching the basic skillsof reading and writing in English in black primaryschools in South Africa.

The task set for the participants in the case study wasas follows

identify, analyse and describe the training skillsrequired at the various level of the training network

suggest strategies and procedures for developingthese skills

The various levels referred to were

1 ELTO and Molteno project staff

2 area co-ordinators

3 circuit trainers

4 local school-based trainers (LSBTs)

All of these except (1) are practising teachers whowork, in most cases, both part-time and unpaid.

The discussion focused on the LSBTs who, it wasrecognized, would be in receipt of only ten daystraining as teacher-trainers in the first year.

The three major tasks of the LSBTs were identified asfollows

1 forming local teacher support groups

2 running training seminars for/with group members

3 monitoring group members' performance in theclassroom

This last monitoring function led to a great deal ofdiscussion. Monitoring was felt to be an inappropriateword, indicative of assessment and (negative)evaluation. Ten days was felt to be inadequate for theproper training ofLSBTs in the constructive use ofsuch a technique.

It was suggested, therefore, that it might be better if -initially at least - no monitoring was done. Instead thetraining pack could include classroom tasks for eachgroup member to try out and discuss with hercolleagues at the next seminar. This, it was felt, wouldlead, in a natural way to teachers observing eachother's lessons, with the lead perhaps being taken bythe LSBT.

The skills involved in forming the support group wouldinclude

identifying key support

organizing publicity

managing small-scale finances

keeping records

These skills could be developed through a variety ofstrategies including discussion, role-playing, gamesand demonstrations.

The skills involved in running training seminars wouldinclude

knowing the training materials

leading/chairing meetings

delegation of responsibilities

encouraging innovation in colleagues

selecting and sequencing activities

choosing and exploiting appropriate workshopstrategies

dealing with questions

providing appropriate feedback

These skills could be developed in a similar waythrough a variety of strategies, includingbrain-storming, peer-teaching, use of classroom datasuch as teachers' diaries, mini-presentation andreading.

Finally it was recognized both that LSBTs would need agreat deal of support during and after their training,and that support groups would function best where theLSBT was perceived as a first among equals rather thanas a superior.

58 Cl ti

Final day: recommendations

The following problems were identified by Britishtraining institutions and recommendations were made toovercome them.

1 There was an insufficient flow of information betweeninstitutions and projects. It was recommended that

all ELTOs should receive information about the Britishinstitutions attended by the project staff

all institutions should receive project documentsrelating to their students' circumstances

there should be direct communication between theinstitutions and the ELTOs, particularly concerningthe training of staff, e.g. in the matter of choice ofoptions and dissertation topics etc. Copies of suchletters should be sent to appropriate personnel in theBritish Council for information

2 Some information was not used correctly. It wasrecommended that

results of evaluations should be fed back toinstitutions to improve the development of courses

institutions should take part in the evaluation process

3 Institutional expertise was not used fully. It wasrecommended that

institutions should be involved in all stages ofprojectization, i.e. in planning, implementation andevaluation. This would help to tailor training to theneeds of the project

4 The British resource base is insecure. It wasrecommended that

there should be long-term planning of the use oftraining institutions and commitment to support them

there should be continuity in the placing of studentsfrom one year to the next

5 Facilities for development need to be improved. Itwas recommended that

a way of publishing information about projects, e.g.a project newsletter, should be explored

attachments of project staff to institutions and viceversa should be encouraged

6 The process of project bidding is unsatisfactory. Itwas recommended that

the process should be clarified and reviewed

it should be discussed with the institutions

Suggestions for action

from ELTOs

ODA should provide and cost for short courses forELTOs on

courses on the language of country

courses on technical aspects - e.g. computer skills

places on British Council Specialist Courses

places on training courses run by other ELTOs

Perhaps ELO training (i.e. BC staff training) could beopen to ELTOs.

All necessary training costs and briefings should bebuilt into project costs.

The point was made that ODA will not normally fundELTO training. However links could incorporateattachments that would assist in training.

from ELTO counterpart

the ELTO's job may not be the one that thecounterpart will take over

the one-to-one counterpart should fade out to bereplaced by one-to-many teams where possible

abandon the word 'counterpart'

there is a clear place for broad-based training

0 Z.1 59

Appendix 1Large Classes and Training for Sustainability

Hywel ColemanOverseas Education Unit, University of Leeds

1 Phenomena

Two separate but related phenomena require ourattention

distinctive patterns of teacher behaviour andclassroom management which, to the observer, oftenappear cumbersome, exhausting, inappropriate forlarge classes. These styles differ from one country toanother

teachers' reports of the difficulties which theyexperience when teaching large classes. Thesereports tend to fall into a small set of universalcategories

Both phenomena reflect fundamental conceptions of theduties or responsibilities of the classroom languageteacher even though the manifestations of theseconceptions seem highly impractical.

2 Sources

Where do these conceptions originate? Partly, at least,through training and through the influence ofpublications:

We would like to be given a chance of teaching smallclasses to implement our new skills.

A teacher from South Africa, at the end of a UKtraining programme (Peachey 1989)

3 Proposal

We require more analysis, by teachers, of the followingcharacteristics of their own situations

causes

parameters

constraints

objectives

procedures and roles

materials

Classr(x)m observation

On Monday morning, from 09.00 to 10.00, I visited agirls' secondary school in a suburb in the north of thecity. ... I observed a complete lesson taught toClass 9. ... The class consisted of forty girls, sittingin heavy desks in a reasonably spacious though ratherfull room. There seemed to be one book per desk (i.e.one per pair of pupils). The lesson was based on apassage about the life of the founder of the nation.This is a topic which seems to be used at variouslevels, in slightly different forms, as one of the lessons

observed the previous week was also based on the samebiography.

The teacher's standard procedure was as follows

T reads a sentence

T occasionally asks pupils to read a sentence from thetext

T asks pupils for an explanation - sometimes inEnglish, sometimes in Ll - of individual words orphrases (an example was 'matriculation exam' , butnobody succeeded in providing a suitable explanation)

T provides the correct answer

T occasionally asks a question about the content ofthe sentence

T occasionally asks pupils to chant sentences

T provides a single word prompt and asks pupils toproduce a new sentence, based on the model of thesentence which has just been chanted butincorporating the new vocabulary item

Students were expected to stand up every time an adultentered the room. Individuals stood up whenever theywere addressed or when they were nominated to providea response. They remained standing, sometimes foragonizingly long periods, even when they had providedthe required response, until the teacher told them to sitdown again. The convention appeared to be that acorrect response allowed one to sit down againimmediately, but it frequently happened that theteacher gave no clear indication as to whether theirresponse was correct or not; consequently the pupilsremained standing.

Towards the middle of the lesson, the emphasis movedaway from English towards politics. After the teacherhad worked herself up to a rather emotional pitch shesuddenly stopped:

T Open your copies please now and write youranswers

She then copied on to the blackboard two questionswhich were already in the students' book and which thestudents could see easily (in exactly the same way asthe teacher observed the previous week had done)

1 When was the founder of the nation born?

2 What do you know of his early life?

The pupils had to close their textbooks and writeanswers to these qLestions from memory in their exercisebooks. The teacher patrolled the room while the girlsworked. She made frequent 'tsk-tsk-tsk' sounds tostamp out any murmurings. If the pupils finished thisexercise before the end of the lesson they had to handin their books to the teacher for correction later. I amnot sure what was to be done by those who had notfinished (about half the group).

Finally, the teacher wrote up a homework task on theblackboard:-

61

And all the words and meaning.

At the same time, the teacher gave this oralinstruction:

Write your homework. Now copy it.

The bell indicating the end of the period was ringing atthe same time; the teacher was also preparing to leavethe room. The girls stood up, looking somewhatconfused. At this point I left, together with theteacher.

There was no joy in this class.

Teachers' perceptions of difficulties in largeclasses

1 Discomfort

I myself just feel overwhelmed by the number ofstudents. I have to speak loudly: this makes me feelnervous and self-conscious. That exhausts me. Icannot be myself.

The size of the class alone is enough to weaken thestrength and zeal which I earlier had for my teachingassignment.

2 Control

The students begin conversations on a private basis.Many of them seem to do this under the impression thattheir private talks will not disturb anybody because theclassroom is so large.

3 Evaluation

Homework takes forever to correct.

4 Individual attention

Difficult to find out whether all the students are takenalong with you, whether every student gains, whetherthe needs of every student are being satisfied orprovided for.

5 Learning

I don't think I actually teach the largest classesanything.

Hywel Coleman. 1989. The relationship between largeclass research and large class teaching. SPELTNewsletter V, 1; 2-9.

First example

Advice

Out of 100 English sentences, 97 will be in the form ofstatements; and of the statement sentence-patterns thethree-part pattern is the most frequently used:-

62

Daud / wrote / a book ...

Next in order of importance comes the pattern whichbegins There:-

There are three books on the table.

These two sentence-patterns are in the first rank ofimportance and must therefore be taught and drilledvery clearly and very thoroughly. In this drill, becausethe pupil learns by saying and doing things himself,the teacher's object will be, not to make statements ofhis own all the time, but to get the pupils to makestatements. This is done by asking questions:

Teacher : What is that?Pupil : That is a red book.

F.G. French. 1948. The teaching of English abroad.Part 1: Aims and Methods. London: Oxford UniversityPress. p 41.

Problem

Although this is only one third of the original class ...which is supposed to have had only 46 participants inall, I counted between 85 and 90 people present. ...[Teacher 12] was using Kernel Lessons Unit 3,Situations 4 and 5. His method consists of the followingstages:

reading (hurriedly and rather quietly) one of thestories accompanying the situations ...

reading the story again

asking the students, Do you understand?' whichleads to some 'no' responses

reading the story for a third time

walking very slowly round the class, asking everysingle student individually a question concerning thepassage

... The individual question asking and answering takesat least thirty minutes for each story (i.e. about thirtyseconds per student). While all this is going on, therest of the class is extremely restless and noisy - notsurprisingly, since there is in effect no teacherpresent. This must be an extremely exhausting methodfor the teacher, and it is obviously frustrating andinefficient for the students.

HC, Classroom observation diary, Indonesia;Observation A.24, 16-11-81, 1st year EngineeringDiploma Programme; Room F12, Teacher 12

Second example

Advice

If you are teaching other nationalities, make sure youpronounce your students' names correctly. If you donot they may begin to feel that you are hardly in aposition to correct their pronunciation.

John Haycraft. 1986. An Introduction to English John Haycraft. 1986. An Introduction to Englishlanguage teaching. 2nd ed. London: Longman. p 17. language teaching. 2nd ed. Lnndon: Longman. p 123.

It is always very important to find out about yourstudents and the first step in this process is learningnames. ... Observation has shown that a teacher'sinaccurate use of, or failure to use students' names hasa direct correlation with inattention and disciplineproblems. Knowing the students' names allows you tonominate students with confidence as well as to identifytrouble makers. It also indicates that you care aboutwhat the students are doing and this helps tocontribute to a positive learning environment. It doesnot matter how you go about learning names as long asyou do it efficiently and put them to use quickly.

Rob Nolasco and Lois Arthur. 1988. Large classes.London: Macmillan. p 10.

Problem

Large classes make it difficult for me to do what I wouldlike to do because:

I can't get to know their names or to know themindividually.

A teacher in Senegal (McLeod 1989)

I ... certainly will spend the whole year withoutknowing my students' names. Knowing pupil's name isof great importance in our culture.

A teacher in Japan (Coleman 1989)

Sometimes I am not even sure if everybody is present.

A teacher in Nigeria

Third example

Advice

There is little point in your students working away ifthey are not going to learn as much as possible fromany mistakes they make. The 'reward' for doingwritten work is the feeling that something is beinglearnt. If students sense that their teacher is tooindifferent to correct efficiently, they follow hisexample and become reluctant to do any written work.... In my experience, students prefer clear assessmentand there is no need to use this invidiously. ... Youunderline mistakes so that the student can still see whathe originally wrote. At the end, you add up the errorsunder each category, and list them. ... From inter-mediate level on, you can plan much of your teachinground these mistakes. Before returning the writtenwork, go through the compositions or exercises, one byone, and comment on mistakes which you think arecommon to most of the class, without of course sayingwhose homework you are looking at.

Remember to return written work as soon as possible.If you delay, interest will wane. At the same time, thefact that you return written work promptly shows thatyou care.

Problem

Large classes make it difficult for me to do what I wouldlike to do because:

It is difficult to mark all their scripts within a shortperiod of time.

It creates a great burden for the teacher to mark toomany scripts of afterclass assignme its - therebymaking the teacher give less writte 1 assignments.

Marking students' scripts after exa nination orassignments consumes a lot of my time.

I also find it difficult to mark their assignments andexamination, especially composition.

Marking also is dreadful, so it limits the number ofessay work I give.

Much time is required to assess the learners.

I find it difficult to correct students essays andassignments.

More time is spent on thinking about marking theassignment and less time is spent on planning andvarying the activities.

Marking their written work takes longer and thereforeno immediate reinforcement.

Immediate feedback from looking at written exercisesis difficult.

A group of teachers in Nigeria (average class size 53.8,maximum 200)

Causes of large classes: (sample developing country)

classes are far larger in urban areas than in ruralareas. In urban areas, parents are generally moreaware of the importance of education. In rural areas,parents need their children's labour for agriculturalactivities

there are not enough colleges and universities,because of the national economic situation

employment opportunities in the state are limited.Consequently, many high school leavers with mediocregrades go back to school to repeat their last year inthe hope of improving their grades and so getting intouniversity. Thus, in the last year of high school,classes are very large

related to the above is the fact that there is a veryhigh failure rate in the university matriculationexamination, and so many students stay on at highschool to retake university entrance exams

Parent Teacher Associations cannot afford to maketheir contribution to the cost of constructing new

64,63

buildings. The maintenance of existing buildings isthe most they can manage

a few years ago, English was suddenly reintroducedas the medium of instruction, after a break of twenty-five years. This means that many people failed bothhigh school and college examinations simply because ofthe language problem, and so many classes at bothlevels are clogged with people who are re-takingexaminations

the ratio of high to middle schools is not appropriate,and so the high school classes get over-crowded

the lack of employment opportunities in the statemeans that many young people want to emigrate. Agood education is seen as a passport to finding workabroad, and so there is increasing demand foreducation locally. This means that classes get larger

there are not enough qualified English teachers, andso classes have to be combined

this is a border state and there is an intensive localsmuggling trade. Although most adults in the bordertowns are involved in this trade themselves, they donot want their children to become involved and soforce them to stay in full time education as long aspossible. This pressure means that classes becomelarger

drug abuse and drug trafficking are major problemsin the border area, because drugs are actually grownin this region. Many parents therefore try to keeptheir children in full time education for as long aspossible, so that they are 'occupied and disciplined' .Again, this means that classes get larger

over several years, there has been an influx ofrefugees from across the nearby international border.However, neither national nor international bodieshave paid attention to this, and so the refugees havehad to fend for themselves without any extra facilitiesbeing provided for them. These people too want tomake use of the local educational facilities, and soclasses have become larger

there is a problem of insurgency, with some rebelgroups and underground movements operating in thearea. Many parents keep their children in full timeeducation 'until they are over age' as a way ofpreventing them from becoming involved in the rebelgroups. Consequently, classes have become larger

both at high school and at college, some young peopledeliberately spend two or three years in one class sothat they can have repeated opportunities toparticipate in inter-school, inter-college andinter-state sports tournaments

many parents keep their children in full timeeducation for as long as possible so as to avoidteenage marriages.

64

Lancaster - Leeds language learning in large classesresearch project

Research reports

Since the Lancaster-Leeds language learning in largeclasses research project was set up almost three yearsago, a number of research reports have becomeavailable.

We are now contacting everyone who has completed ourquestionnaires during the period of the research so far,everyone else who has indicated that they areinterested in our work, and a number of other peoplewho may be interested to learn of the activities of theproject.

The first twelve research reports are listed overleaf.Generous assistance from the British Council, theCentre for British Teachers, and the Bell EducationalTrust has enabled these project reports to beproduced. Grants from these bodies have alsocontributed towards the distribution of the ProjectReports. We are particularly grateful to Roger Bowers,Chris Kennedy and Alan Maley for their support.

The assistance which we have received from the threesponsoring bodies has enabled us to produce 800 copiesof each project report.

The project reports will be distributed from Leeds, soplease contact the University of Leeds, at the addressgiven overleaf if you are interested.

Further project reports will be prepared in the future -indeed some have already been written - but productionand distribution will depend on further fundingbecoming available.

1 Hywel Coleman. Learning and teaching in largeclasses: a bibliography. Version 11, 1989.

2 Hywel Coleman. The study of large classes.

3 Dick Allwright. Is class size a problem?

4 Hywel Coleman. How large are large classes?Version 3, 1989.

5 Virginia LoCastro. Large size classes: the situationin Japan.

6 Hywel Coleman. Large classes in Nigeria.

7 Nicki McLeod. What teachers cannot do in largeclasses.

8 Linda Peachey. Language learning in large classes:a pilot study of South African data.

9 Jacob Sabandar. Language learning in large classesin Indonesia.

10 Usha Sarangi. A consideration of methodologicalissues in analysing the problems of language teachersin large classes.

11 Hywel Coleman. Approaches to the management oflarge classes.

12 Dick Allwright. How important are lessons, anyway?

Project Co-ordinators

Hywel ColemanOverseas Education UnitSchool of EducationUniversity of LeedsLeeds LS2 9JT, UK

Telephone: 0532-334569

Dick AllwrightDepartment of Linguisticsand Modern English LanguageUniversity of LancasterLancaster LA1 4YT, UK

Telephone: 0524-65201

65

Appendix 3Institutional development: an ODA perspectiveSome definitions

Institutional Development (ID) - strengthening ofsingle institutions, or a set of institutions, in asustainable way so that they can plan and carry outtheir functions more effectively and efficiently.

Projectization - combining a range of assistance,usually including a variety of forms of aid, into a singleproject over a specific time period, in accordance withan agreement with the recipient institution andgovernment which identifies overall objectives, specifictargets and timetables and the responsibilities of eachof the parties involved.

Project framework - a planning documentsummarizing the structure and key elements of a projectin matrix form. If used in the course of project designis an aid to improved project preparation by helping thepreparer think through issues in a systematic way; alsoused as a project summary when the project isapproved. In some projects the framework is reviewedand revised as part of the process of the project'sevolution over time.

Project memorandum - a longer document formingthe basis for the agreement between donor andrecipient. Describes the project's objectives, content,background, justification (technical, economic, socialetc.), financing, arrangements for implementation,monitoring and evaluation, risks and any specialconditions to which approval is linked.

Blueprint approach - an approach to projects wherethe content and targets are fully specified at the startof the project and are not expected to be significantlychanged.

Process approach - an approach to projects wherecontent and targets are only provisionally identified atthe start of the project and are expected to evolve overtime within an agreed framework of monitoring andreview. Often has emphasis on participation of localpartners and beneficiaries.

Technical co-operation (TC) - often calledmanpower aid, refers mostly to provision of long andshort term personnel in line or advisory positions;consultants; in-country, third-country and UKtraining.

Historical perspective

ODA was involved with strengthening institutions fromits earliest days but the main emphasis was on trainingindividuals for localization.

By the late 1970s the TC programme was the rump oflong term manpower which had not yet been localized,and a scattering of assistance across a wide range ofsectors. Little attention was paid to priorities ormonitoring effectiveness.

68 Go

There was an increasing perception by the end of the1970s, especially in Africa, of institutional weakness asa major and growing constraint on development.

It was seen as necessary to focus efforts more on keypriorities, to co-ordinate different forms of aid (capital,long- and short-term line and advisory staff, trainingconsultancies) more closely and to plan, manage andmonitor TC effectively.

There has been a much greater realization of theimportance of strengthening institutions and of the needto ensure that improvements are sustainable onceassistance has finished.

Implications of institutional developmentemphasis

a wider perspective than before. We cannot justbe concerned with part of an institution or even thewhole institution in isolation since its effectivenessmay be determined by wider issues, such as weakcentral management, budgetary problems orgovernment policy

this has made development efforts more complexand involve more policy issues

seeking the best sustainable approach makesidentification of an approach more difficult sincewhat works best will partly reflect local political,social and economic circumstances

such complexities necessitate both more attention tounderstanding local circumstances and acceptingit may be impossible to plan a blueprint for change

participation of local partners in determining whatshould be done is increasingly important, bothbecause they may have a clearer view of what willwork locally and why and because people are morelikely to feel committed to a programme if they areactively involved in its design

such ID is a long term process, so that donorsmay need to accept providing support for longer thanis normal for projects. ID is not a continuous orone way process; it can also be high risk

flexibility is essential but if allowed to become anexcuse for whatever happens it will be increasinglydifficult to justify continued support from donors whoare accountable for good use of aid funds

the need for both flexibility and accountabilitymakes it important to be able to show that projectdesign includes arrangements for monitoring andrevising plans. Flexibility does not mean we candispense with targets and accountability; changesare expected but they should be in a clearframework so that it can be seen why they are beingmade

considering a broader framework leads to identifyingmore actions outside the control or responsibility ofthe donor or implementing agency. The projectframework helps identify where the success of theproject depends on such actions or decisions. Thisleads to more emphasis on conditionality and often

to a staged approach so that the donor does notcommit substantial funds in advance of actions ordecisions essential to making the project effective

the nature of ID projects makes personal skills andrelationships at least as important as technicalskills. Continuity of personnel is highlydesirable. This can be difficult on the donor sidebut is often even more of a problem with recipients.Momentum for change in an institution often dependsheavily on a key individual whose departure canjeopardize the whole programme

Key elements of institutional appraisal

review of the external environment

institutional structure; how this is controlledby/relates to other institutions e.g. GovernmentMinistries

how this works in practise

key policies influencing the effectiveness of theinstitution

assessment of whether the objectives of theinstitution are defined and agreed

review of the structure of the institution inrelation to what it is supposed to be doing

assessment of management systems, e.g.planning, budgeting and accounting, personnelmanagement, supplies

review of the style and effectiveness ofmanagement in practice

review of human resources: numbers, skills,training and development, constraints oneffectiveness

review of the financial position

All this builds up a picture of the context in which aproject is or will be working and of ID needs. It isusually difficult to get a good understanding either in ashort time or wholly from outside, though an externalperspective is important both to bring in skills andcomparative experience and to facilitate the generationand expression of ideas from within the institution.This is part of the reason why a blueprint E3 generallynot realistic. Recognizing this, initial appraisal issometimes limited, leading to modest activities whichprovide some practical help while additionalunderstanding, and often confidence, is built up.

Conditions of successful implementation

There are no simple prescriptions. Elements of theappraisal process have been mentioned and it will beclear that the stages of the project cycle (identification,appraisal, implementation, monitoring and evaluation)involve a process of iteration rather than beingconducted separately. A summary of points affectingsuccessful implementation would include

sufficiently high level commitment from government

participation and support from within the institution,most critically at the top but also from others

the general economic environment, in particular theseverity of foreign exchange and budgetaryconstraints

capacity to identify key constraints and for theproject to respond to them

availability and retention of adequate (not necessarilyideal) staff within the institution

availability of good quality expatriate consultancy,TCO and training resources which are oriented tofocussing on ID as the primary objective

willingness of the donor to take a long term view

Is all the documentation necessary?

Completion of a framework and memorandum can be anoppressive chore.

Similarly increased emphasis on documented work plansand progress reports ought not to be a major burdenover and above the planning and monitoring whichshould be going on anyway.

69

Appendix 4Sustaining education projects overseas through trainingin BritainJim Morrison - Moray House SCEO

Recently I received a letter from the ELTO in charge ofa Teacher Training and materials development project infrancophone Africa, part of which read, 'we are tryingto move towards severely practical training of the RSAsort for (country) TCTP recipients rather thanencourage MAs.'

This raises a number of questions, only the first ofwhich is, what do the TCTP recipients, assuming theyhave been consulted, think of this Gradgrindian newpolicy? More fundamentally

what should be the aims of aid-funded overseaseducation projects?

how does training fit in to the achievement of theseaims?

what kinds of training are most appropriate?

Education projects have two features in common

they are funded for a finite period (three to fiveyears, in theory)

they aim to introduce improvement or innovation in asector of the system, that is, to effect beneficialchange

It is in these respects that projects differ fromstraightforward cadre training: the target is not simplypeople, but systems. At the end of the finite period,there are three main possibilities:

success

temporarysuccess

failure

70

the innovation/improvement issustained as an integral featureof the system, irrespective ofsubsequent changes in localpersonnel

the innovation/improvement issustained so long as the localpersonnel committed to it during theproject implementation phase remainin post. But as they are removed(through posting, promotion,retiral) there is no freshinnovation, or the system evenreverts to its former ways.(Varieties of such project-legacyhave been aptly characterized byRoger Bowers as headless chickens,white elephants and dinosaurs)

the innovation/improvement issustained only as long as theproject inputs: but the transplant isrejected as soon as the 'expert'leaves his educational surgeriy

The question, therefore, is this: what are the featuresin an educational project which serve most effectively toensure the first result, once external inputs, inparticular expatriate personnel, are withdrawn? If weknew the answer to this, then we could ensure that itwas explicit in the design of any new project.

Nobody involved in British aid-funded educationprojects can be unaware of the high level of currentconcern with the sustainability factor in projectproposals.

In 1989, therefore, the topic for the Dunford HouseSeminar was precisely this: Managing ELT aidprojects for sustainability. Since 1978 the DunfordHouse Seminars, funded by ODA and organized by theBritish Council, have brought together people involvedin ELT projects - overseas project personnel (formerlycalled KELTS, now ELTOs), British Council officers,ODA Education Advisers, staff from UK traininginstitutions - to explore issues in project design,implementation and evaluation. These seminars haveyielded a series of very useful reports, eachconcentrating on a specific professional issue andincorporating case studies.

As part of the 1989 Seminar, the participants - all ofwhom had first-hand experience in some aspect of ELTprojects - were invited to consider the potential impactof six kinds of project input:

1 University links

2 post-project consultancy

3 training of host-country personnel

4 educational technology

5 British Council HQ professional advice and support

6 books

The case for each of these was argued by an advocateof that particular input and the participants were thenasked, if they could choose only one of them, to votefor the one they believed to be most effective incontributing to project sustainability. As recorded inthe Dunford Seminar Report 1989: 'training emerged bypopular acclaim as the most powerful sustaining input... what won the debate for training was itsinclusivity, and the fact that sustainability, likesuccessful projects in the last analysis, depends onpeople.'

The arguments adduced in favour of training derived,of course, from the perceptions of one involved in theprovision of training and with a conviction of its crucialrole; and assent to the arguments derived from theperceptions of British personnel involved in the design,field implementation or evaluation of projects, in otherwords, donor perceptions. It seemed to me that itwould be useful to test them against those of therecipients, specifically those actually undergoingtraining in Britain.

A questionnaire was therefore administered to sixtyTCTP trainees at Moray House, forty-five of themfollowing MA or BEd courses in English teaching or

educational administration, and fifteen on specialistshort courses in the same fields. Responses were thenanalysed to see how far recipient perceptions matchthose of donors. Before considering the result, it isfirst necessary to review what the donor perceptionsare, that is, the arguments in favour of training.

Why is training the best investment?

A crucial element in the success of any project isconsensus. It is not a feature explicitly providedfor in the current ODA project framework, but it is oneof six key factors identified by Havelock and Huberman(1983) as vital for successful innovation in education.An established means of achieving consensus is throughsecuring the commitment of stakeholders, bothexisting and potential. 'Stakeholder' is the term usedby Ron Mackay in his work on educational projectevaluation to identify those people in a project whosecommitment is crucial to its success, and whoseidentification should be an early priority in negotiationbetween provider and client. (The World Bank refersto this as 'maximizing beneficiary participation' .)Stakeholders, like the rest of humanity, tend to bemotivated by incentives: and in British aid-fundededucational projects experience shows that a powerful,if not the most powerful, incentive is the prospect oftraining, particularly overseas, i.e. UK training.

Thus, Paul Woods said in an article based on hisexperience as a KELT in charge of an ELT project: 'Wecan help to ensure that loyalty and morale aremaintained by providing incentives. In Sierra Leone, amajor incentive has been the opportunity for furtherstudy overseas.' The student survey bears this outand yields some insight into the sub-components withinthis incentive.

Where is training best undertaken?

I have recently heard it argued, in support of a casefor moving resources into distance education, thatoverseas (UK) training is less effective than in-countrytraining because it removes the trainee from the veryproblems the training is supposed to help him address.Indeed, a recent paper by Caillods and Postlethwaite(1989) goes further and suggests that in-country.in-service training may be less effective than what theycall 'on-service' training for similar reasons; that is,the trainee should not even be taken out of his actualjob, far less out of the country. I would argue that itsurely depends on what the training is for. Thereis a role for all three types of training - on-service,in-service and overseas - and in education projectswhich aim to influence systems as well as individualbehaviour, I would argue that there are positiveadvantages to overseas training in Britain.

The arguments for training in Britain

Incentive: the prospect of overseas training is anincentive not only to those selected, but for all potentialselectees. To quote Paul Woods again: 'the opportunityafforded to the best performers ensures that otherteachers perform at their best in the hope of beingthemselves selected for further training.' Last year,

when I was conducting a pilot in-service training coursein Nigeria, this factor contributed powerfully to thecommitment of all participants.

Process: it is a narrow view of training thatperceives it exclusively in terms of acquired skills andknowledge/content. Especially for those who will betrainers in their turn, the UK experience of thetraining process itself is valuable: how a trainingdepartment is organized and resourced, how coursequality is monitored and evaluated. These are notmodels that can readily be transported in a brief-case.

Perceptions: people have a tendency, regrettablebut real, to believe their problems are unique.Sustained contact with students from other developingcountries facing similar problems, exploring with themalternative solutions, the chance to come out of the treesand see the wood together: these are features of UKtraining rated very highly by students at Moray House.

Pressures: anyone who has conducted in-servicetraining overseas, particularly for key personnel, knowshow difficult it can be for them to escape localpressures, e.g. of their substantive job, ofadministration, of family demands. It is unrealistic tosuppose that anxieties about these aye totally leftbehind, but it is true that actual disruption to trainingis largely eliminated.

Personal enrichment: it is not only thoseprofessionally involved in English language training whoplace a high value on first-hand experience of Britishlife and culture, and the opportunity to develop theircommunicative skills in English through immersion in anEnglish-speaking environment. Evidence from thestudent survey indicates that these are among the mostimportant factors in incentive (indeed, rated morehighly by many than the experience of UK staff). Thevalue of this aspect is acknowledged in the concludingparagraph of the recent ODA publication Into thenineties: an education policy for British aid: 'Trainingis more than simply study at a British institution. Itoffers the opportunity for an overseas study fellow totravel here, and in doing so, to move out of onepolitical, cultural, economic and often linguisticenvironment to absorb a new range of experiences,impressions and ideas. Overseas study fellows whohave managed to cope with a course at a British highereducation institution return home with a mastery of botheveryday and academic English which will see themthrough the rest of their working lives ... Personalfriendships will be made which in many cases will lastfar into the future and lead to enduring contacts withpeople in this country. The twin gifts of study andtravel are among the greatest that we as a country havethe opportunity to confer on others.' Nor is theadvantage only to the trainees. I was in India recentlyas part of a four-man ODA consultancy on forestryeducation. What struck all of us most forcibly was thedegree to which our access to information and facilitieswas enhanced whenever we were in contact with formerstudents - now in senior forestry positions - of two ofthe team. The appreciation of their training in UK, insome cases many years ago, made these returnees aninvaluable access point to the system we wereinvestigating.

l) 71

Education! I think it is also important, in thesedays of macho-management, quantifiability and Value formoney, to keep in sight the value of education,education as opposed to training. Of late, I detect adoctrinaire shift towards specialist short coursetraining: the case cited from francophone Africa isonly one example. If, as I believe they should do, theaims of educational projects overseas are to change orimprove systems to make innovation effective, thenthere is, surely, a need to expose some host countrypersonnel to a richer experience than 'severelypractical training of the RSA sort' ?

In a well-designed project, there will of course be aplace for specialist short course training, both overseasand in-country. There is the obvious need to exploitthe expertise of returned UK-trained personnel, toinstitutionalize training provision in the host country(according to the World Bank, an area of notableunder-achievement), to increase the community ofstakeholders, to give credibility to consultancies andlinks. But it is interesting to note that in the studentsurvey the factors other than 'severely practical' wererated even more highly by those on short courses thanby those on MA programmes.

Recipient perceptions

Which brings me back to the survey itself. How dothe perceptions of trainees about the value of UKtraining match those of the training providers? Thequestionnaire and detailed analyses are appended, so Ishall simply summarize what seem to me to be thesignificant findings.

Table 1 demonstrates the strength of the trainees'conviction that the training they are receiving could noteffectively be carried out full-time in their homecountry. Those on specialist short courses are evenmore emphatic about this than those on degreeprogrammes. The rejection of in-country in-serviceinstitution based training, or on-the-job training isoverwhelming.

Table 2 indicates their assessment of the relativedisadvantages and advantages of UK training. Apartfrom demonstrating their view that the latter greatlyoutweigh the former, the hierarchy of advantages - asit relates to the feasibility of providing similar benefitsin-country - is particularly revealing. The trainees'hierarchy of UK training advantages is

1 access to library and other resources not available athome

2 opportunity to share and compare problems withcolleagues from other countries/system

3 the process of training, i.e. experiencing howtraining is conducted in Britain

4 opportunity to experience British life and culture

5 experience of staff providing the training

6 developing of communicative skills in English

7 career advantage of a British qualification

72

8 freedom from pressures of the job

9 freedom from family demands on time

Again, though scores are high across the board, thehighest scores are recorded by those on specialist shortcourses. The congruence of perceptions betweenproviders and recipients is, obviously, very high. Theonly disadvantage rating higher than its correspondingadvantage relates to anxiety about family at home, inwhich there may be a message for student supportservices.

Table 3 indicates the trainees' perception of what isthe most effective project input; apart from Britishpersonnel. Their order of preference is

1 training in Britain

2 link with a British academic institution

3 consultancy visits from British experts

4 book presentations

5 training in the home country

Again, training in Britain is rated most highly by thoseon specialist short courses. (They reverse the order ofthe last two items, but otherwise the order isconsistent.)

Implications for British training institutions

For training institutions in Britain, there are clearmessages here about what contributes to quality fromthe recipients perspective, and what must be done tomaintain quality.

First, is the need to provide a high level of library andresources provision. This, in my own experience,involves not only the provision of relevant materials(books, journals, country-specific collections, casestudies) but awareness on the part of library andresource centre staff of the particular needs andproblems of overseas students, for example, in theperiod set for short loans.

Second, is the need to ensure a rich experience ofBritish life and culture. This is not an inevitableby-product of the student's sojourn in Britain: it needsplanning and the commitment of resources. Along withthis, though separate from it, is the need for generousprovision of counselling and welfare support.

Third, is the importance of explicit involvement for thestudents in the whole area of 'process' : throughstudent involvement in course committees, academicsub-boards, validation procedures. At Moray House,for example, students of educational administration areadmitted to international and external validation panelsas observers.

Fourth, there is the obligation to ensure that staffinvolved in overseas courses have the kind of experiencethat students have a right to expect. This is notconfined to professional expertise in the subject area.It includes familiarity, regularly maintained, with the

realities of the overseas classroom; it also meansexperience of the kind of problems overseas studentsface in studying in Britain and the ability to anticipatethem. This is possibly even more important in the caseof specialist short courses, who are here for less time,than in 'long courses. Given our staffing and planningproblems, this can create difficulties but recurrentacademic courses and specialist short courses must haveequal access to the best we can offer: short-termcourse emphatically does not imply short-term staff.

Most of our institutions now have in place a system ofperformance indicators and, within these, explicitprovision for monitoring client satisfaction. Finding outwhat the client thinks about the service provided isfundamental: the survey here reported is verysmall-scale, but within BATROE we have the capabilityand the interest (including self-interest!) to investigateoverseas perceptions of what constitutes quality inBritish training provision on a wider and moresystematic scale.

Conclusion

At a seminar at the British Council in March, a panel ofthree wise men from the ODA, the FCO and the JointAssistance Office explained to an audience representingthe spectrum of the British ELT resource the principlesby which training proposals for Eastern Europe will beassessed. These included the familiar sustainability,value for money, loca: commitment quantifiability,amenability to evaluation. But, prior to all of these, itwas repeatedly stressed, is the imperative ofestablishing what it is the host country partner reallywants.

There is no doubt in my mind that one of the thingsthey will certainly want is training in Britain. It is upto all of us in this Association, not only to provide it,as effectively and economically as we can, but to beactive in promoting its centrality and value.

References

Caillods, F and Postlethwaite, T N: Teaching/learningconditions in developing countries: Prospect XIX, 2(1989)

Havelock, P and Huberman, M: Towards a theory ofinnovation generalisation: ORACLE, a six factorformula, in Malpica, C (Ed): The generalization ofeducational innovations: the administrative perspective,Paris, IIED (1983)

Mackay, Ron: Utility-enhanced evaluation procedure,IATEFL Conference, Edinburgh (1988)

Woods, Paul: Pulling out of a project: twelve tips forproject planners, ELT Journal 42, 3 (July 1988)

British Council/ODA: Managing ELT aid projects forsustainability, Dunford Seminar Report 1989, BritishCouncil, London (1990)

Overseas Development Administration: Into theNineties: an education policy for British aid, ODA,London (1990)

73

full-time, in an academic institution

no

yes

no

yes

87

XXXXXX

68

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

34

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXXXXXXXX

XXXXXX

13

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXX

total

short

courses

In your opinion, could the training you are receiving be

carried out

equally effectively in your home country?

part-time, in-service, in an academic institution

part-time 'on the job' through,

e.g. seminars and workshops

no

yes

no

yes

92

87

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

xxxxxx

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

xxxxxx

xxxxxx

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

13

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

8

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXX

total

short

courses

no

yes

no

yes

92

XXXXXX

81

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

19

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXXXXXXXX

8

XXXXXX

XXXXXXXXXXXX

XXXXXX

XXXXXXXXXXXX

XXXXX

total

short

courses

1-3

ro C te<

"- O O it Ft_ ae O r.

Tct 0

p'1

"""

Table 2: Relative disadvantages and advantages of training in Britain

93

74

83

8 4

68

50

78

74

73

- I

I

11

I

I

-

III

2.1 lack of access to data (statistics, syllabuses, etc.)

2.2 staff do not have detailed knowledge of your country and its systems

2.3 lack of access to relevant schools

2.4 loss of contact with the real world demands of your job

2.6 anxiety about family at home

2.7 environmental problems (e.g. climate, food)

2.11 anxiety about possible failure

2.9 language difficultues (having to do everything in English)

3.1 access to library and other resources not available at home

3.2 experience of staff providing the training

3.3 the process of training. i.e. experiencing how training is conducted

in Britain

3.4 opportunity to share and compare problems with colleagues from other

countries/systems

3.6 freedom from the pressures of the job

3.7 freedom from family demands on time

3.8 opportunity to experience British life and culture

3.9 development of communicative skill in English

3.10 advantage of a British qualification

100_100

89

85IH

67 -I

52

91

84 - riI

77

2.1 lack of access to data (statistics, syllabuses, etc.)

2.2 staff do not have detailed knowledge of your country and its systems

2.3 lack of access to relevant schools

2.4 loss of contact with the real world demands of your job

2.6 anxiety about family at home

2.7 environmental problems (e.g. climate, food)

2.8 anxiety about possible failure

2.10 language difficulties (having to do everything in English)

3.1 access to library and other resources not available at home

3.2 experience of staff providing the training

3.3 the process of training, i.e. experiencing how training is conducted

in Britain

3.4 opportunity to share and compare problems with colleagues from other

countries/systems

3.6 freedom from the pressures of the job

3.7 freedom from family demands on time

3.8 opportunity to experience British life and culture

3.9 development of communicative skill in English

3.10 career advantage of a British qualification

75

Table 3: Relative effectiveness of British inputs to education projects

70

74

67

79

54

67

68

45

88

56

76

1 consultancy visits from British experts

2 link with a British academic institution

3 book Presentations

4 training in Britain

5 training in your own country

1 consultancy visits from British experts

2 link with a Pritish academic institution

3 book presentations

4 training in Britain

5 training in your own country

7

Planning for sustainability in in-country training The degree ofprojects ELT innovation

is too bigGeneralizations

Cause of breakdown

Lack of focus

in objectivesin executiveauthority

Lack of anadequatemanagementstructure

Lack ofmotivation/incentives forparticipants inthe project

Lack ofadequateevaluationand/or reliablefeedback

Lack ofawareness orinterest inthe project

Over-anxietyabout projectmaterials

Lack offollow-up

Lack ofcommitment bykey people

Strategies to avoid breakdownand promote sustainability

a project must have clearlydefined objectives

a large project may be betterhandled as a cluster ofsmaller projects

executive authority must belodged with a stated person orsmall group

there must be an adequateproject management structurewhich is evident to andaccepted by all the partiesconcerned

a project plan shouldinclude means of motivatingboth the project deliverersand the projectreceivers

a project plan must includeprocedures for regularevaluation and allow enoughflexibility to emendthe project design in thelight of feedback

to ensure the success of aproject everyone concernedwith it must be informed,involved and, if possible,enthused about it

where the work of a projectdepends on materials such asbooks or radios, the peopleaccountable for the materialsmust have the confidence touse them, even lose them

a project plan should allowfor maintenance work, e.g.replacing materials

a project plan should aim todevelop long-term spin-offsfrom the main project, e.g.self-study packages, betterPRESET, T support groups

project planners shouldensure that key people,and people in key posts, areprepared to support the workof the project

The generaleducationalinnovation istoo big

The languageskills ofthe Englishteachers arelow

The mode ofprojecttransmissionis not suitable

the project should plan todeliver only the degree ofinnovation which the receivingsystem can tolerate

project planners must takeaccount of how the ELTinnovation fits in with thegeneral educational ethos andpractice of the receiving system

the project plan mustinclude development/support for teachers'language knowledge and skillsas well as their professionalknowledge and skills

general educational innovationmay be better achievedthrough some other subject

project planners mustexamine all aspects of thechosen mode of projecttransmission in the localcontext

77

Appendix 5Training for sustainability: co-operative development

Julian Edge

Learning and experience,knowledge: understanding,

expression

Co-operative respect, empathy,attitude: genuineness

Development exploration, discovery,through:

using: action

active listening

reflecting

focusing

thematizing

challenging

disclosing

goal-setting

trialling

planning

which will open questionsfeature:

commentaries

silence

References

Brandes, D. & P. Ginnes 1986 A Guide tostudent-centred learning, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Egan, G. 1986 The skilled helper (3rd. ed.) Belmont,California: Wadsworth.

Freeman, D. 1982 Observing teachers: three approachesto in-service training and development, TESOLQuarterly 16/1, 21-28.

Rogers, C. 1983 Freedom to learn for the Eighties,Columbus, Ohio: Merrill.

Stevick, E.M. 1986 Images and options in the languageclassroom Cambridge: CUP.

Underhill, A. (ed.) Teacher development Nos. 1-12,available from International House, White Rock,Hastings, TN34 1JY, England.

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