97
182 C. A VARIETY OF POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIVITIES 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD ROAD ACCIDENTS -_ 8.1 An O v e r v i e w 8.2 The Importance of Safety Related Behaviours 8.3 The Critical Role of Implementation 8.4 Key Recommended Countermeasures for each Child Road User Category. 8.41 Vehicle Occupants Motor Vehicle Restraint Use - 8.42 Pedestrians - Adult/Child Pedestrian Mass Media 8.43 Pedal Cyclists - "Bike Ed" and Helmet Usage 8.44 Graduated Licensing - Restriction Usage of Mass Media Campaigns C a m p ign Passengers 8.5 Other Suggested Countermeasures 8.51 Changing'the Status and/or the Character of 8.52 Town Planning and Engineering - Lowering 8.53 Other Suggested Education Countermeasures Residential Streets Speeds in Residential Streets 8.531 Pre-School 8.532 Primary School 8.533 High School 8.541 Re-Introduction of Child Training Harness 8.542 Vehicle Reversing Warning Systems 8.543 Community Agenda Setting 8.54 Other Suggestions 8.6 Conclusions. This lengthy section of the report attempts to put forward a range of possible countermeasures aimed at reducing the incidence of children in road crashes. It begins with an overview, including a schematic summary of the suggestions to be developed. The issue of 'safe' behaviours as goals or objectives is proposed following on recommendations in section 7.3. Implementation of Road Safety programs is included because of its critical importance. The lack of documented information on implementation belies its importance. A range of countermeasures are suggested, including a rationale for each, based upon the analysis in this review.

8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD · 182 C. A VARIETY OF POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIVITIES 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD -_ ROAD ACCIDENTS 8.1

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Page 1: 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD · 182 C. A VARIETY OF POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIVITIES 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD -_ ROAD ACCIDENTS 8.1

182

C. A VARIETY OF POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIVITIES

8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD ROAD ACCIDENTS -_

8.1 An O v e r v i e w 8.2 The I m p o r t a n c e o f S a f e t y R e l a t e d B e h a v i o u r s 8.3 The C r i t i c a l R o l e of I m p l e m e n t a t i o n 8.4 Key Recommended C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s for e a c h C h i l d Road U s e r

C a t e g o r y . 8.41 V e h i c l e O c c u p a n t s Moto r V e h i c l e R e s t r a i n t U s e - 8.42 P e d e s t r i a n s - A d u l t / C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n Mass Media

8.43 P e d a l C y c l i s t s - " B i k e Ed" and H e l m e t Usage 8.44 G r a d u a t e d L i c e n s i n g - R e s t r i c t i o n Usage o f

Mass Media Campa igns

C a m p i g n

P a s s e n g e r s 8.5 O t h e r S u g g e s t e d C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s

8.51 C h a n g i n g ' t h e S t a t u s a n d / o r t h e C h a r a c t e r o f

8.52 Town P l a n n i n g and E n g i n e e r i n g - L o w e r i n g

8.53 O t h e r S u g g e s t e d E d u c a t i o n C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s

R e s i d e n t i a l S t r e e t s

S p e e d s i n R e s i d e n t i a l S t r e e t s

8.531 P r e - S c h o o l 8.532 P r i m a r y S c h o o l 8.533 High S c h o o l

8.541 R e - I n t r o d u c t i o n o f C h i l d T r a i n i n g H a r n e s s 8.542 V e h i c l e R e v e r s i n g W a r n i n g S y s t e m s 8.543 Community Agenda S e t t i n g

8.54 O t h e r S u g g e s t i o n s

8.6 C o n c l u s i o n s .

T h i s l e n g t h y s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t a t t e m p t s t o p u t f o r w a r d a r a n g e o f p o s s i b l e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a imed a t r e d u c i n g t h e i n c i d e n c e o f c h i l d r e n i n r o a d c r a s h e s . I t b e g i n s w i t h a n o v e r v i e w , i n c l u d i n g a s c h e m a t i c summary o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s t o be d e v e l o p e d . The i s s u e o f ' s a f e ' b e h a v i o u r s a s g o a l s or o b j e c t i v e s i s p r o p o s e d f o l l o w i n g o n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s i n s e c t i o n 7.3. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f Road S a f e t y p r o g r a m s i s i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e o f i t s c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e . The l a c k o f d o c u m e n t e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n b e l i e s i t s i m p o r t a n c e .

A r a n g e of c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a r e s u g g e s t e d , i n c l u d i n g a r a t i o n a l e for e a c h , b a s e d upon t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s r e v i e w .

Page 2: 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD · 182 C. A VARIETY OF POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIVITIES 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD -_ ROAD ACCIDENTS 8.1

F I G U R E F

CDUNTERHEASURES CONSIDERED IN SOME DETAIL

*CHILD RESTRAINT CMPAIGN (Mass Media) (incorporating personal driver responsibility)

lmpact - child passengers, young drivers, youth occupants, Ingredients - enforcement. mass media, legislation, education

adult drivers.

special material for secondary school children

*ADULT/CHILD PEDESTRIAN CRHPAIGN (Mass Media). ImpaCt - child pedestrians, young drivers, - adult pedestrians, adult drivers. Ingreqients - T.V. campaign (series of commercials aimed at parents)

*PEDAL CYCLIST-"BIKE ED" AND HELMET WEARING Impact - child pedal cyclists Inqredients - increase supply and demand for Bike Ed by community

- increase accidents of helmet usage and have way for

- adult drivers involvement

legislation

*GRADUATED LICENSING-RESTRICTION OF PASSENGERS Impact - child paqsengers, youth passengers - child pedestrians and pedal cyclists - young drivers, adult drivers - adult pedestrians Inqredients - Legislation, media campaign, enforcerent

'CHANGE STATUS OF RESIDENTIAL STREETS ImpaCt - dhild pedestrians, pedal cyclists - young drivers, adult drivers - Local council Inqredients - Legislation, engineering, mass media, enforcement

*TOWN PLANNING/ENGINEERING-WWER VEHICLE SPEEDS - all drivers - child pedestrians and pedal cyclists

Ingredients - EngineeringtTown Planning, Local councils * EDUCATION-PRESCHOOL

- child pedestrians =? - parents(mothers) Ingredients - Pre-school teachers and parents - behaviour change techniques

*EDUCATIDN-PRIMARY Impact - child pedestrians, pedal Cyclists, child vehicle

passengers Jnqredients - Roadwore - ABC Education TV Program - development of video-tape programs

*EDUCATION-SECONDARY IF' - child pedestrians, cyclists and passengers - young drivers and teen passengers ingredients - N.Z. Roadshow - curriculum units 'CHILD TRAINING HARNESS

Impact - pre-school pedestrians - mothers - drivers Lnqredients - Design innovations, mass media support

*T?PICLE REVERSING WARNING SYSTEM

Impact - child pedestrians - child cyclists Ingredients - Legislation, design rules 'C-TY AGENDA SETTING

tmpact Ingredients - publicity

- all categories of road users including drivers - existing T.V. serials - direct mail via schools

Page 3: 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD · 182 C. A VARIETY OF POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIVITIES 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD -_ ROAD ACCIDENTS 8.1

1 8 3

8.1 An O v e r v i e w

T h i s s e c t i o n of t h e r e p o r t a t t e m p t s t o p u t f o r w a r d some a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r f u t u r e a c t i o n . I t i s b a s e d upon a s t h o r o u g h a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e e x i s t i n g s t a t e - o f - a f f a i r s a s i s p o s s i b l e , g i v e n t h e n a t u r e of t h e p r o b l e m and t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a . The p u r p o s e of t h i s s e c t i o n i s t o c r i t i c a l l y e x a m i n e L w i d e r a n g e of c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s , many o f w h i c h a r e n o t n e w . The c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a r e mos t a p p r o p r i a t e l y v iewed a s o n e e l e m e n t i n a l o n g term p r o g r a m a imed a t r e d u c i n q t h e i n c i d e n c e and s e v e r i t y o f r o a d c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0-16. T h e s e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s emerged o u t o f t h e a n a l y s e s f rom t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s a n d , a s s u c h , r e p r e s e n t t h e a u t h o r ‘ s s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n by r e l e v a n t r o a d s a f e t y a u t h o r i t i e s .

The l i s t o f s u g g e s t i o n s i s n o t e x h a u s t i v e and no d o u b t many a d d i t i o n a l c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s c o u l d or s h o u l d a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d . For t h e s a k e o f p a r s i m o n y e a c h of t h e s u g g e s t i o n s w h i c h f o l l o w a r e i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e i t i s b e l i e v e d t h e y c o u l d h a v e a s i z e a b l e i m p a c t o n a p a r t i c u l a r r o a d u s e r g r o u p . Some o f them r e f l e c t a d e s i r e t o t h i n k beyond t h e e x i s t i n g b o u n d s .

C l e a r l y , some s u g g e s t i o n s a r e more p r a c t i c a l t h a n o t h e r s ; some a r e more c o s t e f f i c i e n t t h a n o t h e r s , some a r e more e a s i l y and q u i c k l y i m p l e m e n t a b l e t h a n o t h e r s ; some w i l l h a v e m a j o r impact o n s p e c i f i c g r o u p s o f r o a d u s e r s w h i l s t o t h e r s h a v e a s m a l l e r i m p a c t on a w i d e r r a n g e o f r o a d u s e r s ; some w i l l impact i m m e d i a t e l y o t h e r s o v e r a l o n g e r p e r i o d .

I n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h t o j u d g e t h e s u g g e s t e d c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s , F i g u r e F, o p p o s i t e , s u m m a r i s e s t h e main c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s c o n s i d e r e d f o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t . W h i l s t t h e s u g g e s t e d c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a r e a l t e r n a t i v e s , it s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e y a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y a p p r o a c h e s . They e a c h h a v e a part t o p l a y i n t h e c h a i n o f e v e n t s n e e d e d t o make s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n t h e i n c i d e n c e and s e v e r i t y of r o a d c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0-16.

The r e p o r t o f t h e S l o u g h E x p e r i m e n t ( M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t and C i v i l A v i a t i o n , 1 9 5 7 ) c o n d u c t e d a l m o s t 2 0 y e a r s a g o s e r v e s a s a u s e f u l r e m i n d e r :

-I_-_-

l--_l_l___ll_--_ll_--l--

“ 2 ) The E x p e r i m e n t h a s s e r v e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e v a l u e of b r i n g i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h e d u c a t i o n a l and e n g i n e e r i n g m e a s u r e s t o b e a r o n t h e a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m . I n e d u c a t i o n , b o t h p r o p a g a n d a and t r a i n i n g h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t t o p l a y , and a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e c a n b e p l a y e d b y t h e p o l i c e . I n d e e d , t h e part of t h e police i n a c c i d e n t p r e v e n t i o n i s o f u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e . . . . .

Page 4: 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD · 182 C. A VARIETY OF POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIVITIES 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD -_ ROAD ACCIDENTS 8.1

1 8 4

" I f a m e a s u r a b l e i m p a c t i s t o b e made on t h e p r o b l e m of r o a d a c c i d e n t s . . . . c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r r e s o u r c e s mus t b e made a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s work. T h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a p p l y b o t h t o t h e e d u c a t i o n a l and e n g i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s , a s w e l l a s t o p o l i c e a c t i v i t i e s .

" 6 ) .... The E x p e r i m e n t h a s g i v e n s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n on s p e c i f i c l e s s o n s i s more i m m e d i a t e l y p r o f i t a b l e t h a n g e n e r a l i s e d p l e a s f o r g r e a t e r c a r e . " ( M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t & C i v i l A v i a t i o n 1 9 5 7 , p . 6 5 ) .

8 . 2 The I m p o r t a n c e o f S a f e t y - R e l a t e d B e h a v i o u r s

I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o compare t h e l i k e l y p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s of t h e v a r i o u s c o r n - t e r m e a s u r e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s . However , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c a r e f u l l y d e f i n e g o a l s and o b j e c t i v e s f o r e a c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e g o a l s o u g h t t o b e r e l a t e d t o t h e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s u c h c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s . A c c i d e n t r e d u c t i o n i s t h e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e . However , m o s t c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s c a n n o t b e a s s e s s e d by s u c h a c r i t e r i a . I n many i n s t a n c e s s u c h a c r i t e r i a i s u n r e a l i s t i c b e c a u s e o f t h e i n t e r p l a y o f a m u l t i f a r i o u s g r o u p of f a c t o r s wh ich o p e r a t e i n t h e r e a l w o r l d . Of e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e , i s t h e need t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t a

i_ l_l-_---_l--l_-__----I-

- -I ---I_

-I ~ _l___l__--__l_-_----I___

1--__111- -I-I_

_-I-_-__-___I-

. - - c o u n t e r m e a s u r e is u s u a l l y d e s i g n e d t o b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e s i n r o a d s a f e t y b e h a v i o u r s . -

A d v e r t i s i n g , i n t h e m a r k e t i n g w o r l d , i s c o r r e c t l y j u d g e d i n terms o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s o r g o a l s , n o t p r o f i t s o r s a l e s , w h i c h a r e m a r k e t i n g o b j e c t i v e s . A d v e r t i s i n g ( c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) i s b u t o n e p a r t o f t h e t o t a l m a r k e t i n g mix , w h i c h , i n t o t a l , i s d e s i g n e d t o b r i n g a b o u t s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o u r s i n t h e t a r g e t a u d i e n c e . S a l e s i s n o t a n a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e o f a d v e r t i s i n g b u t i s a n a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e 05 t h e t o t a l m a r k e t i n g m i x .

Road s a f e t y c o m m u n i c a t i o n s (mass m e d i a , e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s ) a r e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e l y a s s e s s e d i n terms o f b e h a v i o u r s , n o t i n terms o f a c c i d e n t r e d u c t i o n . A r o a d s a f e t y c o u n t e r m e a s u r e c a n b e deemed t o h a v e b e e n e f f e c t i v e if i t b r i n g s a b o u t a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e s i r e d b e h a v i o u r s ; i . e . , s a f e t y - r e l a t e d b e h a v i o u r s . T h e s e b e h a v i o u r s o u g h t t o h e h a v e b e e n p r o v e n t o be r e l a t e d t o s a f e t y ; e . g . , w e a r i n g r e s t r a i n t s , s t o p p i n g b e f o r e c r o s s i n g a r o a d , e t c . , e t c .

The g r e a t m a j o r i t y of e d u c a t i o n a l and mass c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s i n r o a d s a f e t y h a v e n o t b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l i n p r e v e n t i n g o r r e d u c i n g r o a d a c c i d e n t s . Why? B e c a u s e s u c h a n o b j e c t i v e i s u n r e a l i s t i c . S a f e t y i s b e h a v i o u r , n o t a n a t t i t u d e , n o r a s t a t e o f mind. E d u c a t i o n a l a n d / o r t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s s h o u l d a i m t o g e t r o a d u s e r s t o a d o p t s_¶fe b e h a v i o u r s r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y t o i n c r e a s e t h e knowledge o f s a f e t y

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Page 5: 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD · 182 C. A VARIETY OF POSSIBLE FUTURE ACTIVITIES 8.0 SUGGESTED COUNTERMEASURES AIMED AT REDUCING CHILD -_ ROAD ACCIDENTS 8.1

1 8 5

o r t o c h a n g e t h e i r a t t i t u d e s . I n c o n t e m p o r a r y a d v e r t i s i n g and p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , a t t i t u d e s a r e r e q a r d e d a s t h e r e s u l t o f --I-_II__----- - -- b e h a v i o u r , n o t t h e c a u s e o f b e h a v i o u r .

Embry ( 1 9 8 4 ) a r g u e s t h a t p r e - o c c u p a t i o n w i t h a t t i t u d e s and k n o w l e d g e h a s r e s u l t e d i n a n o v e r - e m p h a s i s on e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s w h i c h , i n t u r n , h a s n o t a c h i e v e d much s u c c e s s ( s e e R o b e r t s o n , K e l l e y , O ' N e i l l , Wixom, E i s w i r t h & Haddon 1 9 7 2 ) .

". . . . t h e m i s p l a c e d e m p h a s i s on a t t i t u d e s and knowledge a b o u t s a f e t y h a s n e c e s s a r i l y r e s u l t e d i n t h e c h o i c e o f c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s - c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n - i n a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n , e m e r g i n g f rom s c h o o l s e t t i n g s w h e r e t h e g o a l i s t o t r a i n k n o w l e d g e , h a s b e e n a p p l i e d t o a t a s k t h a t . i t w a s n e v e r i n t e n d e d t o d o . No t s u r p r i s i n g l y , c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n f a i l s t o c h a n g e s a f e t y b e h a v i o u r and a c c i d e n t r a t e s . We c o u l d h e a p s a r c a s m on c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n , a p o i n t l e s s c r i t i q u e o f t h e wrong t o o l . W e s h o u l d n o t b l a m e t h e s c r e w d r i v e r if it f a i l s t o undo t h e s p a r k p l u g from t h e e n g i n e b l o c k ; i t w a s j u s t t h e wrong t o o l .

" P r e se n tl y , pub 1 i c - r e 1 a t i o n s p e o p l e , a n d s a f e t y e x p e r t s t o i l away c r e a t i n g s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n i n t e r v e n t i o n s . I n good f a i t h and w i t h good i n t e n t i o n , t h e y p r e p a r e t h e m e s s a g e s r e l y i n g on t h e a e s t h e t i c s o f c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n , w h i c h i n s u r e s t h a t t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s a imed a t p e o p l e ' s k n o w l e d g e and a t t i t u d e s - b e c a u s e c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n h a s emerged f rom i s s u e s a b o u t knowledge and a t t i t u d e i n s c h o o l s e t t i n g s . " (Embry , 1 9 8 4 , p . 4 )

8 . 3 The C r i t i c a l Role o f I m p l e m e n t a t i o n

Road S a f e t y p r o g r a m s e x h i b i t a w i d e r a n g e of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i n terms o f d e v e l o p m e n t and a s s e s s m e n t . C o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n i s o f t e n g i v e n t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e i n d e v e l o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s o r c a m p a i g n s . S i m i l a r l y , a s s e s s m e n - t is l i k e l y t o e m p l o y t h e s u r v e y o r e x p e r i m e n t a l me thod . T h e r e i s a v e r y s u b s t a n t i v e b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g t o b o t h d e v e l o p m e n t and a s s e s s m e n t .

The f a c t i s , t h a t no m a t t e r how w e l l a r o a d s a f e t y p r o g r a m h a s b e e n p r e p a r e d , i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , t h e o u t c o m e i s l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t o n i t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . N o m a t t e r how s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e a s s e s s m e n t m e t h o d o l o g y , t h e o u t c o m e r e f l e c t s b o t h t h e p r o g r a m and i t s a c t u a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . R e g r e t t a b l y t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i s s p a r s e . W h i l s t some d e t a i l e d c a s e s t u d i e s d o e x i s t , t h e y t e n d t o emphasise t h e t h e o r y a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c a m p a i g n m a t e r i a l s / m e s s a g e s a n d / o r t h e a s s e s s m e n t m e t h o d o l o g y a n d / o r o u t c o m e s (e .9 . E l l i o t t & S o u t h 1 9 8 5 ) .

s pe c i a 1 i s t s ,

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A l l r o a d S a f e t y p r o g r a m s r e q u i r e some f o r m of i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . The b e s t l a i d p l a n s s o m e t i m e s f l o u n d e r b e c a u s e t h e y a r e n o t i m p l e m e n t e d a s t h e i r c r e a t o r s i n t e n d e d . I n r o a d s a f e t y p r o g r a m s , d e a l i n g w i t h c h i l d r e n i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e is a d e a r t h o f l i t e r a t u r e i n r e l a t i o n t o i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . T h e d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t b y M i l n e , W o l s k i , P o l g l a z e 6 S c u l l y ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e f l e c t t h e norm ( " T h e D e v e l o p m e n t and E v a l u a t i o n o f a n E f f e c t i v e Road S a f e t y Campa ign" . The same h o l d s t r u e f o r t h e d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t s b y F reedman and L u k i n ( 1 9 8 1 ) , a n d Rothman & K e a r n s ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

When r o a d s a f e t y p r o g r a m s a r e e v a l u a t e d , . i t i n v o l v e s t h e t o t a l p r o g r a m i n c l u d i n g t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . P e r k i n s ( 1 9 8 4 ) a r g u e s t h a t w e make a f a l s e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r o g r a m d e v e l o p m e n t and p r o g r a m i m p l e m e n t a t i o n :

"The a r g u m e n t i s b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t o f w h a t a n i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e i s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e i s n o t o n l y t h e p r o g r a m t h a t h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r u 6 i t i s a l s o t h e d e l i v e r y mechan i sm w h e r e t h e s p e c i f i c p r o g r a m i s s p r e a d t h r o u g h t h e communi ty . w h a t n o r m a l l y h a p p e n s i s t h a t d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s of d e v e l o p i n g t h e p r o g r a m t h e d e s i g n e r a s s u m e s t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y t h e d e l i v e r y mechan i sm and d i s g u i s e s it. H e or s h e o r g a n i z e s p e o p l e , p r i n t m a t e r i a l s , d e l i v e r s them and d i s p l a y b o u n d l e s s a m o u n t s o f e n t h u s i a s m and i n s i g h t . N o wonder p r o g r a m s f a i l when g i v e n t o a b u s y a n d / o r u n i n t e r e s t e d t e a c h e r o r p a r e n t . " ( P e r k i n s 1 9 8 4 , P . 2 ) .

I m p l e m e n t a t i o n i s c r i t i c a l . Campaign d e s i g n e r s a l l t o o o f t e n i g n o r e i t t o t h e i r peril b y a s s u m i n g i t w i l l a l l h a p p e n . E x p e r i e n c e d e m o n s t r a t e s i t i s u n l i k e l y t o h a p p e n t h e way p l a n n e r s h o p e . T h u s , i n d e s i g n i n g a n y r o a d s a f e t y p r o g r a m i t i s v i t a l t o i n c l u d e d e t a i l e d p l a n s and o p t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o imple ment'a t i o n . P e r k i n s ' ( 1 9 8 4 ) p a p e r p r o v i d e s some s o u n d s u g g e s t i o n s f o r t h e c r e a t o r s o f r o a d s a f e t y p r o g r a m s t o c o n s i d e r , r a t h e r t h a n i g n o r i n g t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e i r m a s t e r p i e c e s .

8 .4 Key Recommended C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s f o r I--

E a c h C h i l d Road User C a t e g o r y ~--l_l_l---

T h e r e a r e a t h r e e m a j o r r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n w h i c h r e q u i r e i n i t i a t i v e s i n o r d e r t o e v e n t u a l l y r e d u c e r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0-1 6. T h i s s u b - s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t recommends key c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a imed a t t h e s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m o r b e h a v i o u r s f o r e a c h of t h e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f r o a d

T h e s e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s are recommended for f u r t h e r u s e r s . c o n s i d e r a t i o n . I n s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n s o f t h i s c h a p t e r a d d i t i o n a l c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a r e p r o p o s e d w h i c h a l s o i m p a c t o n a l l or some of t h e s e t h r e e r o a d u s e r g r o u p s .

-- --I-- -- -_I

-I_-

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8 . 4 1 V e h i c l e O c c u p a n t s Moto r V e h i c l e R e s t r a i n t U s e - Mass Media Campaigns

I n t h e t h r e e mos t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s p a s s e n g e r s , a s a r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r y , a c c o u n t f o r a l m o s t h a l f of a l l r o a d a c c i d e n t v i c t i m s f o r c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 i n m e t r o p o l i t a n / u r b a n a r e a s a n d f o r a l m o s t two t h i r d s i n c o u n t r y a r e a s . F o r A u s t r a l i a a s a w h o l e v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s ( i n 1 9 8 0 ) r e p r e s e n t e d 45% of f a t a l i t i e s a n d 4 7 % o f i n j u r i e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 . The i n c i d e n c e of c h i l d r e n i n c r a s h e s w i t h o r w i t h o u t r e s t r a i n t s i s n o t known w i t h a n y d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y a s i n d i c a t e d i n s u b s e c t i o n 4 . 3 2 5 . However , it i s l i k e l y t h a t i n a l m o s t o n e i n e v e r y 2 c h i l d o c c u p a n t d e a t h s no r e s t r a i n t was worn .

Of a l l t h e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a v a i l a b l e t h e w e a r i n g o f c h i l d r e s t r a i n t s o r a d u l t s e a t b e l t s c o u l d h a v e t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on t h e r e d u c t i o n of s e v e r i t y of i n j u r i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o L a n e , M i l n e & Wood:

"The u s e of r e s t r a i n t s h a s l o n g b e e n a c c e p t e d a s o n e of t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e m e t h o d s of r e d u c i n g i n j u r y a n d d e a t h on t h e r o a d . S i n c e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of l e g i s l a t i o n i n 1 9 7 0 m a k i n g i t c o m p u l s o r y t o u s e r e s t r a i n t s t h e number of v e h i c l e o c c u p a n t s k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d i n r o a d c r a s h e s h a s s t e a d i l y d e c r e a s e d . However , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s e g a i n s h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d p r i m a r i l y f o r d r i v e r s a n d f r o n t s e a t p a s s e n g e r s a n d l i t t l e c h a n g e h a s o c c u r r e d i n r e a r s e a t p a s s e n g e r i n j u r y a n d d e a t h r a t e s . " ( L a n e , M i l n e , & Wood, 1 9 8 3 , p . 1 ) .

B r i t t a i n & S h e f f i ( 1 9 8 2 ) , i n a r e v i e w of t h e c o s t s a n d b e n e f i t s o f m o t o r v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r - s a f e t y s y s t e m s a n d p o l i c i e s , a r g u e t h a t a m a n d a t o r y s e a t - b e l t u s e law i s more c o s t e f f e c t i v e t h a n p a s s i v e s e a t b e l t s ( a u t o m a t i c no b u c k l i n g ) o r a i r b a g s . They c l a i m t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e s t a n d a r d s e a t b e l t s y s t e m c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a n d i s e s t i m a t e d by v a r i o u s s o u r c e s a t a r o u n d 7 0 % when a c t i v a t e d . I n t h e U . S . A . w e a r i n g r a t e s a r e o n l y a r o u n d 1 0 p e r c e n t .

McKnight & McPherson ( 1 9 8 2 ) a r g u e t h a t :

".... t h e u s e of o c c u p a n t r e s t r a i n t s r e p r e s e n t s t h e s i n g l e m o s t v a l u a b l e way of r e d u c i n g t r a f f i c i n j u r i e s a n d f a t a l i t i e s . " (McKnigh t & M c P h e r s o n , 1 9 8 2 , p . 5 5 ) .

The v a l u e of s e a t b e l t u s e i s r e c o g n i s e d i n t h e U . S . A . j u d i c i a l s y s t e m e v e n t h o u g h o n l y one i n e v e r y t e n A m e r i c a n s u s e t h e m .

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" T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s e a t b e l t s i s c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d f r o m t h e many s t u d i e s on t h e s u b j e c t . The d i s a d v a n t a g e s of w e a r i n g s e a t b e l t s a p p e a r s t o b e n e g l i g i b l e . " ( G r e e n & S h a r p e , 1 9 8 2 , p . 5 7 ) .

G r e e n & S h a r p e a r g u e t h a t e v e n i n j u r i s d i c t i o n s w i t h o u t s e a t b e l t l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e common law o v e r t h e p a s t two d e c a d e s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g l y r e c o g n i s i n g t h a t t h e f a i l u r e t o w e a r s e a t b e l t s

c h i l d - r e s t r a i n t s y s t e m s , t h e y p o i n t o u t t h a t : c o n s t i t u t e s c o n t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e . Wi th r e s p e c t t o

"Where a p a r e n t w i t h a y o u n g c h i l d i m p r o p e r l y p l a c e s t h e c h i l d i n a s y s t e m o r d o e s n o t p u t t h e c h i l d i n one a t a l l a n d i s i n v o l v e d i n a c o l l i s i o n , e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o l l i s i o n may b e e n t i r e l y t h e f a u l t of someone e l s e , t h e d e f e n d a n t w i l l h a v e a v a i l a b l e t h e s e a t b e l t d e f e n s e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e i n j u r i e s s u f f e r e d by t h e c h i l d may be d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i m p r o p e r u s e o r t h e f a i l u r e t o u s e t h e c h i l d - r e s t r a i n t s y s t e m . " ( G r e e n & S h a r p e , 1 9 8 2 , p . 6 1 ) .

A s i z e a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d r e n i n j u r e d a s p a s s e n g e r s i n m o t o r v e h i c l e s w e r e u n r e s t r a i n e d . T h i s r e f l e c t s t h e low l e v e l of w e a r i n g r a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e r e a r s e a t .

M i l n e ( 1 9 8 0 ) i n a s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d i n S e p t e m b e r 1980 e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t , i n V i c t o r i a , t h e s e a t b e l t w e a r i n g r a t e was o n l y 1 9 % i n t h e r e a r s e a t c o m p a r e d w i t h 85% f o r t h e f r o n t s e a t . M i l n e f o u n d t h a t r a t e s of w e a r i n g i n t h e r e a r s e a t were low f o r a l l a g e g r o u p s i n c l u d i n g c h i l d r e n a n d a d o l e s c e n t s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t e e n a g e r s 14-19 y e a r s .

B o u g h t o n ( 1 9 8 2 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h i l d r e s t r a i n t s was n o t v e r y h i g h :

" s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d c h i l d r e s t r a i n t s a r e p r o v i d e d f o r l e s s t h a n o n e - t h i r d of c h i l d r e n t r a v e l l i n g i n c a r s . Even w i t h t h e i n c l u s i o n of s e a t b e l t s ( w h i c h a r e d e s i g n e d t o f i t t h e 5 0 t h p e r c e n t i l e s i x - y e a r - o l d s ) , o n l y a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s of c h i l d r e n h a d a r e s t r a i n t a v a i l a b l e . " ( B o u g h t o n , 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 1 ) .

A p a r t f r o m t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y p r o b l e m , a t t i t u d e s i n t h e communi ty h a v e n o t f a v o u r e d t h e u s e o r e n f o r c e m e n t of c h i l d r e s t r a i n t s . F r e e d m a n & L u k i n ( 1 9 7 7 ) f o u n d t h a t m o t h e r s r e s t r a i n c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e of b e n e f i t s t o t h e m o t h e r a n d n o t b e c a u s e of i n c r e a s e d s a f e t y t o t h e c h i l d . A c c o r d i n g t o M i l n e ( 1 9 7 9 ) , a n i m p o r t a n t i n g r e d i e n t i n t h e s u c c e s s o f s e a t b e l t w e a r i n g ( a d u l t s ) was P o l i c e e n f o r c e m e n t . B o u g h t o n ( 1 9 8 2 ) a r g u e s t h a t d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h P o l i c e i n N.S.W. a n d V i c t o r i a i n d i c a t e t h a t no c h i l d - r e s t r a i n t e n f o r c e m e n t c a m p a i g n s h a d b e e n u n d e r t a k e n up t o e n d 1981. B ou gh t o n c o n c l u de d :

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" I n v i e w o f t h e l a c k of e n f o r c e m e n t , and o f m o t h e r ' s a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e r e s t r a i n t o f c h i l d r e n , it i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e c h i l d - r e s t r a i n t l e g i s l a t i o n h a s n o t b e e n e f f e c t i v e i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c i n g c a s u a l t i e s . " ( B o u g h t o n , 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 1 ) .

W i t t i n g s l o w ( 1 9 8 3 ) a s a r e s u l t o f a s u r v e y o f M e l b o u r n e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n i n 1 9 8 0 , f o u n d t h a t c l a i m e d w e a r i n g r a t e s were 4 0 % f o r 9-11 y e a r o l d s and 3 1 % f o r 1 2 - 1 4 y e a r o l d s ( s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t u d e n t s ) . H e c o n c l u d e d :

"The a c t u a l w e a r i n g r a t e of t h e c h i l d r e n and t h e s u g g e s t e d w e a r i n q r a t e if b e l t s w e r e n o t c o m p u l s o r y was 3 5 % - t h i s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o t h e r o v e r s e a s s t u d i e s w h e r e i t i s n o t c o m p u l s o r y t o w e a r s a f e t y b e l t s . A l l t h i s e v i d e n c e s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t s t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e o n l y way t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e communi ty w e a r i n g r a t e o f s e a t b e l t s i s t o s t r i c t l y e n f o r c e c o m p u l s o r y w e a r i n g o f s e a t b e l t s . " ( W i t t i n g s l o w , 1 9 8 3 , p . 2 7 ) .

T h e r e i s a m p l e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t a r a n g e o f m e a s u r e s i s n e e d e d t o b r i n g a b o u t h i g h e r c h i l d r e s t r a i n t w e a r i n g r a t e s a m o n g s t b o t h y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n and t e e n a g e r s . O n e n e c e s s a r y i n g r e d i e n t i s e n f o r c e m e n t . To a s s i s t t h i s p r o c e s s i t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o e n a c t l e g i s l a t i o n t o make t h e d r i v e r l e g a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e w e a r i n g o f s e a t b e l t s o r c h i l d r e s t r a i n t s ( w h e r e a v a i l a b l e ) f o r c h i l d r e n u n d e r 1 8 y e a r s o f a g e o r i n d e e d f o r a l l p a s s e n g e r s i n t h e v e h i c l e . O n l y t h e n , c a n t h e P o l i c e e x p e c t t o e n f o r c e t h e l e g i s l a t i o n . I t i s u n r e a s o n a b l e o f a n y s o c i e t y t o e x p e c t t h e P o l i c e t o s e r v e i n f r i n g e m e n t n o t i c e s o n c h i l d r e n a n d / o r t e e n a g e r s .

I n e x a m i n i n g c h i l d r e s t r a i n t l e g i s l a t i o n i t i s v i t a l t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m of v e h i c l e o c c u p a n t a c c i d e n t s i s n o t o n l y a p r o b l e m f o r t h e y o u n g e r c h i l d . A c r o s s a l l a g e g r o u p s ( 0 - 1 6 ) v e h i c l e p a s s e n q e r i n j u r i e s a r e t h e s i n g l e b i g g e s t c a t e g o r y o f r o a d u s e r i n j u r i e s . I n p e r c e n t a g e t e rms , t h e i n c i d e n c e of p a s s e n g e r i n j u r i e s i n c r e a s e s a s a g e i n c r e a s e s b e t w e e n 0-16.

- __ T h u s , w h i l s t t h e r e i s a c o n c e r n a b o u t c h i l d r e s t r a i n t u s a g e t h e r e i s a n e v e n g r e a t e r n e e d t o i n c r e a s e s e a t b e l t w e a r i n g a m o n g s t o l d e r c h i l d r e n ( 8 - 1 2 ) a n d young t e e n s ( 1 3 - 1 6 ) . A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e l o w e s t w e a r i n g r a t e s a r e f o r t h e 14 -19 age g r o u p ( M i l n e , 1 9 8 0 ) . B o u g h t o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) p r o v i d e s a l i s t i n g o f w e a r i n g r a t e s f o r c h i l d r e n f o r r o a d s i d e s u r v e y s i n e a c h o f t h e s t a t e s . ( B o u g h t o n 1980, t a b l e 4 , page 1 4 ) . An a t t e m p t i s made i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s t o p r o v i d e u p t o d a t e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e t h r e e most p o p u l o u s s t a t e s .

__- --____ll___-----l- liili__

__I__ I____-

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8.411 N . S . W . -- The T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t ( T A R U ) c o n d u c t e d a number o f s u r v e y s b e t w e e n A u g u s t 1 9 7 0 and J u l y 1 9 8 1 . A c o d e was u s e d f o r a c h i l d u n d e r 8 ( e s t i m a t e d ) . S c h n e r r i n g ( 1 9 8 3 ) r e p o r t s o v e r t h e p e r i o d ;

- t h a t w e a r i n g r a t e s i n N.S.W. h a v e d e c r e a s e s i n c e 1 9 7 6 , - rear o c c u p a n t s h a v e a much l o w e r r a t e t h a n f r o n t s e a t

- r u r a l a r e a s h a v e l o w e r w e a r i n g r a t e s t h a n t h e S y d n e y o c c u p a n t s ,

M e t r o p o 1 i t a n a r e a .

No t a b l e s a r e s u p p l i e d f o r a g e .

A c c o r d i n g t o F reedman & S c h r e i b e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) , T A R U o b s e r v a t i o n s t u d i e s had r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d o c c u p a n t s ( u n d e r 8 ) who a r e r e s t r a i n e d is a r o u n d 25% compared w i t h a d u l t s ( 7 5 % ) . F reedman & L u k i n ( 1 9 7 7 ) i n a h o u s e h o l d s u r v e y o f S y d n e y m o t h e r s o f c h i l d r e n u n d e r 8 f o u n d i n 1 9 7 5 t h a t

- f e w i n f a n t s ( u n d e r 6 m o n t h s ) were r e s t r a i n e d , - t h e l a r g e m a j o r i t y of c h i l d r e n 6 m o n t h s t o 3 y e a r s

- f ew c h i l d r e n b e t w e e n 3 y e a r s and 8 y e a r s u s e d c h i l d were r e s t r a i n e d i n a p p r o v e d s e a t s on m o s t c a r j o u r n e y s ,

r e s t r a i n t s o r s e a t b e l t s y e t s e a t b e l t s w e r e o f t e n a v a i l a b l e .

some t imes c a r r i e d o n m o t h e r ' s l a p i n t h e f r o n t p a s s e n g e r s e a t .

- c h i l d r e n of a l l a g e s and e s p e c i a l l y i n f a n t s were

A s a r e s u l t o f c h a n g e s i n t h e L e q i s l a t i o n and a mass med ia c a m p a i g n , F reedman & L u k i n ( 1 9 8 1 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t b e t w e e n J u l y 1 9 7 9 and A u g u s t 1 9 8 0 , a v a i l a b i l i t y of r e s t r a i n t s f o r c h i l d r e n u n d e r 8 had i n c r e a s e d f r o m 7 8 . 9 % t o 8 1 . 3 % ( a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a d u l t s e a t f o r c h i l d o v e r 1 y e a r w a s c o u n t e d ) w h i l s t u s a g e r o s e f r o m 39 .8% i n J u l y 1 9 7 9 and 55.4% i n F e b r u a r y 1980 ( 2 m o n t h s a f t e r t h e c a m p a i g n ) . The A u g u s t 1 9 8 0 s u r v e y r e v e a l e d t h e i n c r e a s e d w e a r i n g r a t e s had b e e n s u s t a i n e d .

I n N.S.W. t h e N a t i o n a l Roads and M o t o r i s t s ' A s s o c i a t i o n ( N R M A ) h a v e c o n d u c t e d s u r v e y s of c h i l d r e s t r a i n t u s a g e . F l e m i n g (1981 ) r e p o r t e d , a s a t November 1981 i n S y d n e y M e t r o p o l i t a n Area, t h a t o v e r 97% of c h i l d r e n u n d e r 8 had some f o r m o f r e s t r a i n t a v a i l a b l e . The NRMA s u r v e y s h a v e shown t h a t u s a g e r a t e s a m o n g s t c h i l d r e n a r e on t h e i n c r e a s e i n Sydney .

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191

1 / 2 - 4 y e a r s 4 - 7 y e a r s

69 .4 80.9 77 24 .9 4 2 . 5 4 6

S o u r c e : F l e m i n g ( 1 9 8 1 ) , B o o t h , ( 1 9 8 3 ) . ---I

The l a t e s t N R M A S u r v e y November 1 9 8 3 ( B o o t h , 1 9 8 3 ) r e v e a l s t h a t w e a r i n g r a t e s a r e s t i l l low i n t h e u n d e r 8 a g e g r o u p a n d t h a t t h e y o u n g e s t a g e g r o u p h a s r e c e n t l y shown a d e c l i n e . The movements i n t h e s e f i g u r e s o u g h t t o i n v e s t i g a t e d f u r t h e r . A r e t h e y r e f l e c t i o n s of r e a l i t y o r o f m e t h o d o l o g y ? I n r e s p e c t t o t h e l a t t e r , o b s e r v a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s h a v e a u n i q u e s e t of b i a s e s . The e s t i m a t i o n of a g e i s a l s o s u b j e c t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e e r r o r . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e d a t a r e f e r s o n l y t o w e e k d a y s a n d S h o p p i n g C e n t r e s and w i t h i n s c h o o l h o u r s . I t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t f a t a l i t i e s , i n v o l v i n g c h i l d o c c u p a n t s , p e a k a t w e e k e n d s ( s e e 4 . 3 1 2 and 4 . 3 2 2 2 ) .

I n a n e f f o r t t o p u b l i c i s e t h e p r o b l e m , t h e A p r i l 1 9 8 4 i s s u e o f ' O p e n Road ' ( N R M A ) m e n t i o n e d t h e a l a r m i n g number of c h i l d r e n a t m a j o r r i s k e .g . 1 0 6 u n r e s t r a i n e d i n t h e f r o n t p a s s e n g e r s s e a t ( 4 3 s i t t i n g on m o t h e r s l a p ) ; 62 s t a n d i n g o n s e a t s o r on t h e f l o o r of mov ing v e h i c l e s , e t c .

8.41 2 Q u e e n s l a n d

I n December 1 9 7 9 Q u e e n s l a n d p a s s e d l a w s r e l a t i n g t o t h e c o m p u l s o r y u s e o f r e s t r a i n t s b y c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e a g e of 8 y e a r s when s u c h r e s t r a i n t s were a v a i l a b l e . Wadley & C a n t e m e s s a ( 1 9 8 3 ) r e p o r t t h a t a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d w e a r i n g r a t e s i n c r e a s e d b e t w e e n December 1 9 7 9 and J u n e 1980 .

----_I

T A B L E 8 5 RESTRAINT A V A I L A B I L I T Y --I

A N D U S A G E I N B R I S B A N E -__-I_-__-_-

December 1 9 7 9 J u n e 1 9 8 0 --I-I

R e s t r a i n t s A v a i l a b l e F r o n t 88 .7% 9 4 . 8 % Rear 88.1 % 9 3 . 4 % T o t a l 88.3% 9 3 . 7 %

----

R e s t r a i n t s Used F r o n t R e a r T o t a l

28 .0% 44.2% 32 .0% 45 .9% 30.9% 45 .5%

S o u r c e : Wad ley & C a n t e m e s s a ( 1 9 8 3 ) . --

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1 9 2

The Q u e e n s l a n d d a t a w a s c o l l e c t e d a t S h o p p i n g C e n t r e s , S c h o o l s a n d K i n d e r g a r t e n s . The w e a r i n g r a t e s v a r i e d somewhat b e t w e e n c e n t r e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , when c o m p a r e d w i t h a d u l t s t h e c h i l d w e a r i n g r a t e s a r e v e r y l o w .

Wad ley & C a n t e m e s s a c o n c l u d e t h a t o n e i n e v e r y two c h i l d r e n u n d e r 8 a r e s t i l l u n r e s t r a i n e d d e s p i t e l e g i s l a t i v e c h a n q e s . They f o u n d n o movement from f r o n t t o r e a r s e a t i n g b e t w e e n t h e two s u r v e y s .

A n o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t o f t h e Q u e e n s l a n d s t u d i e s i s t h e l ower w e a r i n g r a t e i n t h e o l d e r age g r o u p ( i . e . s c h o o l a g e ) c o m p a r e d w i t h k i n d e r g a r t e n a g e c h i l d r e n .

TABLE 86 - WEARING R A T E S IN B R I S B A N E 1 3 8 0 --i-l~-l--lI___

S h o p p i n g C e n t r e s S c h o o l s K i n d e r g a r t e n s C h i l d A d u l t ---_-I ~ _ _

C h i l d A d u l t * * C h i l d F r o n t 5 1 . 1 % 86.1 % 39 .0% 75 .2% 45.9%

--- I___ __I

R e a r 5 9 . 0 % 45.8% 2 7 . 4 % 9.1%* 56 .8% T o t a l 5 7 . 4 % 84.6% 30 .7% 7 3 . 5 % 54.6%

S o u r c e : Wadley & C a n t e n e s s a ( 1 9 8 3 ) . * V e r y f e w o b s e r v a t i o n s * * A d u l t d a t a o n l y s u p p l i e d f o r s c h o o l s a n d k i n d e r g a r t e n s c o m b i n e d .

Greenham, P a t h e , P i t m a n & S a l m o n ( 1 9 8 3 ) r e p o r t e d a s t u d y i n v o l v i n g q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , o b s e r v a t i o n s , r e t r o s p e c t i v e s u r v e y o f p a r e n t s of h o s p i t a l a c c i d e n t t r e a t e d c h i l d r e n . T h e i r r e s u l t s s ugge s t t h e f o 1 l o w i n g :

p a r e n t s o v e r s t a t e r e s t r a i n t u s a g e ( 7 1 % c l a imed u s a g e ) . 45% o f . c h i l d r e n w e r e r e s t r a i n e d , t h e 3-8 y e a r s age g r o u p had t h e l o w e s t r e s t r a i n t u s a g e ( 3 5 % ) . c h i l d r e n t r a v e l l i n g w i t h male d r i v e r s a n d u n r e s t r a i n e d d r i v e r s had l o w u s a q e r a t e s , .37% a n d 2 1 % r e s p e c t i v e l y , most c h i l d r e n ( 6 2 % ) i n v o l v e d i n a n a c c i d e n t r e q u i r i n g h o s p i t a l t r e a t m e n t were u n r e s t r a i n e d , m o s t c h i l d r e n i n j u r e d had h e a d i n j u r i e s ( 6 5 % ) . a n e e d for more e n f o r c e m e n t . a n e e d for c o n v i n c i n g p u b l i c t o c o m p l y a n d d e s i r e g r e a t e r 1 eve1 s of e n f o r c eme n t .

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8 .413 V i c t o r i a

L a n e , M i l n e & Wood ( 1 9 8 3 ) p r o v i d e u s a g e r a t e s a c r o s s a b r o a d e r a g e r a n g e t h a n t h a t a v a i l a b l e f rom N . S . W . o r Q u e e n s l a n d d a t a . The d a t a i n c l u d e d s u r v e y s b e t w e e n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 9 and November 1 9 8 2 . Over t h i s p e r i o d t h r e e known f a c t o r s i n t e r v e n e d w h i c h c o u l d h a v e had a b e a r i n g on w e a r i n g r a t e s :

- a p u b l i c i t y c a m p a i g n " B e l t U p i n t h e Back" w a s

- l e g i s l a t i o n was i n t r o d u c e d r e q u i r i n g c h i l d r e n u n d e r t a k e n i n c l u d i n g a P o l i c e " b l i t z " ;

u n d e r 8 y e a r s of a g e t r a v e l l i n g i n t h e r e a r s e a t t o wear a r e s t r a i n t ; - a s e c o n d p u b l i c i t y c a m p a i g n "What Abou t M e " was a l s o p u t i n t o e f f e c t .

The r e s u l t s of t h e s u r v e , y s i n d i c a t e d r a m a t i c i m p r o v e m e n t s i n r e a r s e a t w e a r i n g r a t e s so t h a t w e a r i n g r a t e s i n V i c t o r i a ( M e l b o u r n e ) s u b s t a n t i a l l y e x c e e d t h a t i n N . S . W . ( S y d n e y ) o r Q u e e n s l a n d ( B r i s h a n e ) .

TABLE 8 7 - __ PERCENTAGE O F CSE O F A V A I L A B L E R E S T R A I N T S I N R E A R SEATS __I__ -- _I--

Age Groups E a r l y End Nov/Dec March N O V .

o c t . 81 O C t 81 81 8 2 8 2 __ -_I - I

0 - 7 65.2 70.4 76.5 86 .0 90.9 8 - 1 3 31 .O 42.1 54.4 63.3 80.5 1 4 - 1 7 28 .4 37.2 51 .9 51.9 68 .4 A l l P e r s o n s 39.5 47.0 59.8 67.0 80.0 I

S o u r c e : L a n e , e t . a l . ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

A s i n d i c a t e d b y M i l n e ( 1 9 8 0 ) t h e 1 4 - 1 7 a g e g r o u p c o n t i n u e d t o h a v e t h e l o w e s t w e a r i n g r a t e s o v e r t h e p e r i o d .

U s i n g f r o n t s e a t o c c u p a n t c a s u a l t i e s a s a c o n t r o l g r o u p , L a n e , e t . a l . ( 1 9 8 3 ) w e r e a b l e show a r e d u c t i o n i n r e a r s e a t c a s u a l t i e s ( a l l a g e s ) b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t s i x mon ths of 1 9 8 1 a n d 1 9 8 2 .

Manders ( 1 9 8 3 ) i n r e p o r t i n g t h e November 1 9 8 2 r e s u l t s i n f u l l p r o v i d e d d a t a by. a g e b y p o s i t i o n i n v e h i c l e a s a t November 1 9 8 2 .

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PERCENTAGE W E A R I N G RESTRAINTS l--l_-ll_l--_lll_-

TABLE 8 8 - -- Age 1 4 - 1 7 A l l P e r s o n s - li- I_--I---

0 - 7 8-1 3 _- P o s i t i o n D r i v e r 95.3

~ ~~

F r o n t l e f t 76.2 81 . 3 92.9 90.1 R e a r R i g h t 84 .8 78.7 63.0 74.8 R e a r L e f t 8 9 . 0 72 .5 65.3 74.7 A l l P o s i t i o n s 86.4 76.6 7 4 . 6 9 2 . 1 1

__~l_____l___l-l________---------

F e m a l e D r i v e r - - - 95.2 F r o n t L e f t 7 2 . 7 81.6 86 .0 91.2 R e a r R i g h t 90.9 73.3 62.2 74 .2 Rear L e f t 84.5 73.6 59.3 71 . 5 A l l p o s i t i o n s 86.5 74.8 6 8 . 3 90 .08

S o u r c e : Mander s ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

W h i l s t t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y f o r o l d e r f e m a l e s ( 8 - 1 3 ) and e s p e c i a l l y ( 1 4 - 1 7 ) t o b e L e s s c o m p l i a n t t h a n m a l e s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t v e r y g r e a t . The r e l a t i v e l y l o w e r w e a r i n g r a t e s i n t h e f r o n t s e a t s b y young p e o p l e i s a l s o a c o n c e r n : i . e . , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h a d u l t s .

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e a g e g r o u p s , t h e w e a r i n g r a t e s a f t e r t h e c h a n g e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n i n N . S . W . or Q u e e n s l a n d i n t h e y o u n g e s t a g e g r o u p ( t h e o n l y d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n t h e s e s t a t e s ) .

M a n d e r s ( 1 9 8 3 ) a n a l y s e d w e a r i n g r a t e s f o r t h r e e t r i p t y p e s b a s e d o n s i t e t y p e . H e f o u n d w e a r i n g r a t e s were h i q h e s t f o r r u r a l t r i p s ( 9 0 . 9 % ) and l o w e s t f o r r e c r e a t i o n a l t r i p s ( 8 7 . 4 % ) . D a t a b y a g e is n o t i n c l u d e d .

L a n e , M i l n e & Wood ( 1 9 8 4 ) c l a i m t h a t t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e "Buckle-Up' ' c a m p a i g n was d u e t o a number o f f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g e n f o r c e m e n t , a w i d e r a n g e o f m e d i a and a r e s e a r c h b a s e d p r o g r a m o f d e v e l o p m e n t and e v a l u a t i o n .

T a b l e 89 s u m m a r i s e s t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e " B u c k l e U p " c a m p a i g n o v e r t h e f o u r p h a s e s . O v e r a l l r e s t r a i n t u s a g e i n c r e a s e d f o r e v e r y a g e g r o u p and i n e v e r y c a s e t h e i n c r e a s e was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( p< . 0 0 1 ) . However , a s i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s t h e t e e n a g e g r o u p a p p e a r e d m o s t r e s i s t a n t t o t h e campaign.

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4 2 . 1 5 4 . 4 6 3 . 3 3 2 . 3 80 .5

S o u r c e : L a n e , e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) T a b l e 111, p . 1 2 ) .

A v e r y r e c e n t f o l l o w - u p s t u d y b y Manders ( 1 9 8 4 ) , h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t w e a r i n g r a t e s d e c l i n e d b e t w e e n November 1 9 8 2 and November 1 9 8 3 . The o v e r a l l r a t e s a r e s t i l l h i g h i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r s t a t e s , b u t h a v e shown a s m a l l d e c a y s i n c e November 1 9 8 2 . The d e c a y i s somewhat g r e a t e r a m o n g s t c h i l d r e n , e s p e c i a l l y f e m a l e s . The r e a r r i q h t s e a t e x h i b i t s t h e m o s t d e c a y , e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g s t t e e n a g e g i r l s .

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V i c t o r i a h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c e p t e d l o w l e v e l s o f r e s t r a i n t u s a g e b y c h i l d r e n 0-16 c a n b e d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d , N . S . W . and Q u e e n s l a n d d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t l e g i s l a t i o n a l o n e w i l l n o t b r i n g a b o u t s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e s . I n N . S . W . ( F r e e d m a n & L u k i n 1 9 8 1 ) d e m o n s t r a t e d a s m a l l i n c r e a s e i n t h e 0-8 a g e g r o u p b u t s t i l l low i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e V i c t o r i a n r e s u l t s . Low u s a g e r a t e s c a n be s u b s t a n t i a l l y i m p r o v e d .

L e g i s l a t i o n o r mass m e d i a c a m p a i g n s or e n f o r c e m e n t c a r r i e d o u t i n d i v i d u a l l y a r e u n l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e s b u t a l l t h r e e c a r r i e d o u t i n c o n c e r t c a n b r i n g a b o u t r e l a t i v e l y l a s t i n g e f f e c t s ( M i l n e , 1 9 8 2 ) .

E f f o r t s t o b r i n g a b o u t l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h makes d r i v e r s p e r s o n a l l y l i a b l e f o r c h i l d p a s s e n g e r s ( u n d e r 1 8 ) is l i k e l y t o a i d t h e e n f o r c e m e n t p r o c e s s and i n c r e a s e w e a r i n g r a t e s . T h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e w i d e communi ty a c c e p t a n c e o f m a n d a t o r y r e s t r a i n t l a w s ( T r i n c a , 1 9 8 2 ) .

The s u c c e s s o f t h e V i c t o r i a n c a m p a i g n e f f o r t s ( i n t o t a l ) w a r r a n t d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n b e g i v e n t o o t h e r S t a t e s a d o p t i n g t h e c a m p a i g n i n t o t a l .

The d e c a y i n V i c t o r i a , w h i l s t s m a l l , i s a s a l u t a r y r e m i n d e r o f t h e o n g o i n g t a s k f a c i n g r o a d s a f e t y a u t h o r i t i e s ( E l l i o t t , 1 9 8 0 a ) .

The l o w i n c i d e n c e o f u s a g e r a t e s and t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f c h i l d v e h i c l e o c c u p a n t a c c i d e n t s w a r r a n t s s p e c i a l e f f o r t s b e i n g d e v o t e d t o means o f i n c r e a s i n g w e a r i n g r a t e s . Some i n f o r m a t i o n e x i s t s i n r e l a t i o n t o a t t i t u d e s o f p a r e n t s , d r i v e r s , and c h i l d o c c u p a n t s w i t h r e g a r d t o c h i l d r e s t r a i n t n o n - u s a g e ( F r e e d m a n & L u k i n 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 8 1 ; Greenham, e t . a l . 1 9 8 3 ; E l l i o t t , 1980b; W i t t i n g s l o w , 1 9 8 3 ) .

S i n c e t h e p r o b l e m o f n o n - c o m p l i a n c e i s g r e a t e s t i n t h e h i g h s c h o o l a g e s t u d e n t s ( M i l n e , 1 9 8 0 1 , t h e r e i s m e r i t i n c o n s i d e r i n g s p e c i a l e f f o r t s a imed a t t h i s t a r g e t g r o u p . No t o n l y s h o u l d t h e y b e s t u d i e d i n more d e p t h ( E l l i o t t , 1 9 8 0 b ; W i t t i n g s l o w , 1 9 8 3 ) b u t a t t e m p t s a t d e v e l o p i n g s p e c i f i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n a p p r o a c h e s c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r u s e i n s c h o o l s . McKnight 6 McPherson ( 1 9 8 2 ) a t t e m p t e d t o m e a s u r e

o c c u p a n t - r e s t r a i n t u s i n g f o u r h i g h s c h o o l s i n S t . L o u i s , M i s s o u r i .

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They c o n c l u d e d t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e v i a i n - s c h o o l p r o g r a m s t o i n f l u e n c n u s a g e r a t e s and t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t r e s t r a i n t s and t h e r i s k s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f a i l u r e t o u s e t h e m a r e n e c e s s a r y e l e m e n t s i n a n y s u c h pr o g r am. W h i l s t many d i f f e r e n c e s c l e a r l y e x i s t b e t w e e n A u s t r a l i a n and A m e r i c a n t e e n a g e r s and s c h o o l s , t h e s u c c e s s c l a i m e d i n t h e McKnight & McPherson ( 1 9 8 2 ) s t u d y w a r r a n t s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

8. In sum, t h e . f o l l o w i n g c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s o u g h t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d :

* l e g i s l a t i o n r e q u i r i n g d r i v e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r e s t r a i n t u s a g e by a l l o c c u p a n t s o r a t l e a s t a l l o c c u p a n t s u n d e r 18 y e a r s o f a g e .

* a r o l l - o u t o f t h e V i c t o r i a n c a m p a i g n n a t i o n a l l y ( t o a l l S t a t e s w i t h c h i l d r e s t r a i n t l e g i s l a t i o n ) i n v o l v i n g mass m e d i a c a m p a i g n s and e n f o r c e m e n t . The e f f e c t s o u g h t a l s o b e n o t i c e a h l e on a d u l t s i n r e a r s e a t s .

* e f f o r t s a r e r e q u i r e d e v e r y 2 o r 3 y e a r s t o m a i n t a i n u s a g e r a t e s a h i g h l e v e l o n c e h i g h e r l e v e l s a r e a c h i e v e d .

* s p e c i a l i n - s c h o o l m a t e r i a l c o u l d b e p r e p a r e d f o r t e e n a g e r s r e l a t i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y t o r e s t r a i n t u s a g e .

* t h e i n v o l v e m e n t of t h e P o l i c e i n e n f o r c e m e n t ( e v e n i f " B o o k l e t e d " a s i n V i c t o r i a i s t h e e x t e n t ) i s c r u c i d l . T h i s w i l l b e s t b e a c h i e v e d if b a c k e d b y l e g i s l a t i v e c h a n g e s ( d r i v e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ) a n d mass c o m m u n i c a t i o n e f f o r t s t o c r e a t e p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s ( w h i c h h e l p s l e g i t i m i s e P o l i c e e n f o r c e m e n t ) .

* M a t e r i a l f o r P o l i c e t o hand o u t w h i c h p r o v i d e s e x p l i c i t g u i d a n c e on how t o g e t p a s s e n g e r s t o c o m p l y and w e a r a r e s t r a i n t .

8.42 P e d e s t r i a n s - A d u l t / C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n Mass Media Campaign .

A number of p u b l i c i t y c a m p a i g n s h a v e b e e n l a u n c h e d i n a n e f f o r t t o c o m b a t c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s . I n t h e U . K . , a c a m p a i g n was d e v i s e d t o l a u n c h t h e n e w G r e e n Code . I t w e n t f o r t h r e e m o n t h s f r o m A p r i l , 1 9 7 1 a n d was a imed a t p a r e n t s t h r o u g h t h e p re s s and t e l e v i s i o n and a t c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h t e l e v i s i o n , p o s t e r s , c i n e m a and b r o c h u r e s . The b r o c h u r e s i n c l u d e d a r o a d c r o s s i n g p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t u n d e r t a k e n by t h e c h i l d u n d e r p a r e n t s u p e r v i s i o n , and a l l o w e d t h e c h i l d t o r e c e i v e a p r o f i c i e n c y c a r d . Of t h e s e v e n m i l l i o n b r o c h u r e s d i s t r i b u t e d , o n l y 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 c a r d s were i s s u e d .

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The e v a l u a t i o n of t h e p r o g r a m ( S i n g h , 1 9 8 2 ) showed a s m a l l i n c r e a s e i n c h i l d r e n ' s c u r b s t o p p i n g b e h a v i o u r f r o m 4 1 % and 4 4 % , l o o k i n g b o t h ways f rom 5 0 % t o 5 4 % . Knowledge a b o u t w h a t t o d o a l s o i n c r e a s e d , ' c r o s s i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e ' f r o m 2 1 % t o 5 4 % . l o o k a l l a r o u n d ( s p e c i f i c t o C o d e ) 0% t o 1 7 % , look t o t h e r i g h t , l e f t , t h e n r i g h t a g a i n ( t r a d i t i o n a l d r i l l ) f e l l f r o m 7 5 % t o 53%. T h e r e w a s a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e number of a c c i d e n t s t o 5 - 9 y e a r o l d s o f 1 1 % b u t o n l y i n t h e p e r i o d o f a t h e c a m p a i g n and f o r a s h o r t w h i l e a f t e r . I t c o u l d w e l l b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e b e h a v i o u r a l c h a n g e s were m i n i m a l and c o u l d b e d u e t o m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r . F u r t h e r s u c h c h a n g e s c o u l d r e f l e c t t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e a d u l t s r a t h e r t h a n t h e c h i l d r e n .

A c a m p a i g n e n t i t l e d ' G i v e t h e m a h a n d ' w a s l a u n c h e d i n 1 9 7 9 b y t h e D u t c h G o v e r n m e n t ( P o l a k , 1 9 8 0 ) w h i c h w a s a imed a t p a r e n t s , t e a c h e r s , c h i l d r e n ( p r i m a r i l y 6-1 2 y e a r s o l d ) m o t o r i s t s and l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a u t h o r i t i e s . I t w a s d e s i g n e d t o c o n v i n c e e d u c a t o r s o f t h e need f o r r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n , show c h i l d r e n how v u l n e r a b l e t h e y a r e and make a d u l t s r e a l i z e t h a t c h i l d r e n b e h a v e a s c h i l d r e n i n t r a f f i c . N o r e p o r t o n i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s c a n b e f o u n d .

' C r o s s i n g R o a d s I s n ' t C h i l d s P l a y ' ( s e e Rothman .S Freedman 1 9 8 2 ) w a s a c a m p a i g n l a u n c h e d i n N.S.W. whose main o b j e c t i v e w a s t o e d u c a t e d r i v e r s ( es pec i a l 1 y young m a l e s ) a b o u t t h e u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f c h i l d r e n and t o i n c r e a s e t h e amoun t and q u a l i t y o f s u p e r v i s i o n o f c h i l d r e n i n t h e t r a f f i c e n v i r o n m e n t .

M a l e s u n d e r 3 0 y e a r s of a g e h a v e a concep t o f good d r i v i n g w h i c h i s n o t r e l a t e d t o s a f e o r c a u t i o u s b e h a v i o u r . M o t h e r s o f young c h i l d r e n were a w a r e of t h e p r o b l e m c h i l d r e n had and t h e y t h e m s e l v e s w e r e n o t good m o d e l s and o f t e n c u t c o r n e r s when r u s h e d . The c a m p a i g n c o n s i s t e d of r a d i o , m a g a z i n e and b u s a d v e r t i s i n g . A p o s t c a m p a i g n e v a l u a t i o n (Ro thman & Freedman 1 9 8 2 ) showed t h a t t h e r e was a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e number o f a c c i d e n t s , a l t h o u g h n o t i n t h e u n d e r 30 male d r i v e r c a t e g o r y . The r e d u c t i o n w a s p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e i n c r e a s e d p a r e n t a l s u p e r v i s i o n and g e n e r a l d r i v e r a w a r e n e s s . Rothman & K e a r n s ( 1 9 8 5 ) p o s t c a m p a i g n a n a l y s i s a l s o shows t h a t young m a l e d r i v e r s who had s e e n t h e a d v e r t i s i n g , r e m a i n u n a f f e c t e d .

Cameron ( 1 9 8 4 ) a r g u e s f o r t h e need t o t r e a t t h e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n p r o b l e m a s a n a d u l t p r o b l e m . W h i l s t c h i l d r e n h a v e a h i g h e r a c c i d e n t r a t e , i n s h e e r numbers o f d e a t h s and a c c i d e n t s a d u l t s a r e f a r - more s i g n i f i c a n t i n m o r b i d i t y and m o r t a l i t y numbers . He a r g u e s t h a t p e d e s t r i a n c a m p a i g n s i n V i c t o r i a a imed a t c h i l d r e n o r a d u l t s , w h i l s t n o t e x t e n s i v e l y e v a l u a t e d , a p p e a r n o t t o h a v e had a n y i m p a c t o n p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s . H e s u g g e s t s t h a t a d u l t s p r o b a b l y p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e y a r e n o t a t r i s k and t h u s p u b l i c i t y a imed a t t h e m i s u n l i k e l y t o b e e f f e c t i v e . Cameron p u t s f o r w a r d

_-I_

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t h e s u g q e s t i o n t h a t a c a m p a i g n d i r e c t e d a t a d u l t s , h u t c o n c e r n i n g t h e s a f e t y of c h i l d r e n on r o a d s m i g h t a l s o i n c r e a s e a d u l t a w a r e n e s s of t h e i r own s a f e t y a s p e d e s t r i a n s . T h o s e a s p e c t s o f c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y h e s u g g e s t s t o be communica ted a re :

'I- t h e need t o t e a c h c h i l d r e n t o s t o p a t t h e k e r b and l o o k for s u i t a b l e g a p s i n t r a f f i c ;

u n s a f e t o p l a y o r t o c r o s s ;

r o a d s c l o s e t o home;

- t e a c h i n g c h i l d r e n wh ich p l a c e s a r e s a f e o r

- t h e d a n g e r of r u n n i n s o n t o r o a d s , e v e n m i n o r

- t h e i m p o r t a n c e of u s i n g c r o s s i n g f a c i l i t i e s ; - t h a t c h i l d r e n c a n n o t b e e x p e c t e d t o u s e t h e same

c r o s s i n g s t r a t e g i e s a s a d u l t s ; t h a t i s y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n i n p a r t i c u l a r a r e n o t a b l e t o a s s e s s t r a f f i c w h i l s t a p p r o a c h i n g t h e k e r b , a s a d u l t d o . "

( C a m e r o n , 1984, p.1.9).

I t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t C a m e r o n ' s s u g g e s t i o n h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e m e r i t s i n c e some of t h e a s p e c t s of c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y a p p l y t o a l l p e d e s t r i a n s :

- u s e of c r o s s i n g f a c i l i t i e s when p r o v i d e d ; - o b e y t r a f f i c c o n t r o l s i g n a l s ; - g i v e s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n t o r o a d c r o s s i n g , e s p e c i a l l y

w h e r e no t r a f f i c c o n t r o l s a r e p r e s e n t .

8.421 Recommendat ion - A Campaign Aimed A t A d u l t s Abou t ___- l--l_l

C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y --I __I--_I

1 .

2.

3 .

The r e c o m m e n d a t i o n i s f o r a mass med ia c a m p a i g n aimed a t p a r e n t s b u t d e p i c t i n g t h e s a f e t y p r o b l e m s o f c h i l d r e n as ped e s t r i a n s . The a i m of t h e c a m p a i g n i s t w o - f o l d . To d i r e c t l y c o n v i n c e p a r e n t s o f t h e d a n g e r s i n c h i l d r e n c r o s s i n g r o a d s and t h e i r need a s p a r e n t s t o g e t i n v o l v e d . A t a n i n d i r e c t l e v e l t h e c a m p a i g n c o u l d c o n v i n c e a l l p e r s o n s ( a d u l t s i n c l u d e d ) t h a t c r o s s m g r o a d s is h a z a r d o u s . Prom t h e v i e w p o i n t of t h e p a r e n t t h e c a m p a i g n w i l l a im a t p a r e n t s as ( a ) r o l e m o d e l s when a c t i n g a s p e d e s t r i a n s , ( b ) d r i v e r s , and ( c ) a s e d u c a t o r s of t h e i r c h i l d r e n .

As Cameron (1984) a r g u e s , a d u l t s m o s t l i k e l y d o n ' t b e l i e v e t h e y a r e a t r i s k . The m e r i t of t h i s c o u n t e r m e a s u r e i s t h a t i t p o t e n t i a l l y c o u l d c o m m u n i c a t e c o r r e c t b e h a v i o u r t o a d u l t s , p a r e n t s , c h i l d r e n w h i l s t a l s o mak ing d r i v e r s more a w a r e o f c h i l d r e n a s p e d e s t r i a n s .

A c a m p a i g n would r e q u i r e a v a r i e t y of m e s s a g e s c o v e r i n g a r a n g e of a c t i v i t i e s and n o t j u s t o n e t e l e v i s i o n c o m m e r c i a l as h a s too o f t e n b e e n t h e p r a c t i c e i n t h e p a s t .

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4 . Any s u c h c a m p a i g n o u g h t t o h e c a p a b l e o f b e i n g u s e d o v e r t ime and a c r o s s a l l m a j o r m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s .

5 . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s vo lume i s n o t t o p r o v i d e a d e t a i l e d b r i e f t o a d v e r t i s i n g a g e n c y . B e f o r e t h e s u g g e s t e d c a m p a i g n c a n b e c o n t e m p l a t e d , s u c h a b r i e f i s n e e d e d and m u s t b e b a s e d on f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g s t p a r e n t s .

8 . 4 3 P e d a l C y c l i s t s - " B i k e - E d " a n d H e l m e t Usage -_I--I_ ---___-

8 . 4 3 1 " B i k e E d " -_I__

I n t e r m s of a v a i l a b l e s t a t i s t i c s , b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s r e p r e s e n t t h e t h i r d m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c a u s e o f i n j u r y o r d e a t h on t h e r o a d s t o c h i l d r e n . The s t a t i s t i c s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l when compared w i t h a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s o r p e d e s t r i a n s . However , a s i n d i c a t e d i n s e c t i o n 1 . 4 t h e e x t e n t o f u n r e p o r t e d b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i s e x t r e m e l y s i z e a b l e . A t i t s e x t r e m e , t h e l e v e l o f u n r e p o r t i n g i s 3 0 t o 1 a c c o r d i n g t o t h e G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n . The e s s e n t i a l p o i n t i s t h a t b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a r e much more common t h a n a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s r e v e a l . C h l a p e c k e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 5 ) c l a i m e d t h a t h o s p i t a l r e c o r d s and p o l i c e r e p o r t i n g a c c o u n t e d f o r 5 % and 1 % o f a l l b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s c a u s i n g a n y i n j u r y o r b i c y c l e damage .

The p r o b l e m of d a t a c o l l e c t i o n i n c h i l d b i c y c l e r o a d a c c i d e n t s h a s b e e n a l l u d e d t o i n s e c t i o n 1 . 6 . B i c y c l e a c c i d e n t d a t a i s n o t o r i o u s l y u n r e l i a b l e . T r i g g s , Meehan & H a r r i s ( 1 9 8 1 ) recommended t h e need f o r c h a n g e s i n V i c t o r i a ; m a n d a t o r y r e p o r t i n g of a l l b i c y c l e i n j u r i e s s u s t a i n e d on r o a d s ; t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of n a t i o n a l i n j u r y m o n i t o r i n g schemes b a s e d on c a s u a l t y d e p a r t m e n t s o f h o s p i t a l s ; and t h e n e e d f o r e x p o s u r e d a t a .

I n r e v i e w i n g t h e l i t e r a t u r e on c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s , t h e s i z e o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g t o b i c y c l e s o r p e d a l c y c l i s t s i s s m a l l i n r e l a t i o n to p e d e s t r i a n o r v e h i c l e p a s s e n q e r s . A n a l y s i s o f a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s r e v e a l t h a t t h e p r o b l e m c a n b e d e f i n e d a s :

- males

- m e t r o / u r b a n b i a s - 8 - 1 6

B i c y c l e t r a i n i n g shows a m i x t u r e i n i t s l e v e l o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s . P a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t some o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e made on t h e c h i l d knowing h e i s b e i n g o b s e r v e d a n d o t h e r s n o t , w h i l e some a r e o n a c c i d e n t d a t a of t r a i n e d and u n t r a i n e d c y c l i s t s . W e l l s , Downing and B e n n e t t ( 1 9 7 9 ) l o o k e d a t on a n d o f f r o a d t r a i n i n g f o r 8 - 1 0 y e a r o l d s . B o t h m e t h o d s were e f f e c t i v e a t r e d u c i n g t h e number o f e r r o r s b u t t h o s e r o a d t r a i n e d were much b e t t e r , e v e n 6-8 m o n t h s a f t e r t r a i n i n g . The w o r s t g r o u p w e r e t h e e i g h t y e a r

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o l d s , e r r o r s i n l o o k i n g f o r t r a f f i c were made b y t h e p l a y g r o u n d t r a i n e d g r o u p and n o t t h e r o a d t r a i n e d g r o u p . T h e a u t h o r s c o n c l u d e d t h a t a g e was t h e m a j o r f a c t o r i n p e r f o r m a n c e o n a c y c l e . A l l t h e c y c l i s t s knew t h e y were b e i n g t e s t e d .

A s i m i l a r s t u d y was c o n d u c t e d i n N e w c a s t l e b y T r o t t e r and K e a r n s ( 1 9 8 3 ) c o m p a r i n g on and o f f r o a d c y c l e t r a i n i n g . They f o u n d t h a t r i d i n g knowledge b e t w e e n p r e and p o s t t e s t s i n c r e a s e d b y 7 8 . 7 % f o r t h o s e t r a i n e d o f f r o a d and 83 .8% f o r t h o s e t r a i n e d on r o a d . I n r i d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e t h e r e was a n i n c r e a s e o f 9 8 . 2 % f o r o f f r o a d and 1 0 0 % f o r o n r o a d , a g a i n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e made w h i l e t h e c y c l i s t s knew t h e y were b e i n g o b s e r v e d .

P r e s t o n ( 1 9 8 0 a ) compared t h e a c c i d e n t r a t e s o f ' t h o s e who had p a s s e d v e r s u s t h o s e n o t u n d e r t a k e n a C y c l i n g P r o f i c i e n c y T r a i n i n g ( C P T ) s cheme . Most c h i l d r e n u n d e r t a k e CPT a t a r o u n d 1 0 y e a r s of a g e a l t h o u g h . s o m e s t a r t y o u n g e r . T h e p e r c e n t a g e o f m a l e s w h o had a c c i d e n t s h a v i n g p a s s e d C P T was 4 4 % w h i l e t h o s e who had f a i l e d C P T was 70%. T h i s may r e f l e c t some d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e t w e e n t h e two g r o u p s , b u t no s u c h r e s e a r c h was c a r r i e d o u t i n t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s .

The b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m i s n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e r o a d s . T h o s e who a n a l y s e h o s p i t a l r e c o r d s r a t h e r t h a n r o a d a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s f i n d t h a t t h e b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m i s much w i d e r t h a n 8 -16 y e a r o l d s and r o a d s . G o n s k i ( 1 9 7 9 ) . and ( 1 9 8 3 ) i n l o o k i n g a t t h e f i n d i n g s of h e r h o s p i t a l d a t a f o r 1977-78 a r g u e d t h a t e x i s t i n g schemes t o t e a c h c h i l d r e n p r o f i c i e n c y i n b i c y c l e r i d i n g n e g l e c t ( a ) young c h i l d r e n ( 5 - 9 ) w h i c h r e p r e s e n t h a l f t h e h o s p i t a l t r e a t e d a c c i d e n t s , and ( b ) r i d i n g s k i l l s f o r p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s s i t u a t i o n s away f r o m r o a d or t r a f f i c . The m o s t r e c e n t a n a l y s i s o f h o s p i t a l d a t a ( C h i l d S a f e t y C e n t r e , 19841 a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t , a s f a r a s h o s p i t a l t r e a t e d b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a r e c o n c e r n e d , h a l f o f t h e p r o b l e m would b e i g n o r e d b y c u r r e n t s c h e m e s wh ich s t a r t f r o m a g e s 8 t o 10 . T h e i r d a t a i n c l u d e d 261 b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s o f wh ich 47 w e r e p r e - s c h o o l e r s ( 0 - 4 ) , 61 i n f a n t s ( 5 - 7 ) ; 1 0 7 p r i m a r y ( 8 - 1 1 ) ; and 46 were 1 2 + y e a r s o f age . Of t h e 261 , 203 were males ( i . e . a l m o s t 8 0 % ) . A s i z e a b l e number ( 4 3 % ) were n o t r o a d r e l a t e d and o n l y 2 1 were i n v o l v e d w i t h c a r s . Of c o u r s e , t h i s r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n s h o u l d Road S a f e t y A u t h o r i t i e s b e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s e o f f - r o a d a c c i d e n t s ? If t h e a n s w e r i s i n t h e n e g a t i v e , t h e n who w i l l b e i n t e r e s t e d i n them?

D e s p i t e t h e p l e a s of G o n s k i ( 1 9 8 3 ) t h e r e a l i t y i s t h a t on t h e r o a d s m o s t a c c i d e n t s d o n o t i n v o l v e c h i l d r e n u n d e r 8 y e a r s o f age. T h i s c o u l d b e d u e t o l e s s e x p o s u r e s i n c e i t i s l i k e l y t h a t many p a r e n t s exp res s c o n c e r n s and d o a c t t o m i n i m i s e r o a d b i c y c l e a c t i v i t y i n t h e y o u n q e r a g e g r o u p s . F u r t h e r m o r e , some p r i m a r y s c h o o l s b a n t h e r i d i n g of b i c y c l e s t o s c h o o l . I t i s t r u e , n o n e t h e l e s s , t h a t s i z e a b l e numbers o f p e d a l c y c l i s t s b e g a n r i d i n g

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a t young a g e s ( C a m p b e l l , F o l e y & P a s c a r e l l a , 1971 ) . A r n b e r g , e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 8 ) r e p o r t s t h a t 7 0 % o f c h i l d r e n 5 - 1 3 r i d i n g b i c y c l e s b e g a n r i d i n g t w o - w h e e l e r s a t 4 t o 5 y e a r s o f a g e .

T o some d e g r e e , t h e p r o b l e m of p e d a l c y c l i s t s i s o n e o f m a t u r a t i o n . The A r n b e r g , e t . a l ( 1 9 7 8 ) s t u d y r e v e a l e l t h a t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g c y c l i n g a b i l i t y was a g e . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r w a s f r e q u e n c y o f u s e , a l t h o u q h m o s t c y c l e d d a i l y . D e s p i t e t h i s h i g h l e v e l o f f r e q u e n t u s e o n l y t h e 1 3 y e a r o l d s c o u l d manage a l l of t h e t e s t s w e l l . The c h i l d r e n u n d e r 8 p e r f o r m e d v e r y p o o r l y i n m o s t o f t h e t e s t s . They q u e s t i o n e d w h e t h e r c h i l d r e n u n d e r 8 o u g h t t o b e a l l o w e d i n t r a f f i c a t a l l . S i m i l a r v i e w s a r e e x p r e s s e d b y F e r o s ( 1 9 8 2 ) who s u g g e s t s a g e 9 and t h e C i t y of S a n t a B a r b a r a C a l i f o r n i a ( 1 9 7 5 1 a g e 1 3 and L e e ( 1 9 8 1 ) a g e 1 2 . The G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n ( 1 9 7 7 ) recommended a g a i n s t a minimum a g e f o r b i c y c l e r i d e r s .

I t c o u l d w e l l b e a r g u e d t h a t a p r o p e r t r a i n i n g scheme c o u l d a l t e r t h e r e s u l t s of s t u d i e s l i k e A r n b e r g e t . a l . What t h e s i t u a t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e e n r e m a i n s a n i n t e r e s t i n g b u t a n s w e r e d q u e s t i o n . A t t h e moment, t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i v e b o d y o f o p i n i o n t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o u r s e s o u g h t n o t t o b e g i n b e f o r e a g e 8 and p r e f e r a b l y n o t b e f o r e 1 0 y e a r s o f a g e . ( P a s c a r e l l a , e t . a l . 1 9 7 1 ) . The m o t i v e s b e h i n d s u c h a v i e w a im a t k e e p i n g y o u r c h i l d r e n on b i k e s o f f t h e r o a d . W h i l s t s u c h a n a p p r o a c h may b e d e s i r a b l e , i t may s t i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e p a r e n t s w i t h some p r a c t i c a l g u i d a n c e a s t o w h a t t o t e a c h t h e s e young r i d e r s . S p i k e ' s B i k e Book ( F o r P a r e n t s o f L i t t l e K i d s u n d e r 9 ) p r o v i d e s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t .

I t i s g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t t r a i n i n g i n some f o r m o r a n o t h e r i s n e e d e d i f c y c l i s t s a r e t o s u r v i v e i n t h e r o a d s y s t e m . T h i s t r a i n i n g s h o u l d i n v o l v e t r a f f i c r u l e s a n d r i d i n g t e c h n i q u e s .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e HORSCORS ( 1 9 7 8 ) r e p o r t on M o t o r c y c l e and B i c y c l e S a f e t y , t h e i d e a o f t r a i n i n g seems t o h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e f a c e v a l i d i t y b u t t h e r e i s no c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t s u c h s c h e m e s r e d u c e t h e number of a c c i d e n t s . The C o m m i t t e e n o t e d t h a t t h e G e e l o n g B i k e p l a n would b e e v a l u a t i n g a s c h o o l - b a s e d p r o g r a m , v i z . , ' B i k e E d ' .

We l l s , Downing & B e n n e t t ( 1 9 7 9 ) f o u n d t h a t 8 y e a r o l d s d i d n o t b e n e f i t f r o m o n - r o a d o r o f f - r o a d t r a i n i n g s c h e m e s t o t h e same e x t e n t a s n i n e o r t e n y e a r o l d s . They c o n c l u d e d a l s o t h a t a g e had a g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e on p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n e x p e r i e n c e .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h a t a g e s h o u l d t r a i n i n g commence, t h e q u e s t i o n a r i s e s as t o o n - r o a d t r a i n i n g v e r s u s o f f - r o a d t r a i n i n g . W e l l s , e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 9 ) i n a c o m p a r i s o n o f o n - r o a d v e r s u s o f f - r o a d t r a i n i n g o f t h r e e a g e g r o u p s ( 8 y e a r o l d s , 9 y e a r o l d s and 1 0 y e a r o l d s ) f o u n d :

-

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- e i t h e r t r a i n i n g r e s u l t e d i n a l a r g e r e d u c t i o n of e r r o r s ; - t h e s i g n i f i c a n t i m p r o v e m e n t was s t i l l e v i d e n t 6-8 m o n t h s

l a t e r a l t h o u g h d i m i n i s h e d somewha t ; - o n - r o a d t r a i n i n g p r o d u c e d b e t t e r p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n o f f - r o a d

t r a i n i n g b o t h i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r and 6 - 8 m o n t h s l a t e r , a l t h o u g h o v e r t i m e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two g r o u p s d ec 1 i n e d ;

t r a i n i n g , e s p e c i a l l y e r r o r s r e l a t e d t o l o o k i n g f o r t r a f f i c .

A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n b i c y c l e e d u c a t i o n i s r a t h e r s c a n t and e s p e c i a l l y i n r e l a t i o n t o e v a l u a t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s . B i c y c l e e d u c a t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a r e c e i v e d i t s g r e a t e s t i m p e t u s i n i t i a l l y f r o m t h e G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n ( 1 9 7 7 ) w h i c h i n v o l v e d e d u c a t i o n a s o n e o f i t s f o u r i n t e g r a t e d s t r a n d s . ' B i k e E d ' ( N e w l a n d s , 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 0 ) g r e w o u t o f t h i s P l a n . The N e w c a s t l e A r e a B i k e p l a n recommended t h e t r i a l o f ' B i k e Ed ' i n N e w c a s t l e .

' B i k e Ed ' w a s s u h s e q u e n t l y t r i a l e d and e v a l u a t e d i n Newcas t l e . ' B i k e Ed ' i n v o l v e s t h e t r a i n i n g o f c h i l d r e n a g e d 9 - 1 3 i n v o l v i n g b o t h o n - r o a d and o f f - r o a d e x p e r i e n c e s . A c c o r d i n g t o Newlands ( 1 9 8 0 ) . ' B i k e - E d ' a i m s t o t e a c h s a f e b i k e r i d i n g t e c h n i q u e s b y t e a c h i n g r o a d l a w and h a b i t s o f c a r e and a l e r t n e s s ; b y i n s t i l l i n g i n t h e r i d e r t h a t he o r s h e i s a p a r t o f t h e t o t a l r o a d t r a f f i c n e t w o r k and t h e r e f o r e m u s t b e c a p a b l e o f m a k i n g r e s p o n s i b l e d e c i s i o n s i n a n y s i t u a t i o n .

T r i a l s were u n d e r t a k e n i n N e w c a s t l e and e v a l u a t i o n u s i n g t h r e e g r o u p s o f y e a r 5 ( 1 0 y e a r s o f a g e ) c y c l i s t s - no t r a i n i n g - o f f - r o a d t r a i n i n g and o n - r o a d t r a i n i n g . T r o t t e r & K e a r n s ( 1 9 8 3 ) were somewhat g u a r d e d i n t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e N e w c a s t l e t r i a l .

- o f f - r o a d t r a i n i n g p r o d u c e d more e r r o r s t h a n o n - r o a d

" O v e r a l l , it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e ' B i k e - E d ' c o u r s e , i n c l u d i n g t h e o n - r o a d t r a i n i n g s e g m e n t s , would b e more e f f e c t i v e i n i m p r o v i n g c h i l d r e n ' s s a f e t y r e l a t e d b e h a v i o u r t h a n a c o u r s e l i m i t e d t o m e r e l y o f f - r o a d o n - c y c l e t r a i n i n g . " ( T r o t t e r & K e a r n s 1 9 8 3 , p . 4 6 ) .

T r o t t e r & K e a r n s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d t h e u s e of o f f - r o a d t r a i n i n g r a t h e r t h a n no t r a i n i n g a t a l l . They a l s o warned t h a t a n y f o r m o f t r a i n i n g c o u l d r e s u l t i n i n c r e a s e d e x p o s u r e t o t r a f f i c .

I n a f o l l o w - u p s t u d y , o n e y e a r l a t e r , K e a r n s & Rothman ( 1 9 8 3 ) f o u n d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s t o W e l l s e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; i . e . t h a t d e t e r i o r a t i o n o c c u r s b u t t h a t t h e f o l l o w u p l e v e l o f p e r f o r m a n c e was s t i l l w e l l a b o v e t h e p r e - t e s t ( p r e - e x p o s u r e ) s t a g e . However , K e a r n s & Rothman ( 1 9 8 3 ) d i d n o t f i n d t h a t o n - r o a d p l u s o f f - r o a d p r o d u c e d more l a s t i n g e f f e c t s t h a n o f f - r o a d o n l y t r a i n i n g .

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S h a n k s (1983) c a r r i e d o u t a c o s t b e n e f i t a n a l y s i s f o r t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of ' B i k e E d ' i n G e e l o n g s c h o o l s ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 0 % o f s c h o o l s ) . A c c o r d i n g t o S h a n k s :

"Bike-Ed i n G e e l o n g 1980-1982 w a s c o s t e f f e c t i v e w i t h a r a t i o o f b e n e f i t s t o c o s t s o f o v e r 4:l" ( S h a n k s , 1983, P . 9 ) .

B i k e Ed i s t h e r e s u l t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t i n d e v e l o p m e n t and e v a l ua t i o n , I t m u s t n o t , h o w e v e r , b e r e g a r d e d a s beyond i m p r o v e m e n t . W h i l s t i t may b e t h e " b e s t " a v a i l a b l e , i t i s q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t t h e " b e s t " i s f a r f r o m good e n o u g h . The V i c t o r i a n Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y h a s b e e n r e v i e w i n g t h e p r o g r a m , i n c l u d i n g i t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , i n r e c e n t y e a r s ( S e e R i c h a r d s 1982, S t r o n g & R e n k i n 1983, and G a r d n e r 1984). I t i s c l e a r f rom t h e s e ( a t t h i s s t a g e c o n f i d e n t i a l ) s t u d i e s t h a t Bike-Ed c a n b e improved b o t h i n c o n t e n t and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . I t m u s t h e n o t e d t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e s t o B i k e Ed d o e x i s t . For e x a m p l e , i n S o u t h A u s t r a l i a a c u r r i c u l u m u n i t f o r u p p e r p r i m a r y s c h o o l e x i s t s . T h i s u n i t e n t i t l e d " R i d e For Your L i f e " was d e v e l o p e d i n 1980 b y t h e E d u c a t i o n a l T e c h n o l o g y C e n t r e o f t h e S . A . D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n . To d e t e no e v a l u a t i o n h a s b e e n c a r r i e d o u t .

The e m p h a s i s on ' B i k e Ed ' h a s b e e n d e l i b e r a t e . T h i s s h o u l d n o t , h o w e v e r , e x c l u d e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f d e s i g n f a c t o r s . A s w i t h c h a n g e s i n t h e d e s i g n o f m o t o r v e h i c l e s ( i . e . l o w e r t h e h e i g h t o f t h e bumper b a r ) c h a n g e s i n t h e d e s i g n o f c y c l e s c a n i m p r o v e t h e s a f e t y o f t h e c y c l i s t s . A number o f s t u d i e s ( R i c e & R o l a n d , 1970; L e w i s , 1973; and M o r t i m e r , Domas and D e w a r , 1973; a l l c i t e d i n C h l a p e c k , 1975) h a v e i n d i c a t e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s t y l e of c y c l e and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h a n d l i n g p e r f o r m a n c e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a g e o f t h e c h i l d and s p e e d t r a v e l l e d .

P r o b l e m s s u c h a s h a n d l e b a r d e s i g n , s e a t d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n s f o r v a r i o u s a g e and d e v e l o p m e n t a l l e v e l s n e e d t o b e e x a m i n e d . A l s o , t h e need f o r t h e c o r r e c t s i z e o f c y c l e and r o a d w o r t h i n e s s o f c y c l e s need t o b e s t r e s s e d a s w e l l a s t h e d a n g e r i n d o u b l i n g , e v e n w i t h a d u l t c y c l i s t s .

8 . 4 3 2 Recommenda t ion - F a c i l i t a t e The A d o p t i o n o f Bike-Ed

1 . I n v i e w of t h e f i n d i n g s t h a t c h i l d r e n 8-16 ( e s p e c i a l l y b o y s ) a r e a major p r o b l e m w i t h r e s p e c t t o b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s and t h a t o n - r o a d / o f f r o a d t r a i n i n g h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o b e e f f e c t i v e and e v e n c o s t e f f e c t i v e , i t i s recommended t h a t ' B i k e Ed' b e more w i d e l y a d o p t e d t h r o u g h o u t A u s t r a l i a .

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I m p l e m e n t a t i o n of ' B i k e Ed ' r e q u i r e s a s u p p l y c r e a t i o n , i . e . o n a w a r e n e s s and i n t e r e s t i n h e a d m a s t e r s and t e a c h e r s and a t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s . I t a l s o r e q u i r e s a d e v e l o p m e n t o f demand f r o m p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n .

' B i k e - E d ' i s b e i n g u s e d b e y o n d G e e l o n g and V i c t o r i a . However , e v e n i n V i c t o r i a t h e r e i s a n e e d t o i n c r e a s e p e n e t r a t i o n . S h a n k s ( 1 9 8 3 ) a f t e r a l l o w i n g f o r s m a l l s c h o o l s ( o n e o r two t e a c h e r s ) c l a i m e d t h a t o n l y 4 0 % o f m e t r o p o l i t a n s c h o o l s and 4 9 % of c o u n t r y s c h o o l s a r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e ' B i k e Ed ' p r o g r a m .

-_I

--_

2 . The p r o b l e m o f s u p p l y w i l l r e s u i r e a number o f m e a s u r e s . The l e a s t e x p e n s i v e i s t o i n t r o d u c e ' B i k e Ed ' as p a r t o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m of a l l t r a i n e e t e a c h e r s so t h a t e a c h y e a r a l l n e w p r i m a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a r e t r a i n e d i n ' B i k e E d ' . S h a n k s makes many o t h e r s u g g e s t i o n s w h i c h t e n d t o r e f l e c t t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l a s p e c t s i n V i c t o r i a n s c h o o l s .

3 . A s a s u g g e s t i o n , g i v e n t h e s i z e o f t h e p r o b l e m and t h e male o r i e n t a t i o n , m a l e o r i e n t a t e d s e r v i c e g r o u p s ( e . g . A p e x , L i o n s , R o t a r y , S c o u t s ) c o u l d b e a p p r o a c h e d t o h a v e s u i t a b l e f a t h e r s t r a i n e d . T h e r e i s no r e a s o n why ' B i k e - E d ' c o u r s e s c o u l d n o t b e p r o v i d e d o f a weekend b y s e r v i c e g r o u p s . F u r t h e r , s c h o o l h o l i d a y s p r o v i d e a n o t h e r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r ' B i k e E d ' . P e r h a p s t e a c h e r s c o u l d be p a i d t o r u n ' B i k e Ed' c o u r s e s i n s c h o o l h o l i d a y s when c h i l d r e n a r e o f t e n a t a l o s s a s t o how t o amuse t h e m s e l v e s .

4 . W h i l s t o v e r c o m i n g s u p p l y p r o b l e m s a r e c r i t i c a l t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f ' B i k e - E d ' , t h e r e i s a l s o a n e e d t o s t i m u l a t e communi ty a w a r e n e s s and demand f o r Bike-Ed c o u r s e s f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n . T h e r e i s a n e e d t o c o n s i d e r l o w - c o s t means o f s t i m u l a t i n g a w a r e n e s s a n d i n t e r e s t ( d e m a n d ) a m o n g s t t h e f o l l o w i n g s e g m e n t s :

H e adma s t e rs T e a c h e r s P'o 1 i c e S e r v i c e g r o u p s You th g r o u p s P a r e n t s P a r e n t s and C i t i z e n G r o u p s .

I t i s q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t if P a r e n t s and C i t i z e n ( P a r e n t s and F r i e n d s , e t c . ) g r o u p s h a v e a s t r o n g d e s i r e f o r ' B i k e Ed ' i n a s c h o o l i t w i l l h a p p e n . The t a s k o f s t i m u l a t i n g s u c h a demand i s n o t a d i f f i c u l t o n e .

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5. I f , a s G a r d n e r ( 1 9 8 4 ) m a i n t a i n s , f i n a n c i a l o b s t a c l e s a p p e a r t o b e p r e v e n t i n g many s c h o o l s f rom i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e ' B i k e - E d ' p r o g r a m , t h e n i n v o l v e m e n t o f communi ty g r o u p s a n d / o r c o m m e r c i a l s p o n s o r s s h o u l d b e a p p r o a c h e d f o r f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e r a t h e r t h a n l e a v i n g i t t o c o m p e t i n g g o v e r n m e n t s o u r c e s a s per t h e G a r d n e r ( 1 9 8 4 ) r e c o m m e n d a t i o n 7 (I.. . . d i s c u s s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o r g a n i z i n g a s h o r t c o n f e r e n c e i n v o l v i n g t r a n s p o r t , e d u c a t i o n and p e r h a p s t r e a s u r y o f f i c i a l s . . . . ) "

8 . 4 3 3 H e l m e t Usage -I

I n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e h a s b e e n a n e v e r i n c r e a s i n g c a l l f o r t h e u s e f o r s a f e t y h e l m e t s b y p e d a l c y c l i s t s . V e r y l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d o n t h e e f f e c t o f s a f e t y h e l m e t s o n c h i l d p e d a l c y c l i s t s . I n A u s t r a l i a , t h e r e i s good r e a s o n f o r t h e l a c k o f d a t a . The i n c i d e n c e of c h i l d p e d a l c y c l i s t s w e a r i n g s a f e t y h e l m e t s i s l e s s t h a n 5% o f a l l c h i l d p e d a l c y c l i s t s ( T o r p e y , 1 9 8 4 ) .

The HORSCORS ( 1 9 7 8 ) R e p o r t recommended: - ' 2 8 9 . C y c l i s t s b e a d v i s e d o f t h e s a f e t y b e n e f i t s of p r o t e c t i v e h e l m e t s b y p u b l i c i t y or o t h e r s u i t a b l e means - t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e q u i r i n g c y c l i s t s t o wea r h e l m e t s b e k e p t u n d e r r e v i e w " . (HORSCORS, 1 9 7 8 ) .

The HORSCORS r e p o r t c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e m o s t s i q n i f i c a n t f o r m o f c y c l i s t p r o t e c t i o n i n t h e e v e n t o f a n a c c i d e n t i s f o r c y c l i s t s t o wear p r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g , e s p e c i a l l y c r a s h h e l m e t s . The r e p o r t a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f s e r i o u s i n j u r i e s t o c y c l i s t s o c c u r t o t h e h e a d , and h e a d i n j u r i e s a r e a m a j o r c a u s e o f d e a t h .

D r . F r a n k McDermot t , V i c t o r i a n C h a i r m a n o f t h e Road Trauma C o m m i t t e e o f t h e R o y a l A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e g e o f S u r g e o n s , h a s f o r a number of y e a r s (McDermot t 1 9 8 2 6 1 9 8 4 ) a d v o c a t e d t h e n e e d f o r b i c y c l e h e l m e t u s a g e b e c a u s e m o s t . b i c y c l e r e l a t e d d e a t h s a r e d u e t o head i n j u r i e s . T h e r e i s a s i z e a b l e number o f p e o p l e a d v o c a t i n g c o m p u l s o r y w e a r i n g of h e l m e t s i n A u s t r a l i a . A r n b e r g ( 1 9 7 9 ) recommended t h a t c h i l d r e n b e f o r b i d d e n t o c y c l e t o s c h o o l u n l e s s t h e y u s e a d e q u a t e p r o t e c t i v e e q u i p m e n t .

The i m p o r t a n c e of w e a r i n g s a f e t y h e l m e t s h a s m o s t r e c e n t l y b e e n e m p h a s i s e d b y McDermott ( 1 9 8 4 ) and b y D o r s c h & Woodward & S o m e r s ( 1 9 8 4 ) . The v a l u e and i m p o r t a n c e o f p e d a l c y c l i s t s w e a r i n g s a f e t y h e l m e t s a p p e a r s beyond q u e s t i o n a t t h i s p o i n t i n t i m e . ( s e e S e c t i o n 2.6 o f t h i s r e p o r t f o r more d e t a i l e d c o r r o b o r a t i v e e v i d e n c e and a l s o T r i n c a 1 9 8 3 and 1 9 8 4 ) .

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T h e e s s e n t i a l p r o b l e m i s o n e o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . The l a c k of u s a g e of s a f e t y h e l m e t s b y c h i l d r e n i s m o s t e v i d e n t . A t m o s t , 5%

-- I _I ___ o f c h i l d r e n 9-16 w o r e t h e m , u n t i l r e c e n t l y i n V i c t o r i a w h e r e w e a r i n g r a t e s h a v e r i s e n t o u p t o 1 5 % i n some g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s w h i l s t r e m a i n i n g a t a l m o s t z e r o l e v e l s i n o t h e r r e g i o n s ( T o r p e y 1 9 8 4 ) .

The r e a s o n s f o r l a c k o f u s a g e of h e l m e t s by c h i l d r e n i n M e l b o u r n e was f i r s t s u g g e s t e d b y B . J . E l l i o t t & A s s o c i a t e s :

"The b a s i c p r o b l e m i s t h a t o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t . M o s t c h i l d r e n r e a l l y d o w a n t t o c o n f o r m t o p e e r g r o u p v a l u e s . TO q u o t e my e a r l i e r r e p o r t :

'He lme t s a r e a d e f i n i t e p u t down. W h i l s t a d u l t s m i g h t w e a r them, b o y s f e e l v e r y s t r o n g l y t h a t t o wear a h e l m e t i s t h e s u r e s t way t o b e .made a f o o l o f , and e v e n b e o s t r a c i z e d " l i k e b e i n g t h e t e a c h e r s p e t " - "a r e a l s u c k l " . ( E l l i o t t 6

A S S O C . , 1 9 8 2 ) .

G i v e n t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f c h i l d r e n 1 0 y e a r s o f a g e and o v e r , e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g s t b o y s , B . J . E l l i o t t & A s s o c i a t e s ( 1 9 8 3 ) recommended t h a t t h e d i r e c t t a r g e t f o r a n y c a m p a i g n s h o u l d n o t b e t h i s a g e g r o u p b u t i n s t e a d m o t h e r s , s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , a n d younge r -a ge ch i l d r e n .

E a r l y i n 1 9 8 4 t h e V i c t o r i a n Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y d e v e l o p e d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p r o g r a m d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e i n c i d e n c e of w e a r i n g ' o f h e l m e t s a m o n g s t c h i l d p e d a l c y c l i s t s . The p r o g r a m i n c l u d e d two t e l e v i s i o n c o m m e r c i a l s w h i c h were s u b j e c t t o q u a l i t a t i v e d i a g n o s t i c p r e - t e s t i n g by R. J. E l l i o t t & A s s o c i a t e s ( 1 9 8 4 ) . The c a m p a i g n a d o p t e d t h e e a r l i e r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s of R . J . E l l i o t t & A s s o c i a t e s and w a s a imed a t M o t h e r s and y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n . The r e p o r t r e - i t e r a t e d t h a t a t t i t u d e c h a n g e wou ld m o s t l i k e l y o c c u r a f t e r b e h a v i o u r c h a n g e ; i . e . a f t e r p a r e n t s i n s i s t e d o n c o m p u l s o r y u s e .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e 1 9 8 4 c a m p a i g n ( w h i c h i n v o l v e d a c o o r d i n a t e d p r o g r a m i n c l u d i n g mass m e d i a a d v e r t i s i n g ) s u g g e s t t h a t w e a r i n g r a t e s h a v e t r e b l e d f rom 5 % t o 1 5 % ( T o r p e y 1 9 8 4 ) i n some a r e a s of M e l b o u r n e . However , t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b i a s i n t h e e f f e c t s i n f a v o u r of u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s c o m p l i a n c e . I

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A S i m p l i e d a b o v e , t h e b a s i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n t a s k i s t h a t o f g e n e r a t i n g a s u f f i c i e n t l e v e l o f c o m p l i a n c e s u c h t h a t w e a r i n g a h e l m e t i s s e e n a s t h e ' n o r m ' , n o t t h e e x c e p t i o n . The e f f o r t s o f t h e Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y a r e t o h e a p p l a u d e d and e v e r y e f f o r t i s n e e d e d t o e n s u r e c o n t i n u e d c o m p l i a n c e o v e r t i m e and i n c r e a s e s i n c o m p l i a n c e . T h e r e i s a r e a l need t o g e t c o m p l i a n c e l e v e l s u p t o a r o u n d 3 0 % a t w h i c h t i m e m a n d a t o r y c o m p l i a n c e w i l l become a p o s s i b l e o p t i o n . The c o n t a g i o n o r s n o w b a l l i n g e f f e c t w i l l o n l y t a k e o f f s l o w l y i n t h e b e g i n n i n g .

8 . 4 3 4 Recommenda t ions - H e l m e t A d o p t i o n

1 . The V i c t o r i a n Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y h e l m e t c a m p a i g n h e m o n i t o r e d t o e n s u r e a d o p t i o n r a t e s a r e s u s t a i n e d .

2 . T h a t t h e c a m p a i g n ( a s a t o t a l i t y ) b e i m p l e m e n t e d i n o t h e r S t a t e s w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e m o d i f i c a t i o n s .

3 . T h a t s p e c i a l e f f o r t s h e made t o e n c o u r a g e p a r e n t s t o a c t v i a p a r e n t s g r o u p s t o b a n t h e r i d i n g of b i c y c l e s t o and f r o m s c h o o l u n l e s s a p p r o v e d h e l m e t s a r e worn.

W i t h r e spec t t o t h e l a t t e r t h e l i k e l y r e s u l t i n t h e s h o r t r u n w i l l b e a d e c r e a s e d e x p o s u r e o f c h i l d r e n on b i c y c l e s s i n c e many w i l l o p t n o t t o r i d e t h e i r b i c y c l e s r a t h e r t h a n b e s e e n w e a r i n g a h e l m e t .

4 . The S t a n d a r d s A s s o c i a t i o n D e s i g n r u l e s s h o u l d h e m o d i f i e d e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o c o l o u r and a p p e a r a n c e so t h a t c h i l d r e n c a n c u s t o m i s e t h e i r h e l m e t s . The i n s i s t e n c e o f w h i t e o r y e l l o w i s c o u n t e r - p r o d u c t i v e .

8 . 4 4 G r a d u a t e d L i c e n s i n g - R e s t r i c t i o n of P a s s e n g e r s

The c o n c e p t o f g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e Commonweal th D e p a r t m e n t of T r a n s p o r t a c c o r d i n g t o a p r e s s r e l e a s e d a t e d 4 / 6 / 8 4 f r o m t h e M i n i s t e r . f o r T r a n s p o r t A u s t r a l i a . S u c h a c o n c e p t h a s a number o f i n g r e d i e n t s m o s t o f w h i c h a r e l i k e l y t o r e m a i n c o n t r o v e r s i a l f o r some t i m e . I n a s e c t i o n on c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a imed a t i n f l u e n c i n g r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n i t s i n c l u s i o n may seem somewha t o b t u s e .

A t t h e o u t s e t , i t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t t h e r e i s o v e r w h e l m i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t d e c r e a s i n g t h e i n c i d e n c e o f a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g young d r i v e r s ( 1 7 - 2 0 ) a n d / o r l o v i c e d r i v e r s ( f i r s t 2-3 y e a r s ) wou ld h a v e a d r a m a t i c e f f e c t on t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s i t u a t i o n a n d a n =en g r e a t e r i m p a c t o n t h e t o t a l r o a d a c c i d e n t s i t u a t i o n .

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A d d i t i o n a l l y , w h a t i s b e i n g p r o p o s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t i s a p p r o v a l of a ' p r i n c i p l e ' w h i c h , i f p u t i n t o e f f e c t , i s l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n a m a s s i v e r e d u c t i o n o f c h i l d r e n ( t e e n a g e r s ) i n j u r e d or k i l l e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s . The b a s i c p r e m i s e i s t h a t a t l e a s t o n e a s p e c t of g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e m e r i t . T h i s d o e s n o t i m p l y a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h a l l a s p e c t s o f g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g a s p r o p o s e d b y t h e F e d e r a l O f f i c e o f Road S a f e t y .

The m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l a s p e c t o f g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g i s l i k e l y t o be t h e a g e o f commencement . W h i l s t s u c h a n i s s u e i s c r i t i c a l t o t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g i t i s a s e p a r a t e i s s u e f r o m t h e p r i n c i p l e a s t o w h a t a g e a l i c e n s e o u g h t t o b e g r a n t e d .

C u r r e n t l y , d e f a c t o g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g e x i s t s i n some s t a t e s . For e x a m p l e , T a s m a n i a h a s had a z e r o BAC l a w f o r f i r s t - y e a r d r i v e r s f o r some y e a r s . . Most r e c e n t l y , V i c t o r i a a l s o a d o p t e d a z e r o BAC f o r f i r s t - y e a r d r i v e r s . N . S . W . i s c u r r e n t l y c o n s i d e r i n g

. s u c h a l aw . S . A . and W . A . h a v e l o w e r l i m i t s f o r f i r s t - y e a r d r i v e r s t h a n f o r e x p e r i e n c e d d r i v e r s .

A n o t h e r i s s u e r e v o l v e s a r o u n d d r i v e r t r a i n i n g . The c a l l f o r b e t t e r d r i v i n g t r a i n i n g i s p e r e n n i a l . T o d a t e , t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e b o d y o f e v i d e n c e b u i l t u p o v e r a l m o s t 2 0 y e a r s t h a t d r i v e r t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s h a v e l i t t l e p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on d r i v e r b e h a v i o u r . A b a s i c p r e m i s e b e h i n d g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g i s t h a t t h e b e s t t r a i n i n g i s a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e t e m p e r e d b y p r a c t i c a l r e s t r i c t i o n s i n h i b i t i n g t h o s e f a c t o r s known t o i n c r e a s e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a n a c c i d e n t ( s u c h a s a l c o h o l , n i g h t d r i v i n g , p r e s e n c e o f t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s , e t c . ) .

As f a r a s a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 a r e c o n c e r n e d t h e r e a s o n f o r r ecommend ing t h e g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g c o u n t e r m e a s u r e i s p r i m a r i l y t h e d e s i r e t o k e e p c h i l d and t e e n a g e o c c u p a n t s o u t o f c a r s d r i v e n b y f i r s t and p e r h a p s s e c o n d y e a r d r i v e r s . Thus g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g i s recommended .on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t " p e e r s " s h o u l d n o t b e a l l o w e d t o b e p r e s e n t i n t h e v e h i c l e , a t l e a s t n o t w i t h o u t a d u l t s u p e r v i s i o n , a n d a t l e a s t n o t i n t h e f i r s t y e a r .

W h i l s t t h e g r e a t e s t l i k e l y i m p a c t on r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 -16 i s as p a s s e n g e r s , t h e r e i s a l s o e v i d e n c e t h a t n o v i c e d r i v e r s i n t h e i r e a r l y y e a r s a r e a l s o m o r e l i k e l y t o b e - i n v o l v e d i n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a n d c h i l d p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s t h a n t h e i r more e x p e r i e n c e d c o u n t e r p a r t s . The e v i d e n c e comes f r o m t h i s r e v i e w and f r o m o v e r s e a s s t u d i e s . S a n d e l s ( 1 9 7 4 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t 1 8 - 2 2 y e a r o l d d r i v e r s were o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n a c c i d e n t s w i t h young c h i l d r e n 0 -10 y e a r s .

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T h i s S w e d i s h f i n d i n g h a s b e e n c o n f i r m e d more r e c e n t l y b y SWOv ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Brown ( 1 9 8 0 1 , i n r e v i e w i n g d r i v e r b e h a v i o u r f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s c o n c l u d e d t h a t h e and o t h e r r e v i e w e r s h a v e i d e n t i f i e d t h a t y o u n g e r n o v i c e d r i v e r s a r e o v e r i n v o l v e d i n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s . l_l_l_ -_--I I_--

T e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s k i l l e d i n A u s t r a l i a i n 1 9 8 1 were q u i t e l i k e l y t o b e p a s s e n g e r s i n c a r s d r i v e n by y o u n g d r i v e r s . ~ O f t h e 1 5 - 1 6 y e a r o l d s k i l l e d a s p a s s e n g e r s i n v e h i c l e s d r i v e n by males , o v e r

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S o u r c e : D O T F a t a l F i l e 1 9 8 1

K a r p f and W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e was a l m o s t e q u a l n u m b e r s o f t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r ( 1 6 - 1 9 ) d e a t h s a s d r i v e r d e a t h s . W i l l i a m s and K a r p f ( 1 9 8 3 ) f o u n d t h a t f o r 1 3 y e a r o l d p a s s e n g e r d e a t h s h a l f were p a s s e n g e r s o f t e e n a g e d r i v e r s . S i x t y t h r e e p e r c e n t o f d e a t h s o f p a s s e n g e r s 1 3 - 1 9 y e a r s o l d r e s u l t e d f r o m t r a v e l w i t h t e e n a g e d r l v e r s . T h o s e d r i v e r s w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y males , e s ' p e c i a l l y i n t h e c a s e o f f a t a l l y i n j u r e d m a l e p a s s e n g e r s . Male d r i v e r s 1 6 and 1 7 y e a r s o l d had t h e h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f t e e n a g e r s ( 8 6 % and 84%, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) among t h e i r p a s s e n g e r s who s u s t a i n e d f a t a l i n j u r i e s .

The m a j o r i t y o f f a t a l l y i n j u r e d t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s s u s t a i n e d t h e i r i n j u r i e s i n v e h i c l e s d r i v e n b y t e e n a g e d r i v e r s a n d m o s t o f t h e p a s s e n g e r s f a t a l l y i n j u r e d i n v e h i c l e s d r i v e n b y t e e n a g e d r i v e r s w e r e t e e n a g e r s . D e a t h s of t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s 1 3 - 1 9 y e a r o l d s t e n d e d t o o c c u r i n c r a s h e s t a k i n g p l a c e a t n i g h t a f t e r 9 p.m. e s p e c i a l l y weekend n i g h t s .

T e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r d e a t h r a t e s i n t h e U.S. b e g i n i n c r e a s i n g a t a g e 1 3 a c c o r d i n g t o W i l l i a m s a n d K a r p f . T h e i r f i n d i n g s r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f e x p o s u r e a s p a s s e n g e r s r e f l e c t i n g g r e a t e r t e n d e n c i e s o f t e e n a g e r s ( w i t h h i g h e r d e a t h r a t e s ) t o t r a v e l w i t h t e e n a g e d r i v e r s , e s p e c i a l l y males who h a v e e x t r e m e l y h i g h c r a s h r a t e s p e r l i c e n s e d d r i v e r .

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T e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s of t e e n a g e d r i v e r s r e f l e c t two s u b - p o p u l a t i o n s o f t e e n p a s s e n g e r s - p e e r s and s i b l i n g s . K a r p f & W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 8 2 ) had e a r l i e r s u g g e s t e d t h e way t o r e d u c e t h e t e e n a g e r o a d d e a t h

r a i s e t h e minimum l i c e n s e a g e , e l i m i n a t e h i g h p r o b l e m i s s c h o o l d r i v e r e d u c a t i o n ( w h i c h i n c r e a s e s t h e i n c i d e n c e of 1 6 - 1 7 y e a r o l d d r i v e r s b u t n o t t h e i n c i d e n c e s o f c r a s h e s ) a n d p r o h i b i t i n g 1 6 a n d 1 7 y e a r o l d s f r o m d r i v i n g l a t e a t n i g h t o r e a r l y i n t h e m o r n i n g .

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t h a t t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f t h e p a s s e n g e r s f a t a l l y i n j u r e d i n v e h i c l e s d r i v e n b y t e e n a g e d r i v e r s were t e e n a g e r s . A d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e o f _l_-l-___-l-_-i--l--l-l_-_l

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t h e need t o e l i m i n a t e t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s f r o m v e h i c l e s d r i v e n by t e e n a g e d r i v e r s comes f r o m a number o f o t h e r s o u r c e s . Ruch , e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 0 ) found t h a t c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s a d m i t t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r s as a c a u s e o f d i s t r a c t i o n and a p r e c i p i t a t i n g c a u s e o f a c c i d e n t s - d a t a w h i c h i s n o r m a l l y n o t a d m i t t e d t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i n g P o l i c e o f f i c e r . F o l d v a r y & L a n e ( 1 9 6 9 ) f o u n d t h a t % h e p r e s e n c e o f t e e n a g e r s , e s p e c i a l l y i n l a r g e n u m b e r s , i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d c r a s h r i s k f o r t e e n a g e d r i v e r s .

l_l----l

C l e a r l y , t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f t e e n a g e ( 1 3 - 1 6 ) d e a t h s a n d i n j u r i e s a s c a r p a s s e n g e r s o u g h t t o b e of c o n c e r n t o a l l . V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s a c c o u n t f o r o v e r 5 0 % o f a l l c h i l d r e n 0-16

l__l_ _______lil_ _- _- ----_--_____I_ --_l-_--l___l__-__

i n v o l v e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s and a l m o s t 5 0 % o f f a t a l i t i e s i n t h i s a g e g r o u p . T e e n a g e r s 13 -16 a c c o u n t f o r a r o u n d 4 0 % of a l l i n j u r i e s o r f a t a l s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0-16. The 13 -16 a g e g r o u p s a c c o u n t s f o r o n l y 23% o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n a g e 0-16 y e a r s .

F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f young n o v i c e d r i v e r s d e r i v e s f r o m t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y ( s e e s e c t i o n 4 .134-5 ; & 4 . 3 2 8 ) .

I n t h e a c c i d e n t f i g u r e s s u p p l i e d i n s e c t i o n 2 . 4 , d r i v e r s a g e d 0-16 w e r e e x c l u d e d s i n c e t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e d r i v e r s a r e d r i v i n g i l l e g a l l y and t h e number i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e numbers a s p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 9 2 o u g h t t o b e o f g r a v e c o n c e r n e s p e c i a l l y t o N.S.W. r o a d s a f e t y a u t h o r i t i e s .

__l__-__l__- ~ _-_---_I_- __I -_- ----_-I_ _I --I-

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U N D E R - A G E DRIVERS (CARS, MOTOR CYCLES, O T H E R ) -____I

T A B L E 92 -_-- 1981 1 9 8 2

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S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) , R T A ( V i c . ) , D O T ( Q ' l d . ) 1 . ~ l l aged 8-16 ( l e s s t h a n 1 0 % f e m a l e s ) I---

* 1 a g e d 8-12 * * 5 a g e d 8 - 1 2

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21 2

A n o t h e r s e t of f i g u r e s i s v e r y i n s t r u c t i v e r e g a r d i n g t h e t e e n a g e a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m . I n d e e d , i t r e v e a l s t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s c a r r i e d o u t on c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 t e n d s t o h i d e t h e m a q n i t u d e o f t h e p r o b l e m of t e e n a g e r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n t o d a y ' s A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y . F i g u r e G p l o t s t h e number o f m a l e s and f e m a l e s i n v o l v e d a s c a s u a l t i e s ( k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d ) i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n N . S . W . f o r 1 9 8 3 b y e a c h a g e y e a r f r o m u n d e r 1 y e a r t o 2 8 y e a r s o f a g e . The c h a r t s p e a k s f o r i t s e l f . C l e a r l y , t h e b i g g e s t p r o b l e m b e g i n s a t a g e 1 5 , c l i m b s d r a m a t i c a l l y a t 1 6 a n d e s p e c i a l l y 1 7 a n d p e a k s a t 1 9 . I f t h e same d a t a w e r e p l o t t e d on l o g a r i t h m i c paper t o show r a t e o f c h a n g e t h e c h a r t would b e e v e n more d r a m a t i c .

A c c o r d i n q t o t h e R A C S "Road Trauma" ( 1 9 8 2 ) b o o k l e t t h e aae a r o u D

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1 7 - 2 0 y e a r s r e p r e s e n t e d 7 . 1 % o f t h e t o t a l A u s t r a l i a n p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 8 0 b u t a c c o u n t e d f o r 2 2 . 6 % o f p a s s e n g e r d e a t h s ; - - 2 4 % o f p a s s e n g e r i n j u r i e s ; 4 0 . 3 % o f m o t o r c y c l e and p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r d e a t h s ; 3 7 . 5 % o f m o t o r c y c l e and p i l l i o n p a s s e n q e r i n j u r i e s .

______________-___-________-~_--l-_-l_I_---I

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. - S u c h a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a r e s o v u l n e r a b l e and d r a m a t i c a l l y e f f e c t t h e t o t a l r o a d a c c i d e n t s i t u a t i o n .

The D O T f a t a l f i l e r e i n f o r c e s t h e r o l e o f young p e o p l e i n t h e t o t a l r o a d t o l l .

D r i v e r s P e d e s t - V e h i c l e C a r s M o t o r M.C. P e d a l T o t a l

-I --I

C y c l e P.P. C y c l e -__I

-_- Age r i a n P a s s .

- 2 8 7 0 -4 3 6 4 2 - - _I_______I_________-_i___________I_____________ 5-1 6 9 2 1 0 7 1 2 1 6 5 63 3 1 8 1 7 - 2 0 2 9 2 00 2 5 5 1 0 4 1 4 11 6 4 2 21 - 2 5 l_________________ll___-_____l_-_ll__-_- 3 0 1 1 8 2 4 1 1 3 4 1 6 9 5 6 3 2 6 - 2 9 1 6 3 6 1 2 6 3 8 3 3 2 2 6 3 0 - 3 9 4 3 5 6 221 3 6 2 6 3 7 4 4 0 - 4 9 4 8 4 7 1 4 2 1 1 - 5 2 5 7 5 0 - 5 9 7 0 6 7 1 2 4 5 - 3 2 7 3 O v e r 6 0 2 3 9 1 0 8 1 4 3 2 - 7 5 0 7 - 1 9 Unknown

6 0 7 7 8 9 1 2 6 9 3 4 6 4 0 1 0 9 3 2 6 6 - - 4 8 5 -- ll-__-__l----___-_l ___

S o u r c e : D O T F a t a l F i l e 1 9 8 1 1 . E x c l u d i n g m o t o r c y c l e d r i v e r s . 2 . I n c l u d e s unknown r o a d u s e r t y p e h bus p a s s e n g e r s a n d o t h e r .

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21 3

The a g e a t w h i c h most young p e o p l e g a i n A p r o v i s i o n a l l i c e n s e i s age 1 7 i n N . S . W . a n d , t o a much l e s s e r d e g r e e a g e 1 8 . B y a g e 1 9 two t h i r d s of t h e d r i v e r s who w i l l h o l d a p r o v i s i o n a l d r i v e r s l i c e n s e i n a n y o n e y e a r a l r e a d y h a v e d o n e s o .

I_

TABLE 9 4 N U M B E R O F PROVISIONAL - L I C E N S E H O L D E R S I N N.S.W. 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 l__l_----~--___I---

D r i v e r s ----I

1 9 8 2 --- 1 9 8 1 I--

Age i n Years Male Male Female F e m a l e 1 6 y e a r s 6 9 1 5 9 6 23 1 7 y e a r s 22,494 1 3 , 8 7 5 22,31 2 14 ,001 1 8 y e a r s 1 0 , 6 2 9 8 , 4 5 5 1 1 , 1 9 0 9,106

--I -I--

4 , 6 8 0 4 , 6 8 6 4,913 4,966 1 9 y e a r s 1 6 - 1 9 3 7 , 8 7 4 27 ,031 38, 51 1 28 ,096

~ ----__ -I

10 ,787 2 0 - 2 4 9 , 1 9 9 9 , 9 5 9 9 ,263 2 5 - 2 9 3 ,665 4 , 4 8 5 3, 5 4 1 4 , 9 3 6 2 9 & o v e r 6 2 6 9 7 , 3 5 5 5 , 6 1 3 8 , 1 2 7 A l l ages 5 7 , 0 0 7 4 8 , 8 3 0 5 6 , 9 2 8 5 1 , 9 4 6

1 6 Y e a r s 1 4 R i d e r s

15 - - - 1 7 y e a r s 2 ,502 1 5 6 1 , 8 4 2 1 0 1 1 8 v e a r s 9 2 7 1 0 7 8 5 2 75

2 0 - 2 4 2 5 - 2 9

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A l l Ages 6,122 83 7 5,032 3 9 8 ______lll___________l___li--_--_----l

S o u r c e : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) -I_

8 . 4 4 1 Recommenda t ion I

1. G r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g o u g h t t o b e c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e a spec t s w h i c h would e x c l u d e t h e p re sence of c h i l d and t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s i n c a r s d r i v e n b y n o v i c e ( f i r s t o r s e c o n d y e a r d r i v e r s ) .

-I

2. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e p r o p o s e d r e s t r i c t i o n of n o v i c e d r i v e r s t o d a y l i g h t h o u r s c o u l d a l s o h a v e a s i z e a b l e e f f e c t on t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r a c c c i d e n t s .

3. The e l i m i n a t i o n of p a s s e n g e r s , e x c e p t a d u l t s , c o u l d a l s o a s s i s t i n a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e number of p e d e s t r i a n and p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a m o n g s t c h i l d r e n 0-1 6.

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2 1 4

4 . F i n a l l y , t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f c h i l d p a s s e n g e r s , w h e r e no a d u l t is p r e s e n t when t e e n a g e n o v i c e d r i v e r s a r e a t t h e w h e e l , c o u l d h a v e a s i z e a b l e i m p a c t on t h e number o f young p e o p l e 1 7 - 2 0 k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d a s p a s s e n q e r s o r d r i v e r s . T h i s g r o u p a l o n e a c c o u n t e d f o r 4 3 2 d e a t h s i n 1 9 8 0 , w h i c h w a s i n e x c e s s of t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n 0 -16 k i l l e d ( 4 1 5 ) i n 1 9 8 0 o n t h e r o a d s ( a l l u s e r c a t e g o r i e s ) . ( R A C S "Road Trauma" 1 9 8 2 ) .

8 .5 O t h e r S u g g e s t e d C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s

8 .51 C h a n g i n g t h e S t a t u s a n d / o r t h e C h a r a c t e r o f

l__l______l________l-l

_____l_______l-___l___ll___l_-

R e s i d e n t i a l S t r e e t s _--_I _--I

Howar th & Gunn ( 1 9 8 2 ) p r o p o s e a n o v e l a p p r o a c h t o t h e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m i n v o l v i n g e n g i n e e r i n g , e d u c a t i o n and l e g a l m e a s u r e s . T h e i r , p r o p o s a l , f i r s t c o n s i d e r e d b y Howar th & R e p e t t o - W r i g h t ( 1 9 7 8 ) , i n v o l v e s g i v i n g s i m i l a r l e g a l S t a t u s I t o

___I___I-____--

t h e t o t a l a r e a o f a l l r o a d s i n r e s i d e n t i a l r o a d s a s e x i s t s lox p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s . T h i s s t a t u s would a p p l y t o a l l c h i l d r e n b e l o w a g i v e n a g e : t h e y s u g g e s t 9 o r 1 1 s i n c e 9 i s t h e a g e

_l-l_______-_l___________l_ I_

c h i l d r e n i n t h e U.K. a r e no l o n g e r a l l o w e d t o r i d e b i c y c l e s on t h e p a v e m e n t w h e r e a s a t a g e 1 1 t h e c h i l d h a s a l m o s t m a s t e r e d a d u l t r o a d c r o s s i n g s k i l l s and t h e y t r a v e l f u r t h e r t o s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l .

Howar th & Gunn ( 1 9 8 2 ) a r g u e t h a t t h e i r p r o p o s a l o u g h t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d b e c a u s e o f t h e f a i l u r e , t o d a t e , o f e d u c a t i o n a . 3 e n g i n e e r i n g m e a s u r e s t o p r o t e c t c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s . __ The p r o b l a m o f c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s c a n b e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d ( a s f a r a s A u s t r a l i a i s c o n c e r n e d ) :

_---__l-_-l_l_-- ~ ~ I _ - - ----- ___II______ ______l____ll

- m e t r o p o l i t a n - m i n o r l o c a l r o a d s - n e a r home - 4-12 y e a r s of age - e s p e c i a l l y males - w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d a c c i d e n t s i t e s .

The i m p o r t a n c e o f r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s i n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n and p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s is c o v e r e d i n d e t a i l i n o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e r e p o r t i n c l u d i n g s e c t i o n 3.2. R e c e n t e v i d e n c e i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e i n B r i n d l e & A n d r e a s s e n d ( 1 9 8 4 ) and A n d r e a s s e n d , e t . a l . ( 1 984 ) .

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2 1 5

To o v e r c o m e t h e s e p r o b l e m s , e n g i n e e r i n g s o l u t i o n s a r e o f t e n s e e n t o b e p r o h i b i t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e a l t h o u g h t h e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e p r o p o s e d i n 8 . 4 2 a b o v e c o u l d make c o n s i d e r a b l e i n r o a d s i n t o t h e p r o b l e m . I t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t , i n t h e c a s e o f r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s , e n g i n e e r i n g s o l u t i o n s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y " p r o h i b i t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e " b e c a u s e ( u s u a l l y ) i m p r o v e m e n t s i n r e s i d e n t i a l a m e n i t i e s - a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , q u i e t n e s s , e t c . - a r e c o n c u r r e n t l y a c h i e v e d , and l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s a r e o f t e n p r e p a r e d t o pay f o r t h e s e .

I n n e i g h b o u r h o o d s w i t h young c h i l d r e n , p e o p l e w i l l o f t e n b e p r e p a r e d t o pay f o r c h a n g e s s i m p l y f o r t h e s a k e o f g r e a t e r s a f e t y .

I n terms o f e d u c a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n s a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s e t o f p r o b l e m s e x i s t . The m a j o r p r o b l e m , a t l e a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o p r i m a r y s c h o o l - a g e d c h i l d r e n ( t h e main p r o b l e m g r o u p ) r e v o l v e s a r o u n d how c h i l d r e n c r o s s r o a d s . S t u d i e s by R o u t l e d g e , e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 6 a ) show t h a t r o a d c r o s s i n g s t r a t e g i e s c h a n g e d r a m a t i c a l l y b e t w e e n t h e ages of 5 and 1 0 y e a r s . T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t c h i l d r e n l e a r n two c o n f l i c t i n g s t r a t e g i e s . On t h e o n e hand t h e y h a v e f o r m a l t r a i n i n s i n c h i l d s t r a t e s i e s f o r c r o s s i n s t h e r o a d . T h i s

I- __ -I-I -- -l_--_-l-l--_-l - - i s d e s i r a b l e . However , t h e y l e a r n i n f o r m a l l y a d u l t c r o s s i n g s t r a t e g i e s f r o m o l d e r s i b l i n g s and p a r e n t s . A t a g e 5 c h i l d r e n a d o p t t h e f o r m a l i s e d c h i l d o r i e n t a t e d s t r a t e g i e s . B y a g e 1 0 m o s t h a v e a d o p t e d a d u l t s t r a t e g i e s ( R o u t l e d g e , e t . a l . 1 9 7 6 a ) ,

I n a n u t s h e l l , a t a g e 5 t h e y s t o p a t t h e k e r b , l o o k b o t h ways and c r o s s o n l y i f t h e r o a d i s c l e a r , h e h a v i n g a s t a u g h t . By 1 0 y e a r s of a g e t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o a s s e s s t h e t r a f f i c s i t u a t i o n p r i o r t o r e a c h i n g t h e c u r b and s t e p o u t o n t o t h e r o a d w i t h o u t p a u s i n g . They d o n ' t w a i t f o r t h e r o a d t o c l e a r and t h e y n e g o t i a t e q u i t e s m a l l g a p s i n t r a f f i c . L i k e a d u l t s t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o c r o s s i m m e d i a t e . 1 ~ a f t e r a c a r h a s p a s s e d .

H o w a r t h & Gunn ( 1 9 8 2 ) would a r g u e t h a t t h e two s t r a t e g i e s t h e c h i l d i s l e a r n i n g a r e c o n f l i c t i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , w e c a n n o t s t o p t h e c h i l d l e a r n i n g t h e a d u l t s t r a t e g y a n d t h a t s u c h a s t r a t e g y i s e s s e n t i a l f o r c r o s s i n g b u s y r o a d s . Nor c a n w e c h a n g e a d u l t s . The c h i l d c r o s s i n ' g s t r a t e g i e s a r e , on t h e o t h e r hand a p p r o p r i a t e f o r q u i e t r o a d s w h e r e many ( m o s t ) a c c i d e n t s o c c u r and w h e r e t h e c h i l d c a n a d o p t t h e wrong s t r a t e g y . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o a r g u e t h a t t h e t e a c h i n g o f o n e s t r a t e g y i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h e o t h e r . T h i s p u t s a t h e o r e t i c a l l i m i t on e d u c a t i o n a s a s u c c e s s f u l c o u n t e r m e a s u r e .

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The s u c c e s s of e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s a imed a t t h i s p r o b l e m i s a t b e s t e q u i v o c a l . G r a y s o n & Howar th ( 1 9 8 2 ) i n a r e v i e w o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n of p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y p r o g r a m s p o i n t o u t t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h e l a c k of r e l e v a n t and r e g u l a r e x p o s u r e d a t a t h e r e i s no s i n g l e l a r g e s c a l e p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y p r o g r a m a b o u t w h i c h o n e c a n b e c e r t a i n t h a t i t h a s had a n o v e r a l l e f f e c t on s a f e t y i n t h e s e n s e i n wh ich t h e term i s u s u a l l y u n d e r s t o o d . The o f t e n q u o t e d U . K . G r e e n C r o s s Code p rogram d i d r e s u l t i n a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e t o t a l number of a c c i d e n t s b u t t h e r e i s no c e r t a i n t y a s t o w h e t h e r i t r e d u c e d e x p o s u r e or r i s k o r e f f e c t e d c h i l d r e n r a t h e r t h a n a d u l t s .

I n s u p p o r t of t h e v i e w s of Howar th & Gunn ( 1 9 8 2 ) t h e r e i s no d o c u m e n t e d e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m w h i c h h a s e v e r p r o d u c e d a r e d u c t i o n i n a c c i d e n t s o f more t h a n 1 0 % . A c c o r d i n g l y , i t c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t e d u c a t i o n i s n o t l i k e l y t o b r i n q a b o u t a major

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r e d u c t i o n i n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s .

The p e s s i m i s m o f Howar th & Gunn ( 1 9 8 2 ) i s q u i t e w i d e s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n r o a d s a f e t y l i t e r a t u r e and i t m u s t b e c o n c e d e d t h a t t h e s e e m i n g - f a i l u r e o f e n g i n e e r i n g and e d u c a t i o n a l m e t h o d s t o d a t e c a n n o t b e d i s m i s s e d l i g h t l y . A t t h e same t i m e i t m u s t a l s o b e c o n c e d e d t h a t w h e r e t h e y h a v e b e e n e f f e c t i v e l y i m p l e m e n t e d , e n g i n e e r i n g m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n v e r y s u c c e s s f u l .

C h a n g i n g t h e l e g a l s t a t u s o f a l l r o a d s i n r e s i d e n t i a l a r eas a s f a r a s c h i l d r e n a r e c o n c e r n e d ( a g e t o b e d e f i n e d ) would o f c o u r s e r e q u i r e e n g i n e e r i n g and e d u c a t i o n s u p p o r t s . W i t h r e g a r d t o e n g i n e e r i n g m e a s u r e s i t would b e n e c e s s a r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e r o a d s on which c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s h a v e p r i o r i t y f r o m t h o s e m a j o r r o a d s o n wh ich c h i l d r e n c a n ' t h a v e p r i o r i t y . Such e n g i n e e r i n g m e a s u r e s may i n v o l v e a p a i n t and a b r u s h !

An e s s e n t i a l p a r t of s u c h a scheme would b e t h e need t o f a c e t h e p r o b l e m of t h e p a r k e d ca r s i n c e t h e e v i d e n c e i s c l e a r t h a t p a r k e d c a r s i n c r e a s e t h e d a n g e r t o c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s . Thus p a i n t e d m a r k i n g s would b e n e e d e d t o r e s t r i c t p a r k i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o Howar th & Gunn t h e l i n e s ( y e l l o w ) :

_____I

" . . . .wou ld i n d i c a t e a r o a d on w h i c h c a r s had p r i o r i t y , a t l e a s t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e p r e s e n t l a w g i v e s i t t o them. C h i l d r e n c o u l d b e t o l d t o r e g a r d them a s a b a r r i e r , and t h a t t h e y s h o u l d n e v e r , u n d e r a n y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a t t e m p t t o c r o s s them w i t h o u t h e l p . " ( H o w a r t h & Gunn 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 6 9 ) .

C l e a r l y a d d i t i o n a l e n g i n e e r i n g f a c i l i t i e s would b e n e e d e d s u c h a s w a r n i n g s i g n s t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n m a j o r r o a d s and m i n o r r e s i d e n t i a l r o a d s .

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F i n a l l y , t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s u c h a l e g a l s t a t u s c h a n g e would r e q u i r e a m e d i a c a m p a i q n and a n e d u c a t i o n a l c a m p a i g n t o t e a c h t h e new r u l e s t o a d u l t s , d r i v e r s a n d c h i l d r e n and t o p e r s u a d e a l l o f t hem t o o b e y t h e new r u l e s .

T h i s c o u n t e r m e a s u r e h a s b e e n i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e t h e w r i t e r b e l i e v e s t h a t a r a n g e o f s o l u t i o n s i s n e e d e d . C u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s , a s f a r a s t h e y h a v e b e e n a d o p t e d (many o n l y p a r t i a l l y o r i m p e r f e c t l y ) , a p p e a r e d n o t t o h a v e a c h i e v e d a s much a s would b e hoped f o r . T h i s c o u l d r e f l e c t , n o t on t h e s t a t u s o f t h e c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s b u t , o n t h e i n s u f f i c i e n t l y w i d e a p p l i c a t i o n .

T h e b a s i c p r e m i s e i n h e r e n t i n t h e l e g a l s t a t u s c h a n g e i s i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e O E C D ( 1 9 8 3 ) b e l i e f t h a t t h e l o s s o f l i f e t o young c h i l d r e n on t h e r o a d s i s a g r a v e human and m o r a l p r o b l e m . A s s u c h , i t i s n o t o f t h e c h i l d ' s mak ing b u t o f t h e a d u l t a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e a d u l t m o t o r i s t . I t i s t h e m o t o r i s t who may n e e d t o g i v e u p some f r e e d o m s f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e c h i l d . T h i s same a r g u m e n t a p p l i e s t o a n o t h e r s u g g e s t e d c o u n t e r m e a s u r e i n v o l v i n g s p e e d r e r l u c t i o n i n n e i g h b o u r h o o d a r e a s .

In s e c t i o n 3 . 3 i t w a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f f a u l t i n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i s m o s t l y on t h e c h i l d and n o t t h e d r i v e r . T h e m o t o r i s t ' s d e f e n s e i s i n v a r i a b l y " t h e c h i l d r a n o u t o n t o t h e r o a d and t h e r e was n o t h i n g I c o u l d d o t o p r e v e n t t h e a c c i d e n t . " A s t h e l a w s t a n d s and i s a d m i n i s t e r e d t h i s t y p e o f d e f e n s e u s u a l l y l e a d s t o e i t h e r no p r o s e c u t i o n o r a n a c q u i t t a l .

H o w a r t h , e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ) c a l c u l a t e d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a n a c c i d e n t per p o t e n t i a l e n c o u n t e r w i t h a c a r . F o r f i v e y e a r o l d b o y s i t was 1 : 1 0 , 0 0 0 and f o r 1 0 y e a r o l d s i t was 1 : 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 . T h i s means t h a t a l l b u t o n e i n 1 0 , 0 0 0 o r 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 o f p o t e n t i a l a c c i d e n t s a r e a v o i d e d . B u t who i s d o i n g t h e a v o i d i n g ? Howar th & L i g h t b u r n ' s ( 1 9 8 0 ) o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d y u n e q u i v o c a l l y r e v e a l e d t h a t w h i l s t a g r e a t d e a l of a v o i d i n g a c t i o n i s e x h i b i t e d b y c h i l d r e n no d r i v e r w a s e v e r s e e n t o t a k e a v o i d i n g a c t i o n u n t i l i t was t o o l a t e .

The H o w a r t h & L i g h t b u r n s t u d y r e v e a l e d t h a t c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s , e s p e c i a l l y y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , d o s t o p and w a i t a n d t a k e l o n g - r a n g e a c t i o n . Motor i s t s , i n c o n t r a s t e x h i b i t no l o n g - r a n g e a n t i c i p a t i o n s u c h a s s l o w i n g down o r moving t o t h e c e n t r e o f t h e r o a d when t h e y see c h i l d r e n .

H o w a r t h & Gunn a r g u e t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t :

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" m o s t c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s o c c u r b e t w e e n a c h i l d who i s u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y and e x c e p t i o n a l l y h e e d l e s s , and a d r i v e r who i s r o u t i n e l y so." ( H o w a r t h & Gunn, 1 9 8 2 , p. 2 7 3 - 4 ) .

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T h i s v i e w p o i n t h a s b e e n made o f t e n b e f o r e f r o m S a n d e l s onward . M o t o r i s t s o u g h t t o b e made t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s . The f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n s h o u l d n o t b e d i s m i s s e d t o o l i g h t l y :

" I t i s c l e a r t h a t a d e f e n s e b a s e d on t h e h e e d l e s s n e s s o f t h e c h i l d and t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h e d r i v e r t o a v o i d t h e a c c i d e n t , i s p r o b a b l y s p u r i o u s . I t may b e h e l p e d b y t h e f e e l i n g of j u r i e s , and i n d e e d a l l a d u l t d r i v e r s t h a t ' t h e r e , b u t f o z t h e Grace of God, go 1'. One i s t e m p t e d t o a r g u e t h a t w e a r e a l l aware u n c o n s c i o u s l y , of o u r c o l l e c t i v e p o t e n t i a l . g u i l t , a w a r e t h a t a s a communi ty o f d r i v e r s w e a r e c o l l e c t i v e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e a c c i d e n t s . " ( H o w a r t h & Gunn, 1 9 8 2 , p . 2 7 9 ) .

C l e a r l y , t h e r e i s no i n t e n t by d r i v e r s t o i n t e n t i o n a l l y harm c h i l d r e n . But t h i s c o u l d w e l l b e a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f d r i v e r s ' c o l l e c t i v e i n c o m p e t e n c e . T a l k i n g t o d r i v e r s i t becomes c l e a r t h a t t h e y would d e n y t h a t t h e y a r e d r i v i n g u n s a f e l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o c h i l d r e n . D r i v e r s s i m p l y d o n ' t know; i . e . , t h e y a r e n o t a w a r e t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s a r e t h e p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m . The g r e a t a t t r a c t i o n o f t h e ' c h a n g i n g s t a t u s o f r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s ' c o u n t e r m e a s u r e i s t h a t i t s h i f t s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on t o t h e m o t o r i s t b e c a u s e now t h e c h i l d on t h e r o a d h a s t h e same s t a t u s a s t h e c h i l d o n a p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g .

8 . 5 2 Town P l a n n i n g and E n g i n e e r i n g - L o w e r i n g S p e e d s i n R e s i d e n t i a l S t r e e t s

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R a r e l y i s t h e t r a f f i c e n v i r o n m e n t d e s i g n e d w i t h a f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c h i l d r e n ' s b e h a v i o u r s , w a n t s and n e e d s . P l a n n e r s p lace r o a d s and p a r k i n g a r e a s w i t h i n c o u r t y a r d a r e a s o f m u l t i - s t o r y r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , e x i t s f rom h o u s e s and c o m p l e x e s s l o p e away f rom t h e h o u s e t o w a r d s t h e r o a d w i t h no p r o t e c t i o n f o r a c y c l i s t s , h e d g e s and b u s h e s b l o c k v i e w s f o r s m a l l c h i l d r e n n o t a d u l t s . S c h o o l s and c h i l d - c a r e c e n t r e s a r e l o c a t e d on b u s y r o a d s o f t e n w i t h o u t a d e q u a t e f e n c i n g , s u r r o u n d e d b y p a r k e d c a r s and b u i l d i n g s o r p l a y a r e a s s e g r e g a t e d b y r o a d s . D o w n h i l l s lopes o f r o a d s w i t h l i g h t s o r i n t e r s e c t i o n s i n d u c e c y c l i s t s t o s p e e d and ' b e a t ' t h e l i g h t s . A s w e l l t h e r e a r e o b s t r u c t e d v i e w s a t b u s s t o p s and c r o s s i n g s s i t u a t e d i n d e p r e s s i o n s .

O t h e r p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s a r e a s i n c l u d e s h o p s , i c e - c r e a m v a n s , news s t a n d s , o r m a i l b o x e s - a n y w h e r e w h e r e t h e c h i l d may become e x c i t e d a t t h e p r o s p e c t of d o i n g o r o b t a i n i n g s o m e t h i n g . T r u c k and t r a i l e r s a r e h a r d t o s t o p and a r e f a s c i n a t i n g t o c h i l d r e n a n d , a s w i t h s h o p s , t h e y become i n v o l v e d i n t h e o b j e c t o f t h e i r a t t e n t i o n and i g n o r e t h e r e s t .

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The q u e s t i o n i s w h a t c a n b e d o n e t o i m p r o v e t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t t o make i t s a f e r f o r o u r c h i l d r e n w h i l e s t i l l a l l o w i n g them t o f u l f i l l t h e i r n a t u r a l u r g e s and e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . Many c o u n t r i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d h a v e i m p l e m e n t e d p r o g r a m s of e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s i g n c h a n g e s w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e s u c c e s s .

B e r a r d - A n d e r s e n ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e p o r t e d on some p r o g r a m s commenced i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 ' s . F r a n c e i n i t i a t e d p l a n s f o r s t r e e t r e o r g a n i s a t i o n s and a c c i d e n t r a t e s t o c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s i n d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d

~~

a r e a s f e l l b y 4 0 % b e t w e e n 1971 and 1976. T h e J a p a n e s e i n t r o d u c e d t h e T r a f f i c S a f e t y C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s F u n d a m e n t a l L a w w h i c h l a y t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s w i t h t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . V a r i o u s m e t h o d s of s t r e e t and t r a f f i c d e s i s n were i m ~ l e m e n t e d

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a r e a s f e l l b y 4 0 % b e t w e e n 1971 and 1976. t h e T r a f f i c S a f e t y C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s Funda r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s w i t ___ V a r i o u s m e t h o d s of s t r e e t and t r a f f i c

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T h e J a p a n e s e i n t r o d u c e d m e n t a l L a w w h i c h l a y t h e .h t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s .

I_-____-------_

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d e s i s n were i m ~ l e m e n t e d - - a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y and s i n c e t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n t h e r e h a s b e e n a - s t e a d y and s h a r p r e d u c t i o n i n a c c i d e n t s . F i n l a n d u s e d a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e s p e e d l i m i t and s u c c e s s f u l l y r e d u c e d t h e f a t a l i t i e s f o r u n d e r f i v e y e a r o l d s b y two t h i r d s b e t w e e n 1972 -l_l_ll_-il---_I

and 1978 .

The O E C D ( 1 9 8 3 ) r e p o r t s t r e s s e d t h a t p l a n n e r s m u s t b e a w a r e of t h e d i f f e r e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s o f v a r i o u s a r eas . R e s i d e n t i a l a r eas upon w h i c h more young and e l d e r l y p e d e s t r i a n s a r e i n j u r e d and k i l l e d need a d i f f e r e n t fo rm of r o a d access and t h e i r l a y o u t s h o u l d p r o v i d e s a f e t y and a s s i s t a n c e w i t h o u t i m p e d i n g t h e f l o w o f t r a f f i c . Such a c o n c e p t i s ' w o o n e r v e n ' , a D u t c h d e s i g n where t r a f f i c , c y c l i s t s and p e d e s t r i a n s a r e n o t s e g r e g a t e d b u t t h e p e d e s t r i a n s and c y c l i s t s h a v e t h e d o m i n a n t r o l e and r o a d s a r e d e s i g n e d t o r e d u c e t h e h a z a r d o f m o t o r v e h i c l e s b y n a r r o w i n g s t r e e t s , s h o r t e n i n g t h e i r l e n g t h and p r o v i d i n g o b s t a c l e s s u c h a s humps o r r o u n d a b o u t s .

E x i s t i n g a r e a s c a n b e m o d i f i e d b y d i r e c t i o n o f t r a f f i c t h r o u g h one-way s t r e e t and b l o c k i n g o f f s t r e e t s . R e d u c i n g s p e e d b y humps, e t c . , and p r o v i d i n g o f f s t r e e t p a r k i n g . T h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l w h e r e v e r t h e y h a v e b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d .

I n 1 9 7 9 , t h e OECD r e p o r t i n g o n T r a f f i c S a f e t y i n R e s i d e n t i a l Areas ( c i t e d i n O E C D , 1 9 8 3 ) recommended t h a t :

" s t r i c t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f s t r e e t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r

d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t o a r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a w i t h m u l t i p l e access f r o m a r i n g r o a d i s s a f e r t h a n c e n t r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ; - f u l l s e p a r a t i o n o f v e h i c l e , p e d e s t r i a n and c y c l e movement i s a c c o m p a n i e d b y v e r y low a c c i d e n t r a t e s ; - c u l - d e - s a c s t r e e t s a r e s a f e r t h a n l o o p s t r e e t s and c o n s i d e r a b l y s a f e r t h a n o r d i n a r y t h r o u g h s t r e e t s ; - o n t h o s e r o a d s p r o v i d i n g a d i s t r i b u t i v e f u n c t i o n , a c c i d e n t r a t e s a r e m i n i m i z e d w h e r e f r o n t a g e access i s p r o h i b i t e d and t h e l a y o u t o f t h e

t r a f f i c f u n c t i o n l e a d s t o s a f e r e s i d e n t i a l a r eas ; -

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r e s i d e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t i s s u c h t h a t p e d e s t r i a n and c y c l i s t s h a v e no need t o u s e r o u t e s t h a t r u n a l o n g s i d e h i g h w a y s ; - s p a c e s h a r i n g t e c h n i q u e s l i k e ' w o o n e r v e n ' t h a t e n c o u r a g e p e d e s t r i a n s t o make u s e o f t h e f u l l h ighway w i d t h , mak ing d r i v e r s more aware o f t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o w a r d s t h e more v u l n e r a b l e g r o u p s . ' (OECD 1 9 8 3 , p . 6 2 ) .

B a r s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , i n A u s t r a l i a , r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s a c c o u n t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 7 % of t o t a l s t r e e t m i l e a g e i n c a p i t a l c i t i e s . They c a r r y 2 5 % o f v e h i c l e m i l e s t r a v e l l e d a n d 4 2 % of a l l t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s . T h e s e s t r e e t s would a p p e a r t o b e prime t a r g e t s for t h e a d o p t i o n o f p h y s i c a l c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s . A c c o r d i n g t o Q u a y l e ( 1 9 7 8 ) :

" t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e l a w s t o e n h a n c e p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y a r e t h e u r b a n a r e a s p e e d l i m i t s , w h i c h c o u l d w e l l b e l o w e r e d t o 4 0 km/hr i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s , and p a r k i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s t o p r e v e n t p e d e s t r i a n s , e s p e c i a l l y c h i l d r e n , f r o m b e i n g o b s t r u c t e d b y v e h i c l e s a t h a z a r d o u s l o c a t i o n s " ;

'I.... w i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g u s e o f l e f t t u r n s l i p l a n e s , and t h e g r e a t e r s p e e d a t w h i c h v e h i c l e s c a n t u r n l e f t t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f g i v i n g p e d e s t r i a n s p r e c e d e n c e o v e r l e f t t u r n i n g t r a f f i c i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . A l l o w i n g t r a f f i c t o f i l t e r t o t h e l e f t p a s t t h e r e d l i g h t w i t h c a r e would b e p r e f e r a b l e . " ( Q u a y l e 1 9 7 8 , p.10-11.1

A r n b e r g ( 1 9 7 9 ) s t u d i e d t h e h a z a r d o u s l o c a t i o n s a r o u n d s c h o o l s a n d c o n c l u d e d t h e b e s t method t o r e d u c e t h e s p e e d of v e h i c l e s was w i t h s p e e d humps. H e a l s o recommended t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n h a v i n g a d a n g e r o u s r o u t e t o t r a v e l upon t o s c h o o l b e t r a n s p o r t e d , t h i s wou ld b e r e g a r d l e s s o f d i s t a n c e n e e d e d t o b e t r a v e l l e d .

O t h e r p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s f o r s c h o o l c h i l d r e n i n c l u d e t h e i n c r e a s e d u s e of c r o s s i n g g u a r d s , l a w s p r o h i b i t i n g t h e o v e r t a k i n g o f s t a t i o n a r y s c h o o l b u s e s a n d s p e c i a l s i g n s t o d i s t i n g u i s h s c h o o l b u s e s f r o m o t h e r b u s e s and t h e i n c r e a s e d u s e o f v a r i o u s c o n s p i c u i t y a i d s f o r c h i l d r e n .

T h e T r a n s p o r t T a s m a n i a S t u d y ( 1 9 8 3 ) recommended t h e h i g h e r u s e o f f l a g s t o i n d i c a t e s c h o o l z o n e s a n d t h e u s e o f t r a f f i c l i g h t s w h e r e h i g h v o l u m e s o f c h i l d r e n need t o c r o s s t h e r o a d . Median r e f u g e s were a l s o recommended so as t o a l l o w s u f f i c i e n t t i m e t o c r o s s t h e r o a d and t h e c h i l d would o n l y need t o w o r r y a b o u t t h e f l o w of t r a f f i c i n o n e d i r e c t i o n . However , t h e r e seems no r e s e a r c h a v a i l a b l e t o i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r o r n o t young c h i l d r e n c a n h a n d l e s u c h r e f u g e s . Wade, F o o t & Chapman ( 1 9 8 2 ) s u g g e s t a g r e a t e r u s e o f p e d e s t r i a n b r i d g e s a n d t u n n e l s , p r o v i d e d t h e y w e r e c o r r e c t l y d e s i g n e d and l o c a t e d . A n o t h e r d e v i c e i s t h e u s e o f f e n c i n g t o c h a n n e l p e d e s t r i a n t r a f f i c t o s p e c i f i c c r o s s i n g f a c i l i t i e s .

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I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p r o p o s e s p e c i f i c e n g i n e e r i n g and town p l a n n i n g a c t i v i t i e s . The a b o v e r e v i e w i s i n c l u d e d a s a b a c k g r o u n d f o r t h e n e e d f o r and p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f a b e t t e r t r a f f i c e n v i r o n m e n t d e s i g n e d w i t h t h e c h i l d i n mind. W h i l s t t h e u l t i m a t e a im i s t o d e s i g n e n v i r o n m e n t s w h i c h s e g r e g a t e v e r y young c h i l a r e n f rom t r a f f i c , s u c h a n i d e a l i s r a r e l y a c h i e v a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n e x i s t i n g n e i g h b o u r h o o d s . But w h a t i s a c h i e v a b l e i s a r e d u c t i o n i n v e h i c l e s p e e d s .

T h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t a v e r y s i z e a b l e number o f c h i l d r e n i n j u r e d or k i l l e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s a r e i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s n e a r home or s c h o o l and b a s i c a l l y on n e i g h b o u r h o o d s t r e e t s . T h i s p o i n t h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n d e t a i l i n s e c t i o n s 2.5; 3 .2; and 4 .318 . Not o n l y i s t h e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n p r o b l e m a m e t r o p o l i t a n p r o b l e m i t i s a l s o l a r g e l y a l o c a l or n e i g h b o u r h o o d s t r e e t p r o b l e m . C l e a r l y , i t i s i m p r a c t i c a l t o p r o v i d e many more p e d e s t r i a n s c r o s s i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e a c c l d e n t s t e n d t o o c c u r a t w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d s i t e s w i t h l o w l e v e l s of p e d e s t r i a n , b i c y c l e or m o t o r v e h i c l e t r a f f i c .

For many r e v i e w e r s of t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m ( a t l e a s t a s f a r a s p e d e s t r i a n s a r e c o n c e r n e d ) t h e r e i s a b e l i e f t h a t t h e l e v e l o f c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s is l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e a t e x i s t i n g l e v e l s b e c a u s e of t h e n a t u r e of t h e c h i l d and t h e s e e m i n g l a c k o f e f f i c a c y o f e d u c a t i o n a l e f f o r t s t o d a t e . The s o l u t i o n s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y n o m i n a t e d i n t h e p a s t were o f a town p l a n n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n d e s i g n e d t o s e g r e g a t e young c h i l d r e n f r o m t r a f f i c .

S e g r e g a t i o n i s i m p r a c t i c a l i n m o s t e x i s t i n g n e i g h b o u r h o o d s . However , e f f o r t s t o r e d u c e t h e s p e e d o f m o t o r v e h i c l e s on n e i g h b o u r h o o d s t r e e t s i s n o t s o i m p r a c t i c a l . L i t t l e e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e on t r a f f i c s p e e d s a p p e a r s t o b e a v a i l a b l e . The d a t a f rom t h e J a m i e s o n , e t . a l . ( 1 9 8 1 ) e x p o s u r e s t u d y i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g a n a l y s e d i n a n e f f o r t t o d e t e r m i n e a c t u a l t r a f f i c s p e e d s i n r e s i d e n t i a l or l o c a l s t r e e t s . B r i n d l e ( 1 9 8 2 ) u r g e d more n e e d s t o b e known a b o u t a c c i d e n t r a t e s , v e h i c l e s p e e d s and r o a d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

I t seems r e a s o n a b l e , b a s e d on t h e a c c e p t e d s c i e n t i f i c l a w s o f m o t i o n , t o h y p o t h e s i s e t h a t s l o w i n g v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s w i l l r e d u c e b o t h t h e i n c i d e n c e and s e v e r i t y o f i m p a c t s or e n c o u n t e r s of p e d e s t r i a n s and m o t o r v e h i c l e s and p e d a l c y c l e s and motor v e h i c l e s . B r i n d l e ( 1 9 8 2 ) p u t f o r w a r d a s i m i l a r v i e w . More r e c e n t l y B r i n d l e & A n d r e a s s e n d ( 1 9 8 4 ) i n a n a l y s i n g b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i n M e l b o u r n e ( V i c . 1 a r g u e d t h a t :

___lll_____-_-- _____I __ _I_il

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' I . . . . a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g young c y c l i s t s o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y on l o c a l s t r e e t s and c o l l e c t o r s w h e r e t h e y and t h e i r p a r e n t s would j u s t i f i a b l y e x p e c t a g r e a t e r s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y . An e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h i s more p r o t e c t i v e o f young c y c l i s t s i n

( B r i n d l e & l o c a l s t r e e t s a p p e a r s t o b e p r e d i c a t e d . " A n d r e a s s e n d 1 9 8 4 , p. 1 0 8 ) .

A v a r i e t y o f means e x i s t f o r s l o w i n g down t r a f f i c . The e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t p h y s i c a l m e a s u r e s a r e f a r more e f f e c t i v e t h a n v o l u n t a r y or m a n d a t o r y s p e e d r e g u l a t i o n s ( O E C D 1 9 7 8 ; B r i n d l e 1 9 8 2 ) . R e c e n t e x p e r i m e n t s i n V i c t o r i a ( G e e l o n g and C o b u r g ) d e m o n s t r a t e d how d i f f i c u l t i t i s t o d e c r e a s e v e h i c l e s p e e d s i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s b y c h a n g i n g s p e e d r e g u l a t i o n s ( s e e B r i n d l e 1984 p o i n t 4 6 ) .

S t a p l e t o n ( 1 9 8 3 a n d 1 9 8 4 ) a r g u e s t h a t a v e h i c l e t r a v e l l i n g a t 7 0 km/h on a t y p i c a l A u s t r a l i a n s t r e e t a n d t r a v e l l i n g i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e , r e a s o n a b l y w e l l t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e c a r r i a g e w a y , c a n n o t a v o i d a c h i l d r u n n i n g o u t f r o m a d r i v e w a y u n l e s s t h e d r i v e r h a s a r e a c t i o n t i m e o f l e s s t h a n 0.7 s e c o n d s . S t a p l e t o n ( 1 9 8 3 ) a r g u e s t h a t t o a c h i e v e a c c e p t a b l e s a f e t y v i s i b i l i t y s t a n d a r d s many f e a t u r e s o f e x i s t i n g s t r e e t s c a n n o t b e improved t o t h e s e v i s i b i l i t y s t a n d a r d s w i t h o u t a r e d u c t i o n i n v e h i c l e o p e r a t i n g s p e e d s . H e c l a i m s t h a t v e h i c l e o p e r a t i n g s p e e d h a s a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on h i s h a z a r d a n a l y s i s and t h u s a n y l o w c o s t m e a s u r e s t o r e d u c e s p e e d would show c o n s i d e r a b l e b e n e f i t s . A c c o r d i n g t o h i s a n a l y s i s :

--l-_l-_l_

-_ -_ --

" t h e c h e a p e s t s o l u t i o n i s n o t t h a t c u r r e n t l y b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d i n t r a f f i c management s t u d i e s . " ( S t a p l e t o n 1 9 8 3 , p.50).

8.521 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s - Lower v e h i c l e S p e e d s i n R e s i d e n t i a 1 Areas

1 .

2.

3 .

n e i g h b o u r h o o d s t r e e t s p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s . R e - d e s i g n of n e i g h b o u r h o o d s t r e e t s i s d e s i r a b l e . W i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g f r a m e w o r k a number o f a c t i v i t i e s c a n b e u n d e r t a k e n .

R e d u c i n g t h e s p e e d o f v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s i s l i k e l y t o h a v e a m a j o r e f f e c t on a l l c a t e g o r i e s o f c h i l d r o a d u s e r a c c i d e n t s b y l o w e r i n q b o t h t h e i n c i d e n c e a n d s e v e r i t y of t h o s e a c c i d e n t s .

Speed r e d u c t i o n is b e s t a c h i e v e d b y p h y s i c a l / e n g i n e e r i n g means a n d n o t b y v o l u n t a r y or c o m p u l s o r y c o m p l i a n c e o f l o w e r e d s p e e d r e g u l a t i o n s . The p r e c i s e n a t u r e o f t h e p h y s i c a l means r e q u i r e d o u g h t t o b e l e f t t o t h e e n g i n e e r s . W h i l s t t h e w r i t e r may f a v o u r s p e e d humps t h e e n g i n e e r s may n o t .

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4 .

5 .

The i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l d e v i c e s t o s l o w down t r a f f i c c a n h a v e a d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e on d r i v e r b e h a v i o u r r e s u l t i n g i n s l o w e r v e h i c l e s p e e d s . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r e c o u l d w e l l b e a c o n c o m i t a n t o u t c o m e . D r i v e r s , when f o r c e d t o s l o w down, may b e g i n t o a s k "why". They may e v e n g e t a n n o y e d . If t h e a c t o f s l o w i n g down a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h i l d r e n o c c u r s i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t d r i v e r s w i l l become more a w a r e o f c h i l d r e n i n n e i g h b o u r h o o d s t r e e t s a n d t h e n e e d t o slow down and b e more c a u t i o u s .

The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p h y s i c a l d e v i c e s o f n e c e s s i t y w i l l a l s o i n v o l v e c o u n c i l s and make them more a w a r e o f t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m .

8 .53 O t h e r S u g g e s t e d E d u c a t i o n C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s

Some E d u c a t i o n c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n recommended i n s u b - s e c t i o n 9.31 ( t e e n a g e r e s t r a i n t u s e ) a n d 9 . 3 3 ( ' B i k e - E d ' ) . I n t h i s s e c t i o n , o t h e r p o s s i b l e p r o g r a m s a r e s u g g e s t e d f o r :

-_-

- P r e - S c h o o l - P r i m a r y S c h o o l - H i g h S c h o o l

8 . 5 3 1 P r e - S c h o o l

I n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e h a s b e e n a number o f a t t e m p t s t o commence r o a d s a f e t y t r a f f i c e d u c a t i o n b e f o r e c h i l d r e n commence s c h o o l . A S . i n d i c a t e d i n s e c t i o n 8 o f t h i s r e p o r t , C h i l d r e n ' s T r a f f i c C l u b s h a v e b e e n i n s t i t u t e d i n a ' number o f c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d i n g Sweden, F i n l a n d , Germany, H o l l a n d , E n g l a n d and J a p a n . In t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n C o u n t r i e s t h e c l u b s i n v o l v e c h i l d r e n f r o m a g e 3 t o 6 1 / 2 y e a r s . I n some c o u n t r i e s c h i l d r e n d o n o t commence f o r m a l s c h o o l i n g u n t i l 6 1 / 2 - 7 y e a r s . The e s s e n c e o f t h e C h i l d r e n ' s T r a f f i c C l u b s i s t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f p a r e n t s i n t h e p r o c e s s a n d t e a c h i n g t h e c h i l d s a f e b e h a v i o u r s i n a r e a l t r a f f i c e n v i r o n m e n t t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l l i m i t s o f t h e c h i l d .

I n c h a p t e r 8 a number o f p r e - s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s were b r i e f l y r e v i e w e d i n a n e f f o r t t o d e t e r m i n e i f s u c h m e a s u r e s a r e l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n a n i n c r e a s e i n s a f e b e h a v i o u r s f o r young c h i l d r e n . I n s u g g e s t i n g a n y c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s i n t h i s a r e a a number o f q u e s t i o n s n e e d t o b e a n s w e r e d :

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Have p r e - s c h o o l p r o g r a m s a c h i e v e d a n y t h i n g t o d a t e ? A t w h a t a g e s h o u l d c h i l d r e n b e g i n t o b e t a u g h t ? Can p a r e n t s b e a d e q u a t e t e a c h e r s ? What s h o u l d t h e c o n t e n t b e ? e t c .

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To a n s w e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a d e q u a t e l y would r e q u i r e a s e p a r a t e vo lume . I n t h e p a r a g r a p h s w h i c h f o l l o w a number o f " h y p o t h e s e s " w i l l b e p u t f o r w a r d b a s e d upon t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e a u t h o r i n h i s a n a l y s i s of t h e m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e i n t h e p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e .

S t a n d a l o n e p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s e n t t o m o t h e r s i s u n l i k e l y t o b e e f f e c t i v e ; i . e . , m o t h e r s a r e u n a b l e t o r e a d m a t e r i a l and t r a i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n e f f e c t i v e l y . Embry ( 1 9 8 4 ) c a r r i e d o u t a s t u d y w i t h p r e - s c h o o l e r s who d i d n o t go t o a k i n d e r g a r t e n . The m o t h e r s were g i v e n p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l and t h e c h i l d r e n ' s b e h a v i o u r o b s e r v e d . W h e r e t h e p rogram o p e r a t e d , Embry o b s e r v e d a 50% r e d u c t i o n i n s t r e e t - e n t e r i n g b e h a v i o u r . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e c o n c l u d e d , " t h a t g i v i n q p a r e n t s s t a n d a l o n e m a t e r i a l i s n o t n e a r l y a s e f f e c t i v e a s h a v i n g them a t t e n d a w o r k s h o p . " (Embry , 1 9 8 4 , p . 2 3 - 2 4 ) . L imbourg & G e r b e r ( 1 9 8 1 ) a l s o ' i n s i s t e d t h a t w h i l s t t h e i r p rog ram ( T u b i n g e n ) c o n s i s t e d o f a f i l m and a p r i n t e d b r o c h u r e g i v i n g c o n c r e t e i n s t r u c t i o n s o f w h a t t o d o i n t h e d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s , t h e f i l m , was a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e p r o g r a m w h i c h a l w a y s h a s t o b e u s e d i n t r a i n i n g .

T h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e d o u b t a b o u t t h e a b i l i t y t o t e a c h v e r y y o u n g - c h i l d r e n how t o c o p e w i t h - t r a f f i c . Some a r g u e t h a t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e i n t r a f f i c a t a v e r y e a r l y a g e t h e y s h o u l d b e t a u g h t (e.g. C h r i s t i e 1 9 8 3 ; Limbourg & G e r b e r 1 9 8 1 ) . L imbourg & G e r b e r c a r r i e d o u t t h e i r t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m w i t h 2-7 y e a r o l d s b u t t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n i n v o l v e d 3-7 y e a r o l d s . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t , a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e p r o g r a m d e p e n d e d upon t h e a g e o f t h e c h i l d r e n .

A number o f s t u d i e s i n v o l v e d w i t h C h i l d r e n ' s T r a f f i c C l u b s h a v e

-_-l-lllllllll l_l - -___-I_

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d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r o g r a m s n o t o n l y d e p e n d o n age , b u t a l s o o n t h e m o t i v a t i o n o f t h e p a r e n t s w h i c h i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e t r a i n i n q q u a l i t y and f r e q u e n c y ( R o t h e n a a t t e r 1 9 8 1 b ;

I- -- l__lll - - - -

Limbourg L G e r b e r 1981 ) .

T h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e a g r e e m e n t a m o n g s t t h o s e w o r k i n g with p r e - s c h o o l e r s t h a t c h i l d r e n mus t b e t a u g h t i n a r l d ___II

t r a f f i c ___ili_ e n v i r o n m e n t and t h a t t h e u s e o f c o g n i t i v e methods= n o t r e s u l t i n b e h a v i o u r c h a n g e ( Y e a t o n & B a i l e y 1983 ; V i n j e 1 9 8 1 ; L imbourg & G e r b e r 1 9 8 1 ; R o t h e n g a t t e r 1 9 8 1 ( b ) , Embry 1 9 8 4 ) . A number o f d i v e r s e p r i n c i p l e s a r e employed b u t t h e y a l l

--ill_i___

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r e l a t e t o b e h a v i o u r m o d i f i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s and r e l y h e a v i l y on m o d e l i n g p r o c e d u r e s , s o c i a l l e a r n i n g , o p e r a n t t e c h n i q u e s , e t c .

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S t u d i e s h a v e shown t h a t p a r e n t s ( u s u a l l y m o t h e r s ) d o n o t b r i n g a b o u t t h e same d e g r e e o f a d o p t i o n o f s a f e b e h a v i o u r s a s c a n b e a c h i e v e d by t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l ( R o t h e n g a t t e r 1981 ( b ) ; L imbourg & G e r b e r 1981 ; Embry 1 9 8 4 ) .

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One p r o g r a m (Embry fi M a l f e t t i , 1 9 8 1 ) ( s e e s e c t i o n 7.6), aims t o t e a c h p r e - s c h o o l e r s t o a v o i d t h e s t r e e t e x c e p t when a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n a d u l t . G i v e n t h e p r o v e n d i f f i c u l t y i n a c h i e v i n g b e h a v i o u r c h a n g e w i t h young c h i l d r e n 3 - 4 y e a r s o l d ( L i m b o u r g & G e r b e r , 1981 ) E m b r y ' s a t t e m p t s n o t o n l y a p p e a l t o p r a c t i c a l common-sense b u t a l s o t o o b s e r v a b l e f a c t s .

A s m e n t i o n e d i n s e c t i o n 7.6, t h e g r e a t m e r i t i n E m b r y ' s a p p r o a c h i s i t s e m p i r i c a l n a t u r e . To u s e h i s t e r m i n o l o g y i t e m p l o y s " f o r m a t i v e " e v a l u a t i o n n o t " s u m m a t i v e " (Embry 1 9 8 4 ) s o t h a t e v e r y s t e p i n t h e p r o g r a m i s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e v a l u a t e d a l o n g t h e way and a l t e r e d w h e r e n e c e s s a r y ; n o t a t t h e end when "no s t a t i s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e " r e s u l t n o r m a l l y e m e r g e s ,

C h i l d r e n ' s T r a f f i c C l u b s a r e a v e h i c l e f o r r e a c h i n q m o t h e r s a n d c h i l d r e n i n t h o s e c o u n t r i e s w h e r e t h e y e x i s t . U s u a l l y t h e y r e a c h o n l y a s i g n i f i c a n t m i n o r i t y . I n A u s t r a l i a , s u c h c l u b s a p p e a r t o b e u n n e c e s s a r y s i n c e many 4 y e a r o l d s and m o s t 5 y e a r o l d s a t t e n d

-_-li-- __---I

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p r e - s c h o o l k i n d e r g a r t e n s or c h i l d - c a r e c e n t r e s . The e v i d e n c e is o v e r w h e l m i n g t h a t p a r e n t s n e e d a t l e a s t a d e t a i l e d d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e way t h e y s h o u l d i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e i r c h i l d i n t h e b e h a v i o u r a l t r a i n i n g . T e l e v i s i o n , a imed a t young m o t h e r s , would a p p e a r t o o f f e r a p r a c t i c a l means o f a c h i e v f n g t h e n e c e s s a r y d e m o n s t r a t i o n . R o t h e n g a t t e r ( 1 9 8 1 b ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t , i n H o l l a n d w h e r e a r o u n d 90% o f c h i l d r e n a t t e n d p r e - s c h o o l s , t h e f a i l u r e t o i n v o l v e w h a t e v e r f o r m s o f s c h o o l i n g e x i s t s , b e f o r e p r i m a r y s c h o o l a g e , i s a m a j o r f a i l u r e o f C h i l d r e n ' s T r a f f i c C l u b s .

8 .534 Recommenda t ions

P r e - s c h o o l b e h a v i o u r a l t r a i n i n g o u g h t t o b e commenced i n A u s t r a l i a e m p l o y i n g p r o v e n p r i n c i p l e s and t e c h n i q u e s o f b e h a v i o u r mod i f i c a t i o n .

The t r a i n i n g o u g h t t o commence w i t h 4 a n d 5 y e a r olds. To a t t e m p t t o t e a c h 3 y e a r o l d s or e a r l i e r c o u l d b e c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e and i s o f , d o u b t f u l v a l u e i n terms o f i t s c o s t - b e n e f i t .

- _I-__I_-_

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* P a r e n t s m u s t b e i n v o l v e d . S t a n d a l o n e m a i l - o u t m a t e r i a l w i l l n o t b e e f f e c t i v e . They need t o a t t e n d d e m o n s t r a t i o n s v i a f i l m or workshop .

For 4 and 5 y e a r o l d p r e - s c h o o l e r s t h e t r a i n i n g o u g h t t o i n v o l v e s a f e b e h a v i o u r s , and i n t h e o p i n i o n of t h e a u t h o r , t h e Embry & M a l f e t t i ( 1 9 8 1 ) a p p r o a c h o f m i n i m i s i n g e n t r i e s i n t o t h e s t r e e t s , w h i l s t u n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n a d u l t , s h o u l d b e a d o p t e d a f t e r f u r t h e r a s s e s s m e n t .

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* Given t h e l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f c a p i t a l c i t y c h i l d r e n a g e d 4 - 5 a t t e n d i n g f o r m a l p r e - s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s a n y p r o g r a m s h o u l d commence w i t h p r e - s c h o o l s and i n v o l v e p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s .

* A t t e m p t s t o d e v e l o p s a f e r o a d b e h a v i o u r s b y p a r e n t s w i t h v e r y young c h i l d r e n i s of d u b i o u s m e r i t b e c a u s e o f t h e i n a b i l i t y o f t h e c h i l d t o c o p e and t h e i n a b i l i t y o f t h e p a r e n t t o a d e q u a t e l y model t h e c o r r e c t b e h a v i o u r w i t h o u t p r a c t i c a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n a s p a r t o f t h e i r t r a i n i n g .

8 . 5 3 2 P r i m a r y S c h o o l

A number of p r i m a r y s c h o o l p r o g r a m s e x i s t i n A u s t r a l i a . To t h e a u t h o r ' s knowledqe none h a v e b e e n e v a l u a t e d . The e x c e p t i o n i s t h e N.S.W. p rogram w h i c h h a s o n l y b e e n e v a l u a t e d i n p a r t ; v i z . , i n terms of i t s u s e r s - t h e t e a c h e r s .

N o r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s c a n b e made i n t h i s a r e a s i n c e no e m p i r i c a l d a t a e x i s t s . However , on t h e b a s i s o f o b s e r v a t i o n it a p p e a r s t h a t V i c t o r i a ' s " R O A D S W O R K " i s a s u p e r i o r p r o g r a m t o t h e N . S . W . "Road S a f e t y and M e " , a t l e a s t i n terms o f i t s u s a g e t o d a t e . S o u t h A u s t r a l i a r e c e n t l y a d o p t e d R O A D S W O R K a s p a r t o f i t s " T u n n e l V i s i o n " c a m p a i g n . The u s e o f t h e N . S . W . m a t e r i a l a p p e a r s t o b e l e s s t h a n t h e u s e o f ROADSWORK. S c h r e i b e r and B e r r y ( 1 9 7 8 ) f o u n d a l a c k of p u p i l i n t e r e s t i n t h e N.S.W. p r o g r a m and t h i s , t h e y c l a i m e d , was r e l a t e d t o t e a c h e r s ' p o o r u s e o f t h e m a t e r i a l . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t t e a c h e r s needed t o b e t r a i n e d i n t h e e f f e c t i v e u s e o f t h e m a t e r i a l .

I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e i s i n n e e d o f a s s e s s m e n t . I n t h i s r e q a r d a c c i d e n t r e d u c t i o n i s n o t a v a l i d c r i t e r i a . O b s e r v a t i o n s o f s a f e b e h a v i o u r s a r e more a p p r o p r i a t e . F u r t h e r m o r e , g e n e r a l i s a t i o n o f t h e s e s a f e b e h a v i o u r s t o a number o f e n v i r o n m e n t s i s c r i t i c a l . T h i s e l e m e n t i s s t r e s s e d i n t h e e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h employed b y Embry b u t a p p e a r s n o t t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e E u r o p e a n s t u d i e s ( R o t h e n g a t t e r 1981 ( b ) ; L imbourg & G e r b e r 1981 ) .

P r i m a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a r e c r i t i c a l o f t h e l a c k o f f i l m o r v i d e o - t a p e m a t e r i a l on r o a d s a f e t y . The A . B . C . s c h o o l b r o a d c a s t s would a p p e a r t o p r o v i d e a n o p p o r t u n i t y . However , much more n e e d s t o b e d o n e . A v i d e o - t a p e s e r i e s , i f c a r r i e d o u t p r o p e r l y , c a n r e a c h a l a r g e a u d i e n c e and o v e r a number o f y e a r s .

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8.533 High S c h o o l

A t t h e moment, c u r r i c u l u m u n i t s e x i s t i n some s t a t e s . V i c t o r i a a p p e a r s t o h a v e made c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s i n d e v e l o p i n g u n i t s . A g a i n , n o a s s e s s m e n t e x i s t s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e u n i t s . The F e d e r a l O f f i c e of Road S a f e t y h a s a l s o p r e p a r e d c l a s s r o o m t e a c h i n g a i d s i n b o o k l e t form. T h i s l a t t e r m a t e r i a l n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t i n t e r m s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n , a c c e p t a n c e , u s a g e and p e r c e i v e d b e n e f i t s .

G i v e n t h e p r o b l e m of young d r i v e r s , t h e a u t h o r b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e r e i s a r e a l need t o d e v e l o p m a t e r i a l young p e o p l e c a n r e l a t e t o . I n t h i s r e g a r d t h e N e w Z e a l a n d R O A D S H O W p r o g r a m o u g h t t o b e e v a l u a t e d . The medium i s i m p r a c t i c a l a s a means o f r e a c h i n g many young p e o p l e , b u t t h e c o n t e n t and i d i o m c o u l d e a s i l y b e a d a p t e d t o a v i d e o p r e s e n t a t i o n . I t r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n i f s u c h a n a d a p t a t i o n c a n b e s u c c e s s f u l .

8 . 5 4 O t h e r S u g g e s t i o n s

The f o l l o w i n g s u g g e s t i o n s a r e p u t f o r w a r d f o r f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n :

II---

- C h i l d T r a i n i n g H a r n e s s - V e h i c l e R e v e r s i n g S i g n a l - Community Agenda S e t t i n g .

T h i s p o t p o u r r i o f i d e a s is p o s t u l a t e d o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t it i s i m p o r t a n t t o t a k e a b r o a d l o o k a t t h e t o t a l p r o b l e m . T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n , h o w e v e r , t h a t a n y t h i n g and e v e r y t h i n g o u g h t t o b e i m p l e m e n t e d . Embry ( 1 9 8 4 ) q u e s t i o n s t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l wisdom summed u p i n t h e s t a t e m e n t " s o m e t h i n g i s b e t t e r t h a n n o t h i n g , i n d e v e l o p i n g a c c i d e n t - p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m s " . I n t h e p a s t , m e d l c a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s b l e d p e o p l e b e c a u s e s o c i e t y b e l i e v e d s o m e t h i n g w a s b e t t e r t h a n n o t h i n g . The t h r e e f o l l o w i n g i d e a s a r e p o s t u l a t e d a s t h o u g h t s t a r t e r s and n e e d c a r e f u l d i s c u s s i o n a n d / o r e v a l u a t i o n .

8 .541 R e - I n t r o d u c t i o n o f C h i l d T r a i n i n g H a r n e s s

Some f o r t y - y e a r s a g o i n A u s t r a l i a it w a s t h e ' n o r m ' f o r m o t h e r s w i t h young c h i l d r e n t o b e s e e n w a l k i n g t h e s t r e e t s w i t h t h e i r young c h i l d i n a h a r n e s s . I n t h o s e d a y s t h e r e w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l y f e w e r c a r s . M o t h e r s and c h i l d r e n d i d more w a l k i n g . P u b l i c t r a n s p o r t was a l s o f r e q u e n t e d b y m o t h e r and young c h i l d .

T o d a y , t h e r e i s a new s c e n a r i o . M o t h e r d r i v e s young c h i l d e v e r y w h e r e . The t r a f f i c h a s i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y i n volume and s p e e d .

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The a u t h o r i n t u i t i v e l y r e l i v e d h i s own c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e s w h i l s t c o n d u c t i n q t h e p r o j e c t w h i c h r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n "why n o t c h i l d h a r n e s s e s ? " Such a q u e s t i o n r e f l e c t s t h e c h a n g e s i n v a l u e s i n s o c i e t y .

Two q u e s t i o n s n e e d t o b e r a i s e d . F i r s t , wou ld t h e i r w i d e s p r e a d u s e r e s u l t i n s a f e r r o a d b e h a v i o u r f o r t h e y o u n g e s t a g e g r o u p ( u n d e r 3 y e a r s ) ? S e c o n d , wou ld p a r e n t s a n d c h i l d r e n u s e them?

To t h e a u t h o r ' s k n o w l e d q e , t h e r e i s no d a t a a v a i l a b l e t o a n s w e r t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n . However , i t would b e q u i t e e a s y t o d e v e l o p s u c h d a t a u s i n g t h e e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h e s employed by Embry and h i s t eam w h e r e m u l t i p l e - b a s e l i n e s t u d i e s a r e u s e d w i t h o n l y a f e w c h i l d r e n n e e d e d a n d s t u d i e d o v e r t i m e . S u c h a n a p p r o a c h c o u l d s t u d y t h e e f f e c t o f t h e h a r n e s s a n d t h e e f f e c t o f t h e h a r n e s s t o g e t h e r w i t h a r e i n f o r c e m e n t p a c k a g e s u c h a s E m b r y ' s " S a f e P l a y i n g B o o k " , e t c .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n , D r . S p o c k h a s had a p r o f o u n d e f f e c t o n t h e v a l u e s o f t o d a y ' s p a r e n t . The c h i l d i s k i n g or q u e e n . C h i l d h o o d i s v e n e r a t e d , n o t a d u l t h o o d . I n c h a p t e r 7 , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d y r e v e a l e d n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s b y m o t h e r s ( a n d t e a c h e r s ) t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h a r n e s s e s .

A t t h e moment, t h e r e i s a p r e v a i l i n g s e n t i m e n t w h i c h would s u g g e s t t h a t h a r n e s s e s a r e v i e w e d a s " l e a s h e s " . The name s a y s it a l l . Embry h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e word " l i f e l i n e s " m i g h t b e a more a p p r o p r i a t e name. I n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, t h e y a r e c a l l e d r e i n s . S a d l e r ( 1 9 6 9 ) i n h e r l a r g e s u r v e y o f m o t h e r s i n E n g l a n d , S c o t l a n d and W a l e s f o u n d t h a t , f o r t h e i r s a m p l e o f 2 - 4 y e a r o l d s , 5 7 % of m o t h e r s had some e x p e r i e n c e w i t h " r e i n s " . I n h e r s u r v e y t h e m a j o r i t y of c h i l d r e n h a d c e a s e d w e a r i n g r e i n s b y t h e i r t h i r d b i r t h d a y a n d many b e f o r e t h e i r s e c o n d b i r t h d a y .

The u s e o f a h a r n e s s / r e i n s / l i f e - l i n e / l e a s h i s n o t unknown i n A u s t r a l i a i n 1 9 8 4 . One o f t h e e x p e r t s i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s t u d y u s e d t h e m d e s p i t e s n i d e comments b y f r i e n d s t o b o t h h e a n d h i s w i f e . M o t h e r s a n d f a t h e r s h a v e no h e s i t a t i o n i n u s i n g them i n a h i g h - c h a i r .

Assuming t h a t t h e y c a n b e p r o v e n to b e e f f e c t i v e i n r e d u c i n g u n s a f e r o a d b e h a v i o u r s , t h e q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s c a n p a r e n t s b e p e r s u a d e d t o u s e them? T h i s t o o i s a n e m p i r i c a l q u e s t i o n . However , a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n m u s t a l s o b e a s k e d . Is i t p o s s i b l e t o d e s i g n a h a r n e s s f o r a v a r i e t y o f u s e s i n c l u d i n g , t h e h i g h c h a i r , w a l k i n g , and t h e c a r ? The a d o p t i o n o f h a r n e s s e s i s , t o a d e g r e e , d e p e n d e n t upon t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t .

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Assuming a u n i v e r s a l h a r n e s s c a n b e made a t a n a f f o r d a b l e p r i c e how c a n i t s a d o p t i o n b e i m p l e m e n t e d ? The t a s k i s no g r e a t e r t h a n c u r r e n t l y b e i n g f a c e d i n b i c y c l e h e l m e t u s a g e . I n d e e d , i t o u g h t t o b e e a s i e r . I f i t i s deemed a d e s i r a b l e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e t h e n a v a r i e t y of a p p r o a c h e s n e e d t o b e d e v e l o p e d and a s s e s s e d . A g a i n , t h e m o s t l i k e l y s u c c e s s f u l a p p r o a c h w i l l b e p o s i t i v e mode l i r , g w i t h a known p r e s e n t e r r e s p e c t e d b y women - "A Lady D i " 1

8 . 5 4 2 V e h i c l e R e v e r s i n q W a r n i n g S y s t e m

A s i g n i f i c a n t number o f c h i l d r e n a r e i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s w i t h r e v e r s i n g v e h i c l e s . W h i l s t a l l v e h i c l e s h a v e r e v e r s i n g l i g h t s , m o s t d o n ' t h a v e a n a u d i b l e w a r n i n g s i g n a l . The a u t h o r r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n would some o f t h e a c c i d e n t s w h i c h o c c u r h a v e b e e n a v o i d e d i f a n a u d i b l e s i g n a l had b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d ? A d m i t t e d l y , young c h i l d r e n a r e s o m e t i m e s m e s m e r i z e d by moving v e h i c l e s . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e i d e a i s p u t f o r w a r d a s a n i n e x p e n s i v e v e h i c l e d e s i g n p o s s i b i l i t y w h i c h c o u l d i m p a c t on some p o t e n t i a l r o a d a cc i d e n t s .

11- -I_

8 . 5 4 3 Community Agenda I S e t t i n g - A l t e r i n g The C l i m a t e o f O p i n i o n

Road s a f e t y i s l o w o n t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s a q e n d a . O p i n i o n P o l l s , a s p u b l i s h e d b y McNair ( G a l l u p ) s u g g e s t t h a t m o s t p e o p l e r a r e l y v o l u n t e e r r o a d s a f e t y a s a n i s s u e .

TABLE 9 5 C O M M U N I T Y CONCERN A B O U T AUSTRALIA'S PROBLEMS ~ - ----

J a n u a r y 1 9 8 4

Youth unemploymen t D r u g t a k i n g o r d r u g t r a f f i c k i n g I n f l a t i o n V i o l e n c e U n i o n p o w e r S e x u a l a t t a c k s T h e r o a d t o l l E x c e s s i v e u s e of a l c o h o l Uran ium m i n i n g D e f e n s e L o n e l i n e s s E q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y Smoking O t h e r s e .g . e d u c a t i o n , b u i l d - u p o f n u c l e a r arms, a b o r i g i n e s , h e a l t h c a r e , s u p e r a n n u a t i o n t a x , r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e s , m o r a l d e g e n e r a t i o n Don' t know

S o u r c e : A u s t r a l i a n P u b l i c O p i n i o n P o l l s

A p r o m p t e d l i s t o f 1 3 p r o b l e m s . ( T h e G a l l u p M e t h o d ) McNair A n d e r s o n .

P r o b l e m s * P e r c e n t 4 0 1 6 1 0

7 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1

2 2

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Road s a f e t y when r a i s e d , l i k e " m o t h e r h o o d " , i s o f much i m p o r t a n c e . B u t , i s i t l i k e l y t o b e r a i s e d ? I n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r , r o a d s a f e t y c u r r e n t l y l a c k s s a l i e n c e . I t n e e d n o t . D r i n k i n g a n d d r i v i n g h a s s a l i e n c e i n 1 9 8 4 , a t l e a s t i n some s t a t e s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t o c h a n g e t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s a g e n d a ?

The p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h i l d r e n a n d r o a d s a f e t y r e f l e c t t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s r o a d s a f e t y . I t c a n b e c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e . The v a l u e o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e s a l i e n c e o f r o c s a f e t y i s b e y o n d q u e s t i o n . I f t h e communi ty f e l t s t r o n g l y a b o u t r o a d s a f e t y t h e n l e g i s l a t o r s a r e a b l e t o e n a c t l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h u n d e r n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s may n o t b e p o s s i b l e . F o r i n s t a n c e , s e a t b e l t s were n o t made c o m p u l s o r y u n t i l t h e i r v o l u n t a r y l e v e l o f a c c e p t a n c e r e a c h e d a r e a s o n a b l e l e v e l . C u r r e n t l y , s a f e t y h e l m e t s c o u l d n o t b e made c o m p u l s o r y . I f r a i s i n g t h e s a l i e n c e o f r o a d s a f e t y i s a g o a l i t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t a u t h o r i t i e s s e t t h e a g e n d a s o t h a t t h e c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n r e f l e c t w h a t n e e d s t o b e d o n e a n d t h e s o l u t i o n s known t o work .

Some of t h e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s p r o p o s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r r e q u i r e a much h i q h e r l e v e l o f communi ty c o n c e r n o v e r c h i l d r e n ' s r o a d s a f e t y t h a n c u r r e n t l y e x i s t s . J o s c e l y n and J o n e s ( 1 9 7 8 ) recommended t h a t p r i o r i t y s h o u l d h e g i v e n t o i m p r o v i n q t h e u s e o f e x i s t i n g k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e t r a f f i c r i s k and m e t h o d s f o r m a n a g i n g t h a t r i s k .

__ T h r e e s u g g e s t i o n s c a n b e made t o i n c r e a s e t h e s a l i e n c e of c h i l d r o a d s a f e t y i n t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s a g e n d a .

F i r s t , t h e r e i s a need t o i n c r e a s e t h e a w a r e n e s s o f c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s . More e f f o r t c o u l d b e made t o g a i n s p a c e i n t h e " N e w s ' ( w h a t e v e r t h e medium) i n r e l a t i o n t o c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s w h i c h c o u l d b e . e f f e c t e d w h i c h m i g h t h a v e s a v e d t h e c h i l d ' s l i f e ; i . e . , Road S a f e t y A u t h o r i t i e s n e e d t o t r y t o i n f l u e n c e w h a t f a c t s a r e r e p o r t e d s o t h a t a t t r i b u t i o n o f b l a m e r e l a t e s t o r o a d s a f e t y p r i o . r i t i e s .

S e c o n d , a n o p p o r t u n i t y e x i s t s t o u s e e x i s t i n g f a v o u r i t e t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m s . " A C o u n t r y P r a c t i c e " , f o r e x a m p l e , i s v e r y communi ty a n d s o c i a l minded a n d r e a c h e s a l a r g e a u d i e n c e of p a r e n t s , t e e n s a n d c h i l d r e n . The p r o g r a m d i r e c t o r s m i g h t b e a m e n a b l e t o t h e o c c a s i o n a l i n c l u s i o n o f r o a d s a f e t y i s s u e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n . F o r e x a m p l e , a b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t a n d p a r e n t a l demand f o r "B ike -Ed" c o u l d r e s u l t i n a mass ive i n c r e a s e i n demand f o r "B ike -Ed" .

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T h i r d , d i r e c t a p p r o a c h e s c o u l d b e e m p l o y e d , s u c h a s l e t t e r s t o p a r e n t s s e e k i n g t h e i r i n t e r e s t a n d / o r c o - o p e r a t i o n i n r o a d s a f e t y . P a r e n t s a r e i n t e r e s t e d . They n e e d t o b e m o b i l i s e d i n t o - a c t i v i t y . They c a n b e p e r s u a d e d t o t a k e p a r t i n a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r c h i l d , t h e i r c h i l d ' s s c h o o l , and t h e r o a d s i n t h e i r n e i g h b o u r h o o d . P a r e n t s c o u l d b e p e r s u a d e d t o m o n i t o r t h e u n s a f e p r a c t i c e s i n t h e i r n e i g h b o u r h o o d ; t o demand b i c y c l e e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n ; e t c .

N o r e c o m m e n d a t i o n i s b e i n g made r e g a r d i n g a mass med ia c a m p a i g n a imed a t a g e n d a s e t t i n g o r i n c r e a s i n g s a l i e n c e . S u c h a p r o c e s s i s l i k e l y t o b e v e r y e x p e n s i v e . A go.od c a m p a i g n c o u l d i n c r e a s e s a l i e n c e b u t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s p r o p o s e d t h u s f a r a r e l i k e l y t o b e more e f f e c t i v e and l e s s e x p e n s i v e .

8.6 C o n c l u s i o n s

T h i s d e t a i l e d r e v i e w h a s a t t e m p t e d t o r e v e a l t h e c o m p l e x n a t u r e o f r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n . I t i s m e a n i n g l e s s t o c o n s i d e r t h e p r o b l e m of c h i l d r e n and r o a d s a f e t y a s a s i n g l e p r o b l e m . I t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o r e f e r t o " c h i l d r e n " a s a g r o u p . I n r e a l i t y , t h e r e i s a w o r l d o f d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a young c h i l d a n d a t e e n a g e r i n t h e i r r o a d b e h a v i o u r , t h e i r e x p o s u r e , and t h e i r a b i l i t i e s t o a d o p t ' s a f e ' b e h a v i o u r s when d e a l i n g w i t h t r a f f i c .

The d i v e r s i t y o f d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s w h i c h , i n p a r t , c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e t o t a l c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t p i c t u r e l e a d s t o t h e n e e d t o s u g g e s t a number o f e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p o s s i b l e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s . N o s i n g l e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e w i l l s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m . S i m i l a r l y , no o n e a g e o r r o a d u s e r t a r g e t g r o u p h o l d t h e key t o s o l v i n g t h e p r o b l e m i n t o t a l . An e s s e n t i a l ' p a r t o f t h e a n a l y s i s i n t h i s r e v i e w i s t h a t a t t e n t i o n n e e d s t o b e g i v e n t o d i r e c t i n q c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s t o r o a d <<ers o t h e r t h a n c h i l d r e n .

I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e f o l l o w i n g c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s w e r e p r o p o s e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t .

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P r i m a r y T a r g e t - -11

C o u n t e r m e a s u re I

C h i l d R e s t r a i n Mass Med ia Campaign

A d u l t / C h i l d R e s t r i a n Mass Media Campaign

' B i k e Ed' & H e l m e t s

A d u l t d r i v e r s Young d r i v e r s T e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s

A d u l t & Young D r i v e r s A d u l t s a s P e d e s t r i a n s A d u ' l t s as P a r e n t s

S c h o o l a g e d c h i l d r e n Parents/Drivers/Schoolteachers

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2 3 2

G r a d u a t e d L i c e n s i n g

C h a n g i n g S t a t u s of R e s i d e n t i a l S t r e e t s

L o w e r i n g V e h i c l e S p e e d s i n N e i g h b o u r h o o d S t r e e t s

P r e - S c h o o l E d u c a t i o n

P r i m a r y E d u c a t i o n

S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n

C h i l d H a r n e s s T r a i n i n g

V e h i c l e R e v e r s i n g Warn ing Sys tern

Community Agenda S e t t i n g

N o v i c e D r i v e r s T e e n a g e P a s s e n g e r s

A d u l t D r i v e r s N o v i c e D r i v e r s

A d u l t D r i v e r s N o v i c e D r i v e r s

M o t h e r s / F a t h e r s P r e-S c hoo 1 e r s

S c h o o l t e a c h e r s C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n s , & P e d a l c y c l i s t s

P r e - D r i v e r Age Teen P a s s e n g e r s

M o t h e r s / F a t h e r s D r i v e rs Very young c h i l d r e n

D r i v e r s C h i l d c y c l i s t s & p e d e s t r i a n s

A l l A d u l t s P o l i t i c i a n s and D e c i s i o n Maker s

The c h i l d , a s a r o a d u s e r , is i n r e a l i t y _- a w h o l e s e r i e s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of c h i l d r e n i n v o l v e d i n a ____ v a r i e t y o f - r o a d E b e h a v i o u r s . P r o g r e s s i s more l i k e l y t o b e made i f it i s r e c o a n i s e d t h a t i t i s a s e r i e s o f d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o u r s and t h a t

----I-

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i t i s n o t j u s t --- t h e c h i l d b e h a v e u r s w h i c h n e e d t o b e altered_. The a d o p t i o n of ' s a f e ' b e h a v i o u r s b y a l l r o a d u s e r s c o u l d impact s u b s t a n t i a l l y o n t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s . The a d o p t i o n of t h e s e ' s a f e ' b e h a v i o u r s c a n b e a s s i s t e d b y a r a n g e of c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s i n c l u d i n g :

- mas m e d i a p u b l i c i t y - s p e c i f i c c h i l d e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s - town p l a n n i n g / e n g i n e e r i n g - l e g i s l a t i o n - e n f o r c e m e n t .

I n sum, t h e t a r g e t f o r m o s t of t h e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s is n o t -- t h e c h i l d , b u t o t h e r r o a d u s e r s .

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9.0 IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

9.1 9.2 9.5 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

The H e u r i s t i c N a t u r e o f R e s e a r c h Road A c c i d e n t D a t a Normal B e h a v i o u r - The B i g Gap D r i v e r P e r c e p t i o n o f C h i l d Road B e h a v i o u r s S c h o o l E d u c a t i o n E n f o r c e m e n t o f c h i l d R e s t r a i n t L a w s B i c y c l e H e l m e t A c c e p t a n c e by C h i l d r e n The R o l e of H e a r i n g i n S a f e Road B e h a v i o O t h e r I m p o r t a n t R e s e a r c h I s s u e s .

T h i s f i n a l c h a p t e r a t t e m p t s t o o u t l i n e t h o s e u L c v ~ in w h i c h f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n seems d e s i r a b l e i f g a i n s a r e t o b e a c h i e v e d i n e x i s t i n g o r s u g g e s t e d c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s . The s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h r e f l e c t t h e a u t h o r ' s a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n . The e m p h a s i s i s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e need f o r f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n .

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9 . 1 The H e u r i s t i c N a t u r e o f R e s e a r c h

The p r e v i o u s e i g h t s e c t i o n s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o d e t a i l w h a t i s known a b o u t c h i l d r e n a n d r o a d s a f e t y . I n t h e p r o c e s s o f s i f t i n g and o r g a n i z i n g k n o w l e d g e , t h e r e s e a r c h e r f a c e s a l a r g e number o f u n a n s w e r e d q u e s t i o n s . Each p i e c e o f k n o w l e d g e t e n d s t o r a i s e a w h o l e s e r i e s o f new q u e s t i o n s , many o f w h i c h r e m a i n u n a n s w e r e d .

Road s a f e t y p r o f e s s i o n a l s t e n d t o b e c o n c e p t u a l i s e r s o r i m p l e m e n t e r s . The f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s h a s t r i e d t o e n c o m p a s s t h e d o m a i n of b o t h t h e ' t h i n k e r s ' and t h e ' d o e r s ' . S u c h a d i s t i n c t i o n i s , o f c o u r s e , u n f a i r . However , f o r some p e o p l e , c a r r y i n g o u t more r e s e a r c h i s a n e x c u s e f o r n o t i m p l e m e n t i n g a p r o g r a m .

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s f i n a l c h a p t e r i s l a r g e l y h e u r i s t i c . I t i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e e x h a u s t i v e , b u t i s i n t e n d e d t o b e c o m p r e h e n s i v e . Many o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s t o b e made were u n f o r s e e n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e a n a l y s i s . Some w i l l b e r e g a r d e d a s e s o t e r i c , o t h e r s m i g h t a p p e a r a s u n n e c e s s a r y . The s e l e c t i o n o f a r e a s w o r t h y o f f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e f l e c t s t h e a u t h o r ' s v a l u e j u d g e m e n t s and t h o s e o f Mr. Wayne P e r k i n s who p a i n s t a k i n g l y p o u r e d o v e r t h e d e t a i l e d of t h e d r a f t m a n u s c r i p t r a i s i n g n u m e r o u s q u e s t i o n s . I t was h i s q u e s t i o n i n g t h a t l e a d t o t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r .

9 . 2 Road A c c i d e n t D a t a

9 . 2 1 E x p o s u r e

A t t h e o u t s e t , t h e a n a l y s i s u n d e r t a k e n i n t h i s r e p o r t h a s s u f f e r e d b e c a u s e o f two i m p o r t a n t d e f e c t s . F i r s t , e x p o s u r e d a t a i s l a r g e l y n o n - e x i s t e n t . A c c o r d i n g l y , m o s t o f t h e a n a l y s i s i s b a s e d o n a c c i d e n t d a t a w i t h no c o m p u t a t i o n s f o r e s t i m a t e s o r r i s k . I t i s recommended t h a t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e e x p o s u r e s t u d y be u n d e r t a k e n i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e t h a t a c c i d e n t d a t a i s s e e n i n i t s c o r r e c t c o n t e x t . I t i s a l s o recommended t h a t t h e l a r g e s c a l e s t u d y ( J a m i e s o n , e t . a l . 1 9 8 1 ) w h i c h h a s o n l y b e e n b r i e f l y r e p o r t e d t o d a t e b e c o m p l e t e d a n d made a v a i l a b l e .

___I_

_

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9 . 2 2 O r g a n i s a t i o n

R e v i e w s and s t u d i e s l i k e t h o s e r e p o r t e d i n t h i s vo lume a r e c o s t l y l a r g e l y b e c a u s e o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n p h y s i c a l l y o b t a i n i n g a c c e s s t o d a t a . Some s t a t e s h a v e c o m p u t e r i s e d mass d a t a s y s t e m s w h i c h c a n b e a c c e s s e d a n d u s e d f o r a n a l y s i s . Some s t a t e s c e n t r a l i s e t h e i r c o m p l e t e a c c i d e n t r e c o r d i n c l u d i n g a l l r e l e v a n t d a t a ( e . g . P o l i c e A c c i d e n t R e p o r t Form, C o r o n e r ' s r e p o r t s , w i t n e s s e s d e p o s i t i o n s , h o s p i t a l r e p o r t , e t c . ) . T h i s l a c k o f a n y c e n t r a l i s e d A u s t r a l i a - w i d e s t a t i s t i c s w a s h i q h l i g h t e d a s t h e v e r y f i r s t c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e m o s t r e c e n t R e p o r t o f t h e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s S t a n d i n g C o m m i t t e e o n Road S a f e t y ( H O R S C O R S , 1 9 8 4 ) .

9 . 2 3 S t a n d a r d i s a t i o n

The l a c k o f c e n t r a l i s a t i o n r e s u l t s i n m a s s i v e a m o u n t s o f t i m e b e i n g n e c e s s a r i l y u s e d t o a c h i e v e a n y a n a l y s i s . However , e v e n when d a t a c a n b e o b t a - i n e d , i t is o f t e n i n a d e q u a t e b e c a u s e o f t h e l a c k o f s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n w h i c h e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e s .

9 . 2 4 C r i t i c a l V a r i a b l e s

An e x a m i n a t i o n o f P o l i c e A c c i d e n t R e p o r t Forms a n d / o r w h a t e v e r o t h e r d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e w i t h r e spec t t o a n a c c i d e n t , r e g u l a r l y f a i l s t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t d a t a upon w h i c h s e n s i b l e a n a l y s e s c a n b e u n d e r t a k e n . The s o l u t i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y more i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e P o l i c e A c c i d e n t R e p o r t Form. A t t h e t i m e of t h e a c c i d e n t , e m o t i o n s a r e l i k e l y t o b e i n v o l v e d . The P o l i c e a l r e a d y h a v e a d i f f i c u l t t a s k . What i s n e e d e d i s a n o r i e n t a t i o n w h i c h s e e k s t o m a x i m i s e t h e s e a r c h f o r r e l e v a n t c a u s a l f a c t o r s . W h e t h e r t h i s c a n b e s t b e a c h i e v e d b y b e t t e r r e p o r t f o r m d e s i g n , o r b e t t e r t r a i n i n g , n e e d s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h i s o r i e n t a t i o n , w h i c h may o r may n o t r e q u i r e c h a n g e s i n t h e P o l i c e A c c i d e n t R e p o r t Form, w o u l d e n s u r e h e t t e r i n f o r m a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o , f o r e x a m p l e , w h a t t h e c h i l d w a s d o i n g f o r t h e h o u r o r so p r e c e d i n g t h e a c c i d e n t a n d w h e r e a n d why h e / s h e w a s g o i n g when t h e a c c i d e n t o c c u r r e d . T h i s t y p e o f d a t a would a l s o b e e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l f o r a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g a d u l t s ; e . g . w h e r e had a d r i n k - d r i v e r b e e n d r i n k i n g and w i t h whom; e t c . S u b s e q u e n t r e s e a r c h may i n d i c a t e t h a t c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g s e r i o u s i n j u r i e s o r f a t a l i t i e s r e q u i r e s p e c i a l f o l l o w - u p r e p o r t i n g r a t h e r t h a n a d d i t i o n a l r e p o r t i n g a t t h e t i m e o f t h e a c c i d e n t . S u c h f o l l o w - u p i n t e r v i e w s may i n v o l v e a n i n t e r v i e w g u i d e o r t o p i c l i s t b a s e d upon w h a t r o a d s a f e t y r e s e a r c h e r s n e e d t o know.

- - -~-

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9 .3 Normal B e h a v i o u r - The Big-

W h i l s t some o v e r s e a s s t u d i e s e x i s t , no A u s t r a l i a n d a t a a p p e a r s t o b e a v a i l a b l e w h i c h c a n p r o v i d e a p i c t u r e o f n o r m a l c h i l d r o a d b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s ( s e e 7 . 3 and G r a y s o n 1981 I . T h e r e i s a n e e d t o know more a b o u t :

- how c h i l d r e n b e h a v e o n r o a d s n o r m a l l y ?

- w h a t p a r e n t s b e l i e v e i s t h e n o r m a l p a t t e r n for t h e i r own c h i l d r e n v e r s u s o t h e r c h i l d r e n ?

- w h a t p a r e n t s n o r m a l l y t e l l or t e a c h c h i l d r e n a b o u t r o a d b e h a v i o u r a s p e d e s t r i a n s or a s p e d a l c y c l i s t s ?

- w h a t e f f o r t p a r e n t s p u t i n t o t h e t a s k o f t e a c h i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n ?

- t h e i m p o r t a n c e p a r e n t s a t t a c h to t h e t a s k o f t e a c h i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n ?

- w h a t b a r r i e r s p a r e n t s f e e l t h e y f a c e i n t h e t a s k ?

- w h a t l a n g u a g e c h i l d r e n u s e t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r r o a d b e h a v i o u r and t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e r o a d ?

- w h a t l a n g u a g e p a r e n t s u s e when d e a l i n g w i t h c h i l d r e n i n r e s p e c t t o t h e r o a d ?

- w h a t i s t h e c h i l d ' s and t h e p a r e n t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r i s k s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u s i n g t h e r o a d s ?

- w h a t r u l e s d o p a r e n t s e s t a b l i s h a b o u t p l a y i n g ( c r o s s i n g ) u s i n g t h e r o a d and why?

- how d o s u c h r u l e s v a r y b e t w e e n p a r e n t s , and w h a t f a c t o r s . a c c o u n t f o r t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y ?

- how d o c h i l d r e n a c t u a l l y b e h a v e i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e r u l e s ?

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9 . 4 D r i v e r P e r c e p t i o n o f C h i l d Road B e h a v i o u r s

An i m p o r t a n t a r g u m e n t , p r o p o s e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s v o l u m e , is t h a t d r i v e r s a r e n o t a s v i g i l a n t a s t h e y c o u l d or o u g h t t o be i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h i l d r e n i n t h e r o a d s y s t e m . The e m p h a s i s o n r e d u c i n g v e h i c l e s p e e d s i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s i s p r o p o s e d (see 8 . 5 1 a n d 8 . 5 2 ) a s a m e a s u r e a imed a t s l o w i n g d r i v e r s down and a l s o a t a s s i s t i n s i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r a w a r e n e s s o f t h e p r e s e n c e and d a n g e r o f c h i l d r e n . The i m p o r t a n c e of l o c a l n e i g h b o u r h o o d s t r e e t s i n c h i l d a c c i d e n t s i s d o c u m e n t e d i n s e c t i o n s 3 . 2 ; 4 . 3 1 8 ; 4 . 3 3 7 ; 4 . 3 4 7 ; 8 . 5 1 : a n d 8 . 5 2 .

A c o n s i d e r a b l e body o f e v i d e n c 6 e x i s t s w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t d r i v e r s a r e a s much t o b l a m e ( s e e s e c t i o n 8 . 5 1 ) a s a r e c h i l d r e n , e v e n t h o u g h i n m o s t i n s t a n c e s t h e d r i v e r i s l i k e l y t o b e e x c u s e d b e c a u s e of t h e s e e m i n g l y u n p r e d i c t a b l e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e c h i l d .

--- I _ - ~ - I-

F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d i n t o d r i v e r ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s and b e l i e f s w i t h r e s p e c t t o c h i l d r o a d b e h a v i o u r . Such r e s e a r c h n e e d s t o

lll---_--_l

t a k e a c c o u n t o f a w h o l e r a n g e o f f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g :

- y e a r s o f d r i v i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d / o r a g e o f d r i v e r , - t i m e o f d a y , - normal d r i v i n g p a t t e r n s (e .9 . d o m a l e s who n o r m a l l y d r i v e

- s e x of d r i v e r s , e t c .

9 . 5 S c h o o l E d u c a t i o n

The a n a l y s i s h a s h i g h l i g h t e d t h e l a c k o f r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n i n t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m a t l e a s t a s f a r a s N.S.W. i s c o n c e r n e d . A much more t h o r o u g h s t u d y 1 s r e q u i r e d t o a n s w e r t h e f o l l o w i n g :

- How d o c h i l d r e n o f v a r i o u s a g e s p e r c e i v e t h e t r a f f i c

t o t h e o f f i c e b e h a v e d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m o t h e r s ) ,

-

e n v i r o n m e n t i n g e n e r a l ?

- How d o c h i l d r e n o f v a r i o u s a g e s p e r c e i v e t r a f f i c e d u c a t i o n m a t e r i a l ?

- H o w d o c h i l d r e n p e r c e i v e s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s of t h e r o a d e n v i r o n m e n t t h e y h a v e t o d e a l w i t h ?

- How do s c h o o l t e a c h e r s p e r c e i v e r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n ?

- How d o t e a c h e r s u s e e x i s t i n g m a t e r i a l s , i f a t a l l ?

- w h a t d o t e a c h e r s n e e d or w a n t t o d o a b e t t e r j o b ?

- What i m p o r t a n c e d o t h e y a t t a c h t o r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n ?

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Why d o some t e a c h e r s t e a c h r o a d s a f e t y and o t h e r s n o t ? Why d o some u s e t h e m a t e r i a l s s u p p l i e d and o t h e r s n o t ?

What d i f f e r e n t i a t e s t e a c h e r s i n terms o f t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r r o a d s a f e t y t e a c h i n g ?

H O W c a n t h e q u a l i t y b e improved on a l a r g e s c a l e ? What c o u l d h e d o n e t o a c h i e v e t h i s e n d ?

Do t e a c h e r s ( a n d p a r e n t s ) f a v o u r more r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m ( s e e 6 . 4 2 ) ?

Would t e a c h e r s welcome T V s c h o o l - t i m e p r o g r a m s w h i c h model t h e d e s i r e d s a f e ' b e h a v i o u r s ?

Would t e a c h e r s ( a n d p a r e n t s ) a p p r e c i a t e TV p r o g r a m s f o r t h e m s e l v e s w h i c h a im a t t e a c h i n g ( m o d e l i n g ) how t o i m p l e m e n t and o v e r c o m e r e s i s t a t i ce s when t e a c h i n g ?

9.6 E n f o r c e m e n t o f C h i l d R e s t r a i n t Laws

The p i l o t i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h i s vo lume s u g g e s t s t h a t m o t h e r s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , d e s i r e much g r e a t e r l e v e l s o f e n f o r c e m e n t t h a n c u r r e n t l y e x i s t s . They a l s o b e l i e v e t h e o n u s o u g h t t o b e o n t h e d r i v e r , e s p e c i a l l y a s f a r a s - c h i l d r e n a n d t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s a r e c o n c e r n e d . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , w i t h much l a r g e r s a m p l e s , i s r e q u i r e d t o v e r i f y t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s s i n c e e n f o r c e m e n t i s c l e a r l y c r u c i a l t o t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f h i g h e r l e v e l s o f c o m p l i a n c e . I f s u c h h i g h e r l e v e l s o f c o m p l i a n c e a r e a c h i e v e d , t h e n t h e i m p a c t o n c h i l d r o a d c a s u a l t i e s i s l i k e l y t o b e s u b s t a n t i a l , s i n c e t h e s i n g l e b i g g e s t s o u r c e o f c h i l d r o a d c a s u a l t i e s i s p a s s e n g e r s .

I f t h e communi ty r e spec t and e v e n d e s i r e e n f o r c e m e n t o f c h i l d r e s t r a i n t l a w s , t h e n s u c h know1,edge may p r o v e h e l p f u l t o m o t i v a t i n g t h e P o l i c e t o b e more v i g i l a n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h i s m a t t e r .

R e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a a l s o n e e d s t o m e a s u r e communi ty a w a r e n e s s o f t h e l a w a s f a r a s i t c o n c e r n s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r e s t r a i n t u s a g e . The s m a l l - s c a l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n s e c t i o n 6 . 3 4 s u g g e s t s q u i t e h i g h l e v e l s o f i n c o r r e c t knowledge a n d / o r c o n f u s i o n . P u b l i c e d u c a t i o n may b e n e e d e d .

9 . 7 B i c y c l e H e l m e t A c c e p t a n c e by C h i l d r e n

E x c e p t f o r V i c t o r i a l a t e i n 1 9 8 4 , t h e i n c i d e n c e of c h i l d r e n w e a r i n g b i c y c l e s a f e t y h e l m e t s is e x t r e m e l y low ( 1 - 2 % ) . A c c o r d i n g l y , c o n t i n u i n g r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o u n d e r s t a n d how t o make h e l m e t w e a r i n g more d e s i r a b l e o r a c c e p t a b l e I t o t h e c h i l d .

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The s u c c e s s o f t h e V i c t o r i a n c a m p a i g n t h u s f a r , h a s b e e n d u e t o b y p a s s i n g t h e c h i l d and a i m i n g a t p a r e n t s and e d u c a t o r s . Once b i c y c l e h e l m e t w e a r i n g r a t e s i n V i c t o r i a r e a c h a t h r e s h o l d ( s a y 4 0 % ) it is l i k e l y t h a t t h e t a r g e t a u d i e n c e w i l l a l s o n e e d t o i n c l u d e t h e c h i l d r e n t h e m s e l v e s . T h u s , more r e s e a r c h a m o n g s t c h i l d r e n i s n e e d e d t o a s s i s t t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s a t t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f a d o p t i o n f o r s t a t e s o t h e r t h a n V i c t o r i a . A d d i t i o n a l l y , r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d a m o n g s t c h i l d r e n t o e s t a b l i s h w h a t " t r i g g e r s " c a n b e u s e d t o move t h e d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s on f r o m ' i n n o v a t o r s ' a n d ' e a r l y a d o p t e r s ' t o t h e l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f c h i l d p e d a l c y c l i s t s . The l a t t e r r e s e a r c h , a t t h e moment, c o u l d o n l y b e c a r r i e d o u t i n V i c t o r i a .

G i v e n t h e s i z e o f t h e s m a l l - s c a l e s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t t o d a t e , f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d i n t o t h e p r o b l e m s p a r e n t ' s p e r c e i v e t h e y f a c e w i t h r e g a r d t o b i c y c l e h e l m s z c c e p t a n c e a n d u s a g e .

i-l-l-_--l_--- 111

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F i n a l l y , t h e s e e m i n g e a r l y s u c c e s s o f t h e V i c t o r i a n c a m p a i g n d i r e c t e d a t p a r e n t s s h o u l d n o t b e s e e n a s t h e o n l y s o l u t i o n . T o d a t e , l i t t l e or n o e v i d e n c e e x i s t s a s t o i n c i d e n c e o f h e l m e t u s a g e a f t e r s c h o o l a f t e r t h e c h i l d h a s a r r i v e d home and g o e s o u t t o p l a y , n o r a t w e e k e n d s . Much o f t h e s u c c e s s , t h u s f a r , c o u l d b e d u e t o t h e a p p l a u d a b l e m a n d a t o r y p r a c t i c e s of s c h o o l s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e more d i r e c t e f f o r t s o f p a r e n t s on t h e i r own c h i l d r e n . T h u s , f u t u r e r e s e a r c h o n w e a r i n g r a t e s m u s t l o o k b e y o n d t h e t r i p t o and f r o m s c h o o l o n w e e k d a y s .

I_-

I_-_- I

The a u t h o r h a s a r g u e d t h a t n o t e n o u g h e f f o r t h a s g o n e i n t o h e l m e t d e s i g n f r o m t h e p o i n t - o f - v i e w o f t h e c h i l d . H e l m e t s a r e a " t u r n - o f f " t o t h e c h i l d . R e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d t o o v e r c o m e t h i s p r o b l e m a n d , i f n e c e s s a r y , t o m o d i f y t h e s t a n d a r d s a t l e a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o l o u r and f i n i s h o r o u t w a r d a p p e a r a n c e .

9 .8 The R o l e I o f H e a r i n g i n ' S a f e ' Road B e h a v i o u r s

How i m p o r t a n t i s h e a r i n g a s a c r i t i c a l c u e ? A r e t h e r e s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n h e a r i n g ? C a n t h e s e h e l p t o e x p l a i n why b o y s a r e more o f t e n i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s c r o s s i n g r o a d s a n d e s p e c i a l l y f rom b e h i n d p a r k e d c a r s g i v e n t h e c u r r e n t k n o w l e d g e on e x p o s u r e ( s e e s e c t i o n 2 . 5 ) ? L i t t l e seems t o b e known a b o u t h e a r i n g a s m e n t i o n e d i n s e c t i o n 5.72, y e t i t s e e m s l i k e l y t h a t h e a r i n g is c r i t i c a l - a c a r n o i s e a c t s a s a n a v e r s i v e s t i m u l u s f o r a v o i d a n c e b e h a v i o u r , s u c h a s s t o p p i n g o r l o o k i n g . C h i l d r e n a r e l i k e l y t o u s e n o i s e a s a c u e . E a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s on t h e r o a d a r e l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n n o i s e and c a r s ( w h i c h s c a r e t h e m ) b e i n g p a i r e d s o t h a t n o i s e a c t s a s a d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l u s . The t a s k a n a l y s i s r e s e a r c h of R o t t e n g g a t t e r , v a n d e r M o l e n and o t h e r s ( s e e 5 . 7 2 ) , d o e s n o t r e f e r t o h e a r i n q i n t h e i r h e a d movement a n a l y s i s , y e t i t i s l i k e l y t h a t it i s c r i t i c a l i n a v o i d a n c e c o n d i t i o n i n g i n a n a t u r a l i s t i c r o a d e n v i r o n m e n t .

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C u r r e n t l y , i n r o a d s a f e t y l i t e r a t u r e , c o n s i d e r a b l e e m p h a s i s i s p l a c e d o n c h i l d r e n ' s a b i l i t i e s ( o r l a c k o f ) t o c o p e w i t h t r a f f i c . W h i l s t t h e s e m u s t b e t a k e n a s g i v e n , c h i l d r e n c a n make j u d g e m e n t s and c a n b e t r a i n e d t o d e v e l o p ' s a f e ' b e h a v i o u r s . F o r e x a m p l e , if i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l ' s a f e ' b e h a v i o u r s t o b e d e v e l o p e d a r e f i r s t s t o p p i n g , t h e n l i s t e n i n g / l o o k i n g t h e n t h e s e c r i t i c a l b e h a v i o u r s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o c h i l d r e n o f v e r y young a g e s . T h e y h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o c e s s , b u t e q u a l l y t h e y h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e c o n t i n g e n c i e s i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , many o f w h i c h c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d . By a d o p t i n g a d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a n c e , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e t e n d e d t o p l a c e t o o l i t t l e e m p h a s i s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s .

9 . 9 O t h e r I m p o r t a n t R e s e a r c h I s s u e s

9.91 S t r e e t - E n t e r i n g B e h a v i o u r

The v i e w p o i n t o f t h i s r e s e a r c h volume i s t h a t t h e e d u c a t i o n o f v e r y young c h i l d r e n ( p r e - s c h o o l e r s ) o u g h t t o a i m a t t e a c h i n g

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c h i l d r e n n o t t o e n t e r t h e r o a d w i t h o u t a n a d u l t _I ( s e e 7.6). W h i l s t t h e e f f i c a c y o f s u c h a s t r a t e g y may b e a d e b a t a b l e i s s u e . a m o n g s t r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t o r s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h how t h e communi ty o f p a r e n t s f e e l a b o u t t h i s m a t t e r . How many p a r e n t s a g r e e w i t h s u c h a n e d u c a t i o n a l a im i s i m p o r t a n t if a iII_-_-i___-

S a f e - P l a y i n g p r o g r a m , s u c h a s t h a t recommended, i s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d .

9 .92 L o c a l N e i g h b o u r h o o d T r a f f i c

C o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n i n t h i s vo lume h a s b e e n d e v o t e d t o t h e n e e d t o c o n t r o l s p e e d i n l o c a l n e i g h b o u r h o o d r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s . A v a r i e t y o f c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a r e s u g g e s t e d . I t would b e e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l t o s t u d y t h e I_- p r o c e s s e s by w h i c h l o c a l c o u n c i l s make d e c i s i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o r o a d s a f e t y issues. 9 . 9 3 Media R e p o r t i n g o f A c c i d e n t s

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--- A s t u d y i s n e e d e d i n t o t h e way i n w h i c h t h e m e d i a r e p o r t a c c i d e n t s . I n p a r t i c u l a r a c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s n e e d s t o b e u n d e r t a k e n t o e s t a b l i s h w h a t t h e m e s a r e l i k e l y t o b e r e p o r t e d ,

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- i n c l u d i n g key r o a d s a f e t y i n i t i a t i v e s s u c h a s w e a r i n g s e a t b e l t s . I t would b e v a l u a b l e t o s t u d y j o u r n a l i s t s , w r i t e r s , e d i t o r s , p r o d u c e r s , e t c . t o e s t a b l i s h w h a t t h e y r e g a r d a s b e i n g I' n e w s w o r t h y " . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e m e d i a ' s r e a c t i o n s t o press r e l e a s e s b y Road S a f e t y A u t h o r i t i e s would b e m o s t u s e f u l .

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9 .94 D i s t r a c t i o n of Young D r i v e r s

O n l y o n e s t u d y ( R u c h , e t . a l . 1 9 7 0 ) c o u l d b e f o u n d i n w h i c h d r i v e r s a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e p re sence of o t h e r young p a s s e n q e r s a c t e d a s a d i s t r a c t i o n a n d t h u s a p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r i n a c c i d e n t s ( S e e 8 . 4 4 ) . G i v e n t h e e n o r m i t y o f t h e p r o b l e m o f t e e n a g e d r i v e r s and t e e n a g e o c c u p a n t c a s u a l t i e s , f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h o n t h i s i s s u e would a p p e a r t o b e v i t a l . F u r t h e r m o r e , it s h o u l d n o t b e r e s t r i c t e d t o t e e n a g e o r n o v i c e d r i v e r s .

9 . 9 5 B i c y c l e D e s i g n

S t u d i e s of c h i l d r e n ' s p e r f o r m a n c e on b i c y c l e s s u g g e s t t h a t , i n a d d i t i o n t o m a t u r a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s k i l l s , t h e r e i s a n e e d t o look a t t h e d e s i g n o f b i c y c l e s f o r c h i l d r e n (OECD 1 9 8 3 , A r n b e r g e t . a l . 1 9 7 8 ) .

9 .96 Long T e r m E f f e c t s o f Road Trauma _I-

L a s t , b u t n o t l e a s t , t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e no i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of r o a d a c c i d e n t s t o c h i l d r e n . W h i l s t t h e e c o n o m i c l o s s o f a c h i l d r o a d d e a t h i s a s s e s s a b l e , t h e t r a u m a t o t h e s u r v i v i n g c h i l d d o e s n o t seem t o h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d . D o c h i l d r e n r e m a i n e f f e c t e d p h y s i c a l l y a n d / o r e m o t i o n a l l y f o r many y e a r s ? I f r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d c h i l d r e n were r e d u c e d , w h a t p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s would t h i s h a v e o n t h e c h i l d and t h e communi ty - b o t h e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l ?

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A n d r e a s s o n , R. ( 1 9 6 6 ) "You th a n d D r i v i n g : A S u r v e y o f P r o b l e m s " . I n : W u l f f & F o r s b e r g , P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e S e c o n d C o n q r e s s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A c c i d e n t a n d T r a f f i c M e d i c i n e , A u q u s t 9 -12 , S t o c k h o l m Sweden , 242-255.

A n d r e a s s e n d , D . , Hoque , M . , & Younq, W . ( 1 9 8 4 ) " P e d e s t r i a n

_____I_

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A c c i d e n t s i n M e t r o p o l i t a n M e l b o u r n e b y Road C l a s s " , A R R B P r o c e e d i n g , V o l . 1 2 , P a r t 7 , 58 -71 . - --_I

A n s f o r d , A. ( 1 9 8 3 ) "Road Trauma i n C h i l d h o o d : Some Q u e e n s l a n d E x p e r i e n c e o f S e c u l a r T r e n d s " . I n : P e a r n ( E d . ) . A c c i d e n t s t o C h i l d r e n - T h e i r I n c i d e n c e , C a u s e s a n d E f f e c t s . C h i l d A c c i d e n t P r e v e n t i o n F o u n d a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a , C o l l e g e of S u r g e o n s M e l b o u r n e , 45-55 .

__I l_l__l_l_--

l__i--___~--I_ ___

A r n b e r g , P. ( 1 9 7 8 ) "The D e s i g n & E f f e c t o f C h i l d R e s t r a i n t S y s t e m s i n V e h i c l e s " . E r g o n o m i c s , v. 2 1 , N O . 3 , 681 -690 .

( 1 9 7 9 ) The T r a f f i c E n v i r o n m e n t o f P r e - s c h o o l C h i l d r e n i n Sweden. N a t i o n a l S w e d i s h Road & T r a f f i c R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e . L i n k o p i n q Sweden.

A r n b e r q , P . , O h l s s o n , E . , W e s t e r b e r q , A . , & O s t r o m , C . ( 1 9 7 8 )

l_l___l_l__l-___l- l_l_

A r n b e r g , P .

"The A b i l i t y o f P r e - s c h o o l and S c h o o l C h i l d r e n t o M a n o e u v r e T h e i r B i c y c l e s " . V T I R a p p o r t . N + . 1 4 9 A N a t i o n a l Road & T r a f f i c R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e Sweden.

-_-I-

A s h t o n , S . J . ( 1 9 8 0 ) "A P r e l i m i n a r y A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e P o t e n t i a l f o r P e d e s t r i a n I n i u r v R e d u c t i o n t h r o u a h V e h i c l e - - D e s i q n ". I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e T w e n t y - F o u r t h S t a p p C a r C r a s h C o n f e r e n c e , W a r r e n d a l e : S o c i e t y o f A u t o m o t v i e E n q i n e e r s .

I_--~-_-

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A s h t o n , S.J. ( 1 9 8 2 ) " V e h i c l e D e s i g n i n P e d e s t r i a n I n j u r i e s " . I n : Chapman, A . . Wade. F. . & F o o t . H . ( E d . s ) - P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s . W i l e y & S o n s : C h i c h e s t e r . -- l_l_

A s h t o n , S.J., H a y e s , H . R . M . , & McKay, G.M. ( 1 9 7 4 ) " C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n I n j u r i e s " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l M e e t i n g of B i o M e c h a n i c s o f Trauma i n C h i l d r e n . L y o n s , F r a n c e . 17-19 S e p t e m b e r .

il__I--

( 1 9 7 4 ) The C a p a c i t y o f Young C h i l d r e n t o Cope w i t h The T r a f f i c S y s t e m : A R e v i e w . R e p o r t 8 / 7 4

I

- - I A v e r y , G . ,

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-__-li_-_____i_

__

B a c k e t t , E . M . ,

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( 1 9 8 2 ) " P r e v e n t i o n of C h i l d h o o d A c c i d e n t s i n T a f f i c : S w e d i s h E x p e r i e n c e s " . The Voice o f t h e P e d e s t r i a n X V I I , S p r i n g , I n t e r n a t i o n a l F e d e r a t i o n o f P e d e s t r i a n s .

-- __I_

( 1 9 7 7 ) S o c i a l L e a r n i n q T h e o r y . P r e n t i c e H a l l , Englewood C l i f f s . N.J.

___I_____

( 1 9 7 7 ) Access t o S c h o o l s : S a f e t y f o r C h i l d r e n o n t h e Road. D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n , S o u t h A u s t r a l i a .

( 1 9 7 9 ) " A c c i d e n t s o n R e s i d e n t i a l R o a d s " . The ~

J o u r n a l o f t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f Highway E n g i n e e r s . May 1 3 , 1 4 , 2 1 . --__l_ll____-ll--- ---

B e n n e t t , G . T . , L M a r l a n d , J. ( 1 9 7 8 ) ___ Road A c c i d e n t s i n T r a d i t i o n a l l y D e s i g n e d ~ L o c a l A u t h o r i t y E s t a t e s . TRRL R e p . 8 9 0 , D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t L

D e pa r t m e n t of T r a n s PO r t . B e n n e t t , M . , S a n d e r s , B . A . , & Downing , C.S. ( 1 9 7 9 ) E v a l u a t i o n

o f a C y c l i n g P r o f i c i e n c y T r a i n i n g - c o u r s e U s i n g Two B e h a v i o u r R e c o r d i n g Methods . T R R L Rep. 8 9 0 , D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t L D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t .

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B e r a r d - A n d e r s o n , K . ( 1 9 8 2 ) " C h i l d r e n T r a f f i c a n d U s A d u l t s " , I n : The Voice o f t h e P e d e s t r i a n , X V I I , S p r i n g , 107-1 2 2 . I__I

B i e h l , B. ( 1 9 7 6 ) " P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y L B e h a v i o u r " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s of I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y . V o l . 2 , H a i f a , I s r a e l . _- --

B i s h o p , R.M., L Harwood, C . J . ( 1 9 7 8 ) " S c h o o l C h i l d r e n P e d e s t r i a n P r o t e c t i o n Measures L A c c i d e n t s i n S o u t h A u s t r a l i a " . I n : J o i n t ARRB/DOT P e d e s t r i a n _ C o n f e r e n c e , - Sydney,

I

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( 1 9 6 9 ) C a u s e s a n d E f f e c t s o f T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t s - P a r t 11: T h e E n v i r o n m e n t . Pub . , N o . 3 3 , D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t & E n v i r o n m e n t P l a n n i n q ,

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B l a i r , I .

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U n i v e r s i t y of B i rmingham.

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B o n g a r d , E.V.,

B o o t h , M .

B o u g h t o n , C.

B o u g h t o n , C.

B o u g h t o n , C.

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B r i n d l e , R.E.

, & W i n t e r f i e l d , V. ( 1 9 7 6 ) " C h i l d r e n ' s T r a f f i c Knowledge and T h e i r C o m p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e D a n g e r s I n v o l v e d ( C h i l d r e n Aged 5 - 6 1 " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , Vo l . 2 , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

-I_ -I_ -__l_l_ I____

( 1 9 8 3 ) T h e U s e o f R e s t r a i n t s by C h i l d r e n i n A u t o m o b i l e s - 1 9 8 3 . N a t i o n a l Roads & M o t o r i s t ' s A s s o c i a t i o n . ( N R M A ) Sydney .

--_I- -11

- - - - _ _ - ~

( 1 9 8 0 ) " U s e and E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f C h i l d R e s t r a i n t s 'I. I n : Road S a f e t y I n i t i a t i v e s Commemora t ive C o n f e r e n c e . M e l b o u r n e , V i c t o r i a . I----____

( 1 9 8 2 ) " C h i l d S e a t R e s t r a i n t L e g i s l a t i o n " . I n : P e a r n , S. ( e d ) . The p r e v e n t i o n o f C h i l d h o o d - A c c i d e n t s - D e s i g n , E d u c a t i o n & L e g i s l a t i o n . 1 4 - 2 3 , C.A.P.F.A. A u s t r a l i a n M e d i c a l P u b l i s h i n q , G l e b e , N . S . W .

( 1 9 8 3 ) "An O v e r v i e w of What E x i s t s Today and R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for I m p r o v e m e n t " . I n :

l_-l_ll

-I-_ _-----I

P r o c e e d i n g s o f S e m i n a r : The R o l e o f E d u c a t i o n i n Road C r a s h P r e v e n t i o n . Road Trauma C o m m i t t e e , R o y a l A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e g e o f S u r q e o n s ,

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M e l b o u r n e , V i c t o r i a , November 5 .

( 1 9 8 4 ) " B i c v c l e A c c i d e n t s i n C h i l d h o o d " - A u s t r a l i a n F a m i l y P h y s i c i a n , Vol. 1 3 , N o . 4 , A p r i l , 2 8 7 - 2 8 9 .

---11

( 1 9 7 8 ) " R e s i d e n t i a l Area P l a n n i n g f o r P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y " . I n : J o i n t A R R B / D O T P e d e s t r i a n C o n f e r e n c e , Sydney .

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B r i n d l e , R .E . & A n d r e a s s e n d , D . C . ( 1 9 8 4 ) "Where D o R e p o r t e d B i c y c l e A c c i d e n t s O c c u r ? ' ' A R R B P r o c e e d i n g s , Vol. 1 2 , P a r t 7 , 96-209.

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--

( 1 9 8 4 ) The P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t P r o b l e m , ( U n p u b l i s h e d ) , RTA, M e l b o u r n e .

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C a m e r o n , M .

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Cameron , M . H . , L J o r d a n , P.W. ( 1 9 7 8 ) " P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t R i s k a t S c h o o l C r o s s i n g s a n d t h e E f f e c t o f C r o s s i n g S u p e r v i s o r s i n V i c t o r i a " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e J o i n t ARRB/DOT P e d e s t r i a n C o n f e r e n c e , S y d n e y , A u s t r a l i a .

_- - ---_-I-

C a m e r o n , M . H . , L M i l n e , P.W. ( 1 9 7 8 ) " P e d e s t r i a n E x p o s u r e and R i s k i n N e w S o u t h Wales" . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e J o i n t ARRB/DOT P e d e s t r i a n C o n f e r e n c e , I S y d n e y , A u s t r a l i a . -

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d S a f ew".

t y Ed c a t i o n f r o m t h e C h i l d ' s P r o c e e d i n g s o f S e m i n a r "The

R o l e o f E d u c a t i o n i n Road C r a s h P r e v e n t i o n " , Road Trauma C o m m i t t e e , Roya l A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e g e o f

I n : ___-__I__ lllll_l_l-_____ll__-_____l_

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R i d i n g a n d A c c i d e n t s Among Y o u t h s : A Summary R e p o r t . _~ U n i v e r s i t y of N o r t h C a r o l i n a S a f e t y

I_ - R e s e a r c h C e n t r e : C h a p e l H i l l , N o r t h C a r o l i n a , J u l y .

C a n i s i u s , P.P. ( 1 9 8 2 ) " I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r i n t h e F i e l d o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n " . I n : P r o c e e d i n q s o f t h e E l e v e n t h A R R B C o n f e r e n c e , M e l b o u r n e U n i v e r s i t y , M e l b o u r n e , A u s t r a l i a , A u g u s t 23-27.

__ --_I

C a t t e l , R . , & L e w i s , G . D . ( 1 9 7 5 ) C h i l d r e n ' s U n d e r s t a n d i n s o f Words Used i n Road S a f e t y L i t e r a t u r e . T r a n s p o r t & Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t , C r o w t h o r n e , B e r k s h i r e .

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Chapman, A . J . , F o o t , H . C . , & Wade, F.M. ( 1 9 8 0 ) " C h i l d r e n A t P l a y " . I n : D . J . O b o r n e & L e v i s , J . A . ( E d . s ) . Human F a c t o r s i n T r a n s p o r t R e s e a r c h . ( V o l . 2 1 , Academic P r e s s : London, 380-387.

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C h e s t n u t , R.W. ( 1 9 7 9 ) " T e l e v i s i o n A d v e r t i s i n g and Young C h i l d r e n : P i a g e t R e c o n s i d e r e d " . I n : J . H . L e i g h & G . R . M a r t i n ( S r ) . C u r r e n t I s s u e s a n d R e s e a r c h i n A d v e r t i s i n g , 5-1 , D i v i s i o n o f R e s e a r c h G r a d u a t e S c h o o l o f B u s i n e s s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n , Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n .

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C h l a p e c k , R.W., S c h u p a c k , S.A., P l a n e k , R.W., K l e c k a , N . , & D r i e s s e n , G . J . ( 1 9 7 5 ) B i c y c l e A c c i d e n t s a n d Usaqe Amonq E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l C h i l d r e n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s : R e s e a r c h R e p o r t . N a t i o n a l S a f e t y C o u n c i l R e s e a r c h D e p a r t m e n t , C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s .

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C h u r c h m a n , A. ( 1 9 7 6 ) " C h i l d r e n ' s S t r e e t P l a y : C a n i t b e Accommodated?" . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y . ( V o l . 1 ) . H a i f a , I s r a e l .

--__ _-______I-___II-- -

C i t y of S a n t a B a r b a r a C a l i f o r n i a . ( 1 9 7 5 ) ___ C h i l d r e n B i c y c l i s t s : S h o u l d a M i n i m u m Aqe b e R e q u i r e d ? - _-__l-___l_-_--

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-- I-_-_i___

P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t S i t u a t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , (Vol. 1 ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l . -__ -__-

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I_-

__-I

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Downing, C.S.

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r d , A . , & Somers , . R. 9 8 4 ) Do B i c y c l e S a f e t y H e l m e t s Reduce S e v e r i t y o f Head I n j u r y i n Road F r a s h e s ? U n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r N . H . 6 M.R.C. Road A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t , U n i v e r s i t y o f A d e l a i d e ,

lll_-___ll-_-_-_____-l

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A u g u s t .

( 1 9 8 0 ) P r e - s c h o o l C h i l d r e n and T h e i r P a r e n t s ( u n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t ) , D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t , T r a n s p o r t and Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , C rowt h o r n e .

--I--

( 1 9 8 1 ) I m p r o v i n g P a r e n t a l Road S a f e t y P r a c t i c e a n d E d u c a t i o n w i t h R e s p e c t t o P r e - s c h o o l C h i l d r e n Road S a f e t y . P r a e g e r : London , 93-1 01.

l--l_--ll_--

I --l-l_

I_-I-

Downing, C.S . , M u r r a y , G . , & Durow, C . ( 1 9 8 1 ) T r i a l s o f a Road --I_ ----I

S a f e t y B o o k l e t f o r a P r e - s c h o o l T r a f f i c C l u b . R e p o r t 9 9 2 , T r a n s p o r t and Road R e s e a r c h -I_ __ l_-l

L a b o r a t o r y , C r o w t h o r n e .

( 1 9 7 5 ) T h r e a t D e t e c t i o n T r a i n i n g T r a i n i n g P r o g r a m s f o r C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y . ( V o l . 1 & 2 ) . N a t i o n a l Highway T r a f f i c S a f e t y

_-_I_

D u e k e r , R.

l_____l_-___l

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , W a s h i n q t o n D.C .

E c k s t r o m , G . , G a s t r e n . V . , & O u i s t , 0. ( 1 9 6 6 ) " T r a f f i c

E l l i o t t , B.J.

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E l l i o t t , B . J .

- A c c i d e n t s Amongst C h i l d r e n " . I n : H.B. W u l f f , E. F o r s b e g S k a n e t r y c k , & A . B . , M a l u i o , ( E d . s ) . P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A c c i d e n t a n d T r a f f i c M e d i c i n e . I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A c c i d e n t a n d T r a f f i c M e d i c i n e , S tockhom, Sweden,

l_ll-_ll_--__I1

I I-_-

A u g u s t 9-12.

( 1 9 8 0 a ) G u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e " I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f Road S a f e t y P u b l i c i t y C a m p a i g n s " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Road S a f e t y I n i t i a t i v e s Commemora t ive C o n f e r e n c e , M e l b o u r n e .

( 1 9 8 0 b ) "The R o l e o f t h e I n t u i t i v e P s y c h o l o g i s t i n B e h a v i o u r a l R e s e a r c h " . I n : J . M . M o r r i s . ~ ~. S e m i n a r on M e a s u r i n g S o c i a l B e h a v i o u r i n Road R e s e a r c h . A u s t r a l i a n Road R e s e a r c h B o a r d , I__-___

V e r m o n t , V i c t o r i a , 2 3 - 2 4 t h A p r i l .

( 1 9 8 3 ) "How t o d e v e l o p e f f e c t i v e p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n c a m p a i g n s " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f S e m i n a r The R o l e o f E d u c a t i o n i n Road C r a s h P r e v e n t i q n , Road Trauma C o m m i t t e e , R o y a l A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e g e o f S u r g e o n s , M e l b o u r n e , V i c t o r i a .

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I__I_

-- f o r Road S a f e t y & I_ T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y , R e p o r t s i n l e t t e r form t o P. M i l n e , A u g u s t 1 9 , 1 9 8 0 ; O c t o b e r 1 0 , 1 9 8 0 ; December 1 5 , 1 9 8 0 .

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E l l i o t t , B . J . & A s s o c i a t e s . ( 1 9 8 2 ) U n p u b l i s h e d L e t t e r t o P . -- - M i l n e , RoSTA, M e l b o u r n e , F e b r u a r y .

E l l i o t t , B.J. & A s s o c i a t e s . ( 1 9 8 3 ) B i c y c l e H e l m e t R e s e a r c h R e p o r t . U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t t o t h e Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y , M e l b o u r n e , S e p t e m b e r .

E l l i o t t , B . J . G A s s o c i a t e s ( 1 9 8 4 ) *cle H e l m e t I____- Campaign R e s e a r c h R e p o r t . U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t t o Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y , F e b r u a r y .

E l l i o t t , B. & S o u t h D . ( 1 9 8 5 ) The D e v e l o p m e n t a n d A s s e s s m e n t of _II~--

a D r i n k D r i v i n g Campa ign : A C a s e S t u d y . C o n s u l t a n t s R e p o r t , F e d e r a l O f f i c e o f Road

~ - _ _ _ S a f e t y , De ,pa r tmen t o f T r a n s p o r t , CR26 May 1983 .

Embry, D . ( 1 9 8 3 ) D e v e l o p m e n t o f a N e w Zea land P e d e s t r i a n - S a f e t y Programme f o r Young C h i l d r e n _-___I______-_I_-I_ ~ ~~

a n d D o c u m e n t a t i o n OT a Model P r o g r a m m e f o r P r e v e n t i n g C h i l d h o o d A c c i d e n t s . Rough D r a f t , P r e p a r e d f o r N.A. M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t .

Embry, D . ( 1 9 8 4 ) " T h i n g s Cook a n d C a m p b e l l Never T o l d You: A b o u t P r a c t i c a l a n d M e t h o d o l o g i c a l I s s u e s i n S a f e t y I n t e r v e n t i o n R e s e a r c h " . P a p e r d e l i v e r e d t o N e w Z e a l a n d Road T r a f f i c S a f e t y _ S e m i n a r , I W e l l i n g t o n , A u g u s t .

lll_

Embry, D . , & M a l f e t t i , J. ( 1 9 8 0 ) The E f f e c t s o f S t o r y b o o k s i n P r e - s c h o o l e r ' s O u t d o o r P l a y , o r " N e v e r p u t y o u r f e e t i n t h e S t r e e t " . E a r l y C h i l d h o o d I n s t i t u t e Document 1 3 8 , E a r l y C h i l d h o o d I n s t i t u t e :

I _ - _ _ - ~

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P l a y i n g Book: A n E x p e r i m e n t a l E v a l u a t i o n o f a B i b l i o t h e r a p e u t i c A p p r o a c h t o Reduce t h e R i s k of P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s t o 4 Y e a r Old C h i l d r e n . U n p u b l i s h e d d r a f t , F e b r u a r y .

______I-______--

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E u r o p e a n C o n f e r e n c e o f M i n i s t e r s o f T r a n s p o r t . ( 1 9 8 1 "Road S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n f o r C h i l d r e n a n d T e e n a g e r s " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e T h i r d J o i n t C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e E u r o p e a n M i n i s t e r s of T r a n s p o r t , C o u n c i l o f E u r o p e , ~ t r a s b o u r g , 2 -4 December .

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( 1 9 7 4 ) "The T u f t y C l u b E n q u i r y ( 4 ) : An I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e O p i n i o n s o f Head T e a c h e r s , P l a y g r o u p L e a d e r s and Road S a f e t y O f f i c e r s . 'I D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t TRRL S u p p l e m e n t a r y R e p o r t 15UC, C r o t h o r n e : T A R L .

-- _ I---

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~ - - - - - - - - - - -

E n v i r o n m e n t , T r a n s p o r t a n d Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , I S u p p l e m e n t a r y R e p o r t 138UC. C r o w t h o r n e : T R R L .

( 1 9 8 0 ) " M e t h o d o l o g i c a l P r o b l e m s i n P e d e s t r i a n R e s e a r c h " . I n : D . J . O b o r n e & J . A . L e v i s ( E d . s ) . Human F a c t o r s i n T r a n s p o r t R e s e a r c h , (Vol. 2), Academic P r e s s : London , 349-353.

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G r a y s o n , G . B .

G r a y s o n , G . R .

H u t c h i n s o n , T.P. ( 1 9 7 7 ) "The R i s k o f W a l k i n g " . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n 6 , 2 1 7-230.

( 1 9 7 5 a ) The H a m p s h i r e C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t S t u d y . D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t , T r a n s p o r t and Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t 6 6 8 , T r a n s p o r t and Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , C r o w t h r o n e , U . K .

( 1 9 7 5 b ) O b s e r v a t i o n s o f P e d e s t r i a n B e h a v i o u r a t F o u r S i t e s . D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t , T r a n s p o r t a n d Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t ' 6 7 0 , T r a n s p o r t a n d Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , C r o w t h o r n e , U. K.

( 1 981 ) "The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f T r a i n i n g O b j e c t i v e s : What S h a l l W e T e l l t h e C h i l d r e n " . A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s a n d R e v i e w s , 1 3 ( 3 ) . 169-173 .

__

__-_- G r a y s o n , G . B . , 6 H o w a r t h , C . I . ( 1 9 8 2 ) " E v a l u a t i n g P e d e s t r i a n

S a f e t y P rogrammes" . I n : A . J. Chapman, F.M. Wade & H . C . F o o t ( E d . s ) . P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s . J o h n W i l e y & S o n s : C h i c h e s t e r , Ch. 4 .

_

G r e e n , R . N . , 6 S h a r p e , G.S. ( 1 9 8 2 ) C o n t r i b u t i n g N e g l i g e n c e i n P r o m o t i o n o f S a f e t y B e l t Use. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n R e s e a r c h R e c o r d 8 4 4 , 57 -62 .

Greenham, W . , P a t h e , M . , P i t m a n , S. , L S a l m o n , M . ( 1 9 8 3 ) E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e E f f e c t o f S e a t B e l t R e g u l a t i o n s Upon t h e A t t i t u d e s To a n d Usage o f C a r R e s t r a i n t s -- f o r C h i l d r e n i n t h e B r i s b a n e M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a 1 9 8 0 . ~ R e s e a r c h R e p o r t , 1 / 8 3 , Q u e e n s l a n d Road- _____I

S a f e t y C o u n c i l , D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t , Q u e e n s l a n d .

G u i c h o n , D . M . P . , L M y l e s , S.T. ( 1 9 7 5 ) " B i c y c l e I n j u r i e s : One Y e a r S a m p l e i n C a l g a r y " . J o u r n a l o f T ruama , 1 5 - ( 6 ) I 504-506.

G u n n a r s s o n , S.O. ( 1 9 7 3 ) M o t i v a t i n g L o c a l A u t h o r i t i e s To Change _- The T r a f f i c E n v i r o n m e n t w i t h S p e c i f i c E m p h a s i s on Road S a f e t y F o r C h i l d r e n . A C a s e S t u d y - O f T h e M u n i c i p a l i t y Of L e r u m , Sweden. SCAFT R e s e a r c h Group , U n i v e T s i t y o f G o t h e n b u r g , Sweden.

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G u n n a r s s o n , S . O . ( 1 9 8 2 ) " C h i l d r e n a n d T r a f f i c P e r i l s : S t r a t e g i e s t c w a r d c h a n g i n g t h e t r a f f i c e n v i r o n m e n t " . I n : I n t e r n a t i o n a l F e d e r a t i o n o f P e d e s t r i a n s . The V o i c e of t h e P e d e s t r i a n X V I I I , A u t u m n , 105-1 12.

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Haar , R . , L u c c i n i , E . , 6 W e i s s n e r , R. ( 1 9 7 6 ) " A u t o m o b i l e and P e d e s t r i a n - The A c c i d e n t S i t u a t i o n ' ' . I n : P r o c e e d i n q s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , V o l . 1 , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

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Haddon, W . ( J r ) ( 1 9 7 2 ) " A p p r o a c h i n g t h e R e d u c t i o n o f Road L o s s e s - R e p l a c i n g G u e s s w o r k w i t h L o g i c , S p e c i f i c i t y and S c i e n t i f i c a l l y D e t e r m i n e d F a c t " . I n : P a p e r s p r e s e n t e d a t t h e O p e n i n g A d d r e s s , C a n b e r r a , 1 4 - 1 6 March , N a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y Symposium.

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H a k k e r t , A.S. ( 1 9 7 6 ) "A S t u d y o f F a t a l P e $ e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , (Vol. 1 1 , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

I__- -~-_II_ __ l_l_ -__I-

H a k k e r t , A.S. ( 1 9 7 6 ) " S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s o f P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s and T h e i r T r e n d s - G e n e r a l R e p o r t " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y ( V o l . 2 ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l , -_I

143-147 .

H a k k e r t , A . S . , M a h a t e l , D . , 6 L i v o n e h , M. ( 1 9 7 6 ) " T r e n d s Ei

P a t t e r n s o f P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s i n I s r a e l " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y (Vol. 1 ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

-I_--

I --I_

H a u e r , E. ( 1 9 8 3 ) " R e f l e c t i o n s o n Methods o f S t a t i s t i c a l I n f e r e n c e on R e s e a r c h on t h e E f f e c t o f S a f e t y C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s " . A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s a n d P r e v e n t i o n (Vol. 1 5 1 , No. 4 , 275-285.

--_---_il_

I

H a u e r , E. ( 1 9 8 3 ) "An A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e L i k e l i h o o d / B a y e s A p p r o a c h t o t h e E s t i m a t i o n o f S a f e t y C o u n t e r m e a s u r e E F f e c t i v e n e s s " . A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s a n d P r e v e n t i o n ( V o l . 1 5 ) , No. 4 , 287-298 .

---I_

H a v a r d . J . O . J . ( 1 9 7 3 ) " C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n C a s u a l t i e s A s A P u b l i c H e a l t h P r o b l e m " . The V o i c e of t h e P e d e s t r i a n I V , I n t e r n a t i o n a l F e d e r a t i o n o f P e d e s t r i a n s ,

---_-I- __--- S e p t e m b e r 13-1 5.

H e a l t h Commiss ion of V i c t o r i a . ( 1 9 7 8 ) R e p o r t o f t h e Road A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t , Vermont , V i c t o r i a , December .

- - ~ ~ - -

H e l m , K . H . ( 1 9 7 6 ) " B i c y c l e S c h o o l s f o r t h e Young". I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e - = P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , ( V o l . 1 ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

I_---

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( 1 9 7 1 ) Human F a c t o r s i n T r a f f i c S a f e t y : A R e a p p r a i s a l . T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t , N.S.W. D e p a r t m e n t o f Motor T r a n s p o r t , F e b r u a r y .

( 1 9 7 2 ) The Young D r i v e r . T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t , D e p a r t m e n t o f Motor T r a n s p o r t , N.S.W. December.

__- H e n d e r s o n , M .

-_I- H e n d e r s o n , M .

H e n r i g h , H . C . , & L a n g o s c h , I. ( 1 9 7 6 ) " E f f e c t s o f D i f f e r e n t Methods o f T r a f f i c E d u c a t i o n o n C h i l d r e n i n T h e i r F i r s t Year of S c h o o l " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y .

I___

_I__--_ _ _ (Vol. l ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

H e r b e r t , D .C . ( 1 9 8 2 ) "Road S a f e t y f o r C h i l d r e n " . I n : P e a r n J . ( e d . ) The P r e v e n t i o n o f C h i l d h o o d A c c i d e n t s - D e s i g n , E d u c a t i o n and L e g i s l a t i o n G l e b e s N . S . W . C.A.P.F.A. A u s t r a l i a M e d i c a l P u b l i s h i n g . - -

H e r b e r t , D . S . , & Humpreys, M . ( 1 9 7 8 ) F a i r f i e l d on S c e n e S t u d y -I____

of C o l l i s i o n s -- Second-Quarter ly R e p o r t J a n u a r y t o March , 1977. T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t R e p o r t 1 / 7 8 , D e F a r t m e n t o f Moto r T r a n s p o r t N . S . W . , May.

_--I-

H e r b e r t , D . R . ( 1 9 8 1 ) B i c y c l e s and t h e L a w . T h i r t e e n t h Annua l C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e C a n a d i a n S a f e t y C o u n c i l , O n t a r i o , O c t o b e r 4 - 7 .

Hoffman, E . R . , P a y n e , A . , & P r e s c o t t , S. ( 1 9 7 8 ) " C h i l d r e n ' s E s t i m a t e s of V e h i c l e A p p r o a c h T i m e s . ' ' J o i n t A R R B / D O T _- P e d e s t r i a n C o n f e r e n c e , S y d n e y , N.S.W.

H o s h i , T . ( 1 9 7 6 ) " E d u c a t i n g Young C h i l d r e n f o r T r a f f i c S a f e t y . A c t i v i t i e s o f t h e C h i l d r e n ' s T r a f f i c S a f e t y C l u b . ( J a p a n ) . " The W h e e l s E x t e n d e d , - V I , ( 3 ) , W i n t e r .

House of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s S t a n d i n g C o m m i t t e e o n Road S a f e t y , ( H O R S C O R S ) , ( 1 9 7 8 ) R e p o r t on M o t o r c y c l e and B i c y c l e S a f e t y , May.

House of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s S t a n d i n g C o m m i t t e e on Road S a f e t y (HORSCORS), ( 1 9 8 2 ) R e p o r t on E d u c a t i o n , T r a i n i n g and L i c e n c i n g o f D r i v e r s . May.

House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s S t a n d i n q C o m m i t t e e on Road S a f e t y ( H O R S C O R S ) , ( 1 9 8 4 ) R e p o r t on Road S a f e t y - G e n e r a l l y , - O c t o b e r .

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H o w a r t h , C . I . , R o u t l e d g e , D . A . , & R e p e t t o - W r i g h t , R . ( 1 9 7 4 ) " A n A n a l y s i s o f Road A c c i d e n t s I n v o l v i n g C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n s " . E r q o n o m i c s , 1 7 ( 3 ) . 3 1 9 - 3 3 0 . -- -

H o w a r t h , C . I . , & R e p e t t o - W r i g h t , R. ( 1 9 7 8 ) "The M e a s u r e m e n t o f R i s k a n d t h e A t t r i b u t i o n o f R e s D o n s i b i l i t v f o r - C h il d Ped e s t r i a n AC c i d e n t s " . S a f e t y Ed u c a t i o n , 144 , 1 0 - 1 3 . -

H o w a r t h , C . I . , & L i g h t b u r n , A. ( 1 9 8 0 ) " H o w D r i v e r s Respond t o P e d e s t r i a n s and V i c e Ve r sa" . I n : D . J . O b o r n e .% J . A . L e v i s ( E d . s ) Human F a c t o r s I n T r a n s p o r t R e s e a r c h (Vol. 2 ) , Academic P r e s s : London.

H o w a r t h , C . I . & G u n n , M . J . ( 1 9 8 2 ) " P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y a n d t h e L a w " . I n : A . J . Chapman, F.M. Wade, & H . C . F o o t . P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s . J o h n W i l e y & S o n s : C h i c h e s t e r , ch.9. -I_--_ __

H u g h e s , M . ( 1 9 7 5 ) E g o c e n t r i s m i n P r e - s c h o o l C h i l d r e n . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , E d i n b u r g h Un i v e r 3 i t y .

Humphreys , M., & S o b e y , I . ( 1 9 7 8 ) " F a c t o r s C o n t r i b u t i n g t o Ped e s t r i a n I n vo 1 ve m e n t i n Road C r a s h e s 'I. J o i n t ARRB/DOT P e d e s t r i a n C o n f e r e n c e , S y d n e y , N . S . W .

__- I-_

H u r n a l l , D . ( 1 9 7 7 ) G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n S t u d y : S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n a n d E n f o r c e m e n t . G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n S t e e r i n g C o m m i t t e e f o r t h e V i c t o r i a n G o v e r n m e n t , M e l b o u r n e .

--I--

H u r s t . J. ( 1 9 7 7 ) " F a t a l A c c i d e n t s t o C h i l d r e n : I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r . P r e v e n t i o n " . M e d i c a l J o u r n a l o f A u s t r a l i a , 2 , 7 6 8 - 7 7 0 . --

J a m i e s o n , J . R . , C r o f t , P.G. & H e r b e r t , D . C . ( I 9 8 1 ) P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y i n U r b a n Areas - A P r o g r e s s R e p o r t . S p e c i a l r epo r t 81 / 1 2 1 . T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h - - _ _ - ~ U n i t , D e p a r t m e n t o f Motor T r a n s ] J u l y .

?art N . ,S.W.,

J a r v i s , J. ( 1 9 7 8 ) "The P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t S i t u a t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a " . J o i n t ARRB/DOT P e d e s t r i a n C o n f e r e n c e , S y d n e y , N.S.W. -I_-

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J a r v i s , J.

J o h n s t o n , I .

J o n a h , R .A.

J o n a h , B . A . ,

J o n e s , M . H .

( 1 9 8 3 ) " A c c i d e n t s t o C h i l d r e n on A u s t r a l i a n R o a d s " . I n : J. P e a r n ( e d . ) . -- A c c i d e n t s t o C h i l d r e n - T h e i r I n c i d e n c e , C a u s e s & E f f e c t s . C h i l d A c c i d e n t P r e v e n t i o n F o u n d a t i o n o f

I_ I_--

A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e g e o f S u r g e o n s , M e l b o u r n e , 5-44.

( 1 9 8 3 ) " S c i e n t i f i c E v a l u a t i o n o f a Road S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n P o l i c y . " I n : P r o c e e d i n g s of S e m i n a r T h e R o l e o f E d u c a t i o n i n Road C r a s h P r e v e n t i o n , Road Trauma C o m m i t t e e , R o y a l A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e g e o f S u r g e o n s , M e l b o u r n e , V i c t o r i a , November 5.

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( 1 9 8 1 ) D e v e l o p m e n t o f a M e t h o d o l o g y f o r M e a s u r i n g P e d e s t r i a n A c t i v i t y . T r a n s p o r t C a n a d a , TMHS 8101 Road S a f e t y B r a n c h .

_-I_

--_I

G E n g e l , G . R . ( 1 9 8 3 ) " M e a s u r i n g t h e R e l a t i v e R i s k A C c i d e n t A n a 1 y s i s -5 o f Ped e s t r i a n AC c i d e n t s 'I.

P r e v e n t i o n , 1 5 ( 3 1 , 193-206 .

( 1 9 7 6 ) " F a u l t i n q t h e D r i v e r i n P e d e s t r i a n - M o t o r V e h i c l e C o l l i s i o n s " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , -11 ------ -_l_l-I_

(Vel. 1 1 , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

J o s c e l y n , K . , & J o n e s , R. ( 1 9 7 8 ) "Management o f t h e T r a f f i c C r a s h R i s k : A C o n c e p t u a l F ramework" . J o u r n u S a f e t y R e s e a r c h , W i n t e r , Vol. 1 0 , No. 4 , 148-1 61 .

I_

--__ I_-

K a t z , A. ( 1 9 7 6 ) "Some C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f B i c y c l e T r a v e l and A c c i d e n t s i n Towns". I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t e h I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y (Vel. 1 1 , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

K a r p f , R.S., & W i l l i a m s , A.F. ( 1 9 8 2 ) " T e e n a g e D r i v e r s a n d Moto r V e h i c l e D e a t h s " . A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s and P r e v e n t i o n , 1 5 , 55-63 .

I

K e a r n s , I . , & Rothman, J . ( 1 9 8 3 ) F o l l o w - u p S t u d y : The _I_--_-

" B i k e - e d " B i c y c l e E d u c a t i o n C o u r s e . T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t R e s e a r c h N o t e 6 / 8 3 , T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y o f N.S.W., J u n e .

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K e l l e y , M.L., Embry, L . , B a e r , D . M . ( 1 9 7 9 ) " S k i l l s f o r C h i l d Management a n d F a m i l y S u p p o r t : T r a i n i n g P a r e n t s f o r M a i n t e n a n c e . " B e h a v i o u r M o d i f i c a t i o n , 3 , 373-396.

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K e n c h i n g t o n , M . J . , A l d e r s o n , G.J.K., & W h i t i n q , H.T.A. ( 1 9 7 7 ) - An A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e R o l e o f M o t i o n P r e d i c t i o n . T r a f f i c a n d Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y S u p p l e m e n t a r y R e p o r t 3 2 0 , n e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t a n d D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t , B e r k s h i r e , U . K .

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K i d d , A . H . & K i d d , R.M. ( 1 9 6 6 ) "The D e v e l o p m e n t of A u d i t o r y P e r c e p t i o n i n C h i l d r e n " . I n Kidd A . H . & R i v o u r e J. ( e d s . ) P e r c e p t u a l D e v e l o p m e n t i n C h i l d r e n , c h . 5 , London , London U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

-I-__i --I_-_

K n o b l a u c h , R.L. ( 1 9 7 6 ) "The R u r a l / S u b u r b a n P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t

K r u s e , T.,

L a F o n d , D

P r o b l e m " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , (Vol. l ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

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& N i e l s o n , O . H . ( 1 9 8 0 ) " S c h o o l c h i l d r e n s u r v e y of t r a f f i c e x p o s u r e : m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s f rom a p i l o t s t u d y . " P a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o I D B R A I__-- Symposium o n R i s k - E x p o s u r e M e a s u r e m e n t i n Road T r a f f i c S a f e t y R e s e a r c h , A a r h u s Denmark , J u n e 9-11. il_ __- ___

( 1 9 7 7 ) " P l a n n i n g Model F o r B i c y c l e S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e B i k e E d u c a t i o n C o n f e r e n c e . U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d 7 . S . Consumer P r o d u c t S a f e t y

~

C o m m i s s i o n , W a s h i n g t o n D . C . May 4-6.

L a k o w s k i , R . , L A s p i n a l l , P . ( 1 9 6 9 ) " S t a t i c p e r i m e t r y i n young c h i l d r e n . " V i s i o n R e s e a r c h , - 9 , 305-31 2.

L a n e , J . M . , M i l n e , P.W., & Wood, H.T. ( 1 9 8 3 ) -_ E v a l u a t i o n of ___ t h e 1 9 8 1 / 8 2 R e a r S e a t B e l t Campaign . Road S a f e t y & T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y , V i c t o r i a , March . --- I

L a n e , J . M . , M i l n e , P.W. 6 Wood, H.T. ( 1 9 8 4 ) " E v a l u a t i o n o f a S u c c e s s f u l Rea r S e a t B e l t P u b l i c i t y Campa ign" A R R B P r o c e e d i n g s V o l . 1 2 , P a r t 7, pp 18-21. _-

L a u q e s e n , M . , & A n t o n i a d i s , N. ( 1 9 8 4 ) " F a t a l A c c i d e n t s To C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n s " . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o T r a f f i c S a f e t y S e m i n a r , W e l l i n g t o n , N . Z . A u g u s t .

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L e n z , E . Q . ( 1 9 8 2 ) A n A p p r a i s a l ~ of t h e I m p l e m e n t a t i o n & O p e r a t i o n o f t h e 1 9 7 6 Programme of T r a f f i c E d u c a t i o n i n P r i m a r y S c h o o l s . Road T r a n s p o r t D i v i s i o n , M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t New Z e a l a n d .

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L i m b o u r g , M . , & S e n k e l , B . ( 1 9 7 6 ) " B e h a v i o u r o f C h i l d r e n A s P e d e s t r i a n s - S t a t e o f t h e A r t , 1 9 7 6 " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y ( V o l . 2 ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l . I __- -_ --

L i m b o u r g , M . , G G e r b e r , D . ( 1 9 8 1 ) "A P a r e n t T r a i n i n q P r o g r a m f o r t h e Road S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n o f P r e - s c h o o l C h i l d r e n " . A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s a n d P T e v e n t z E , 11 ( 3 ) , 255-267.

L i n d s t r o m , S . ( 1 9 6 6 ) " H O W C a n Town P l a n n i n g C o n t r i b u t e Towards C r e a t i n g A S a f e E n v i r o n m e n t f o r C h i l d r e n i n R e s p c t t o Road A c c i d e n t s " . I n : H.B. W u l f f , E. F o r s b e q S k a n t r y k & A . B . Malmo ( E d . s ) P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e S e c o n d C o n g r e s s o f t h e z t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A c c i d e n t T r a f f i c M e d i c i n e , S t o c k h o l m , Sweden, A u g u s t 9-1 2. 236-239.

( 1 9 8 2 ) P e d a l C y c l e A c c i d e n t s W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 8 0 , H o s p i t a l M o r b i d i t y S t a t i s t i c s S e r i e s B Number I s t a t i s t i c s B r a n c h P u b l i c H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t W e s t e r n A U S t r a l i a .

( 1 9 8 0 ) ( C h a i r ) C h i l d r e n ' s S t o r y b o o k s a s M e d i a t o r s o f B e h a v i o u r Change . Symposium: A s s o c i a t i o n f o r B e h a v i o u r A n a l y s i s D e a r b o r n , M i c h i g a n , May.

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--- Lugq , M . M .

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McDermot t , F.T. ( 1 9 8 4 ) "Why P e d a l C y c l i s t s S h o u l d Wear S a f e t y H e l m e t s " . A u s t r a l i a n F a m i l y P h y s i c i a n , - - Vol. 1 3 , N O . 4 . 284-285.

McDermot t , F . T . , G K l u g , G . L . ( 1 9 8 2 ) " D i f f e r e n c e s i n Head I n i u r i e s o f P e d a l C v c l i s t s and Motor C y c l i s t - - C a s u a l i t i e s i n V i c t o r i a . " M e d i c a l J o u r n a l -_ o f A u s t r a l i a , 2 , 30-32 . -_I-_

McKelvey , R . ( 1 9 7 8 ) "A S a f e Road C r o s s i n g I n t e r n a l D i s c r i m i n a t i o n T r a i n i n g P r o c e d u r e f o r P r i m a r y S c h o o l C h i l d r e n . " J o i n t A R R B / D O T P e d e s t r i a n C o n f e r e n c e , S y d n e y , N . S . W .

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McKnigh t , A . J . , & M c P h e r s o n , K . ( 1 9 8 2 ) " F o u r A p p r o a c h e s t o I n s t r u c t i o n i n O c c u pan t - R e s t r a i n t U s e 'I. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n R e s e a r c h R e c o r d 844, 55-57. _l_l_ __

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McLean, A . J . , B r e w e r , N . D . , .s Sandow, B . L . ( 1 9 7 9 ) A d e l a i d e _I__-

I n - D e p t h A c c i d e n t S t u d y 1975-6 P a r t 2 . P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s P a r t 3. P e d a l C y c l e A c c i d e n t s . A d e l a i d e Road A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t , The U n i v e r s i t y o f A d e l a i d e .

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M a i s e y , G . E . ( 1 9 8 2 ) A P i l o t S t u d y t o A s s e s s t h e I_ E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f P o l i c e T r a f f i c S a f e t y L e c t u r e s t o P r i m a r y S c h o o l C h i l d r e n . P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t R e s e a r c h

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R e p o r t 8 2 / 1 , P e r t h , W . A . , A u g u s t .

( 1 9 8 3 ) Moto r V e h i c l e R e s t r a i n t Use i n V i c t o r i a - November, 1 9 8 2 . Road S a f e t y & T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y R e p o r t 5 / 8 3 ( G R ) , V i c t o r i a , J u n e .

M a n d e r s , S. ( 1 9 8 4 ) Moto r V e h i c l e R e s t r a i n t Use i n V i c t o r i a .

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M a n d e r s , S.

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R e s u l t s o f March 1 9 8 4 S u r v e y . Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y R e p o r t 5 / 8 4 (GR), V i c t o r i a , J u n e .

I

M a t h i e s o n , J . G . ( 1 9 8 4 ) " B i c y c l e S a f e t y " . I n : N a t i o n a l Road l_____l_

S a f e t y Symposium, C a n b e r r a , 29-31 O c t o b e r , D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t . ---

M i c h a l i k , C. ( 1 9 7 8 ) " T r a f f i c Knowledge and T r a f f i c U n d e r s t a n d i n g o f 5 t o 6 Year Old C h i l d r e n " . U n p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t , c i t e d i n O E C D ( 1 9 7 8 ) R e p o r t . S p e c i a l R e s e a r c h G r o u p on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y . - ~ - _ _ _ _ - -I--

Michon , J. A . ( 1 9 8 1 ) " T r a f f i c E d u c a t i o n f o r Young P e d e s t r i a n s : An I n t r o d u c t i o n . " A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s and - P r e v e n t i o n , 1 3 ( 3 1, 163-1 67.

( 1 9 7 9 ) F i t t i n g a n d W e a r i n g o f S e a t B e l t s i n A u s t r a l i a - The H i s t o r y o f a S u c c e s s f u l C o u n t e r m e ~ u ~ . O R 2 .

--I

M i l n e , P.W. -_ ___

O f f i c e o f Road S a f e t y R e p o r t

M i l n e , P.W. ( 1 9 8 0 ) " S e a t B e l t s - The B e n e f i t s G a i n e d and t h e C h a l l e n g e s R e m a i n i n g . " I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f Road S a f e t y I n i t i a t i v e s C o n f e r e n c e , M e l b o u r n e . _-

M i l n e , P.W. ( 1 9 8 3 ) "Road S a f e t v C u r r i c u l u m U n i t " . I n : - P r o c e e d i n g s o f S e m i n a r The R o l e o f E d u c a t i o n i n Road C r a s h P r e v e n t i o n . Road Trauma C o m m i t t e e , R o y a l A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e q e o f S u r q e o n s ,

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M i l n e , P . , W o l s k i , J . , P o l g l a z e , R. & S c u l l y R. ( 1 9 8 2 ) "The D e v e l o p m e n t a n d E v a l u a t i o n o f a n E f f e c t i v e Road S a f e t y Campa ign" . P r o c e e d i n g s o f S e m i n a r - The P l a c e of t h e D r i v e r i n Road S a f e t y , U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w c a s t l e , A p r i l .

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M i y a t a , T . ( 1 9 7 6 ) " T r a f f i c S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n i n J a p a n ' s S c h o o l s : P r o g r e s s Towards T r a f f i c E d u c a t i o n E f f e c t i v e i n S a v i n g C h i l d r e n ' s L i v e s " . __ The E x t e n d e d Whee l , V I ( 3 ) , W i n t e r .

Mohr, e . , P a r s o n s o n , B . , & F i e l d , G . ( 1 9 8 3 ) " T r a i n i n g F i v e Y e a r O l d C h i l d r e n t o C r o s s t h e Road S a f e t y U s i n g P a r e n t V o l u n t e e r s . " P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t N e w Z e a l a n d P s y c h o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y C o n f e r e n c e , Auc k l a n d , Augus t.

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v a n d e r M o l e n , H . H . ( 1 9 7 5 ) B i h l i o q r a p h y o f s t u d i e s o n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t r a f f i c k n o w l e d g e a n d t r a f f i c b e h a v i o u r i n r e l a t i o n t o t r a f f i c s a f e t y - e d u c a t i o n f o r c h i l d r e n . Work ing R e p o r t WR-75.01, U n i v e r s i t y o f G r o n i n q e n , I n s t i t u t e o f Road S a f e t y

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--__I -I I_

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v a n d e r M o l e n , H . H . ( 1 9 8 3 ) P e d e s t r i a n E t h o l o g y : U n o b t r u s i v e I

O b s e r v a t i o n s o f C h i l d a n d A d u l t Road C r o s s i n g B e h a v i o u r . T r a f f i c R e s e a r c h C e n t r e U n i v e r s i t y o f G r o n i n g e n , H a r e n , The N e t h e r l a n d s .

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v a n d e r Molen , H . H . , R o t h e n g a t t e r , J . A . , & V i n j e , M.P. ( 1 9 8 1 ) " B l u e p r i n t of a n A n a l y s i s o f t h e P e d e s t r i a n - T a s k 1 . " A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s a n d P r e v e n t i o n , 1 3 ( 3 ) . 175-191.

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O E C D S p e c i a l R e s e a r c h G r o u p o n P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y . ( 1 9 7 8 ) C h a i r m a n ' s R e p o r t L R e p o r t o f S u b g r o u p I1 Road S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n . T r a n s p o r t & Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y : C r o w t h o r n e , B e r k s h i r e .

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OECD S p e c i a l R e s e a r c h G r o u p on Road T r a n s p o r t R e s e a r c h . ( 1 9 8 3 ) T r a f f i c S a f e t y o f C h i l d r e n . O E C D , P a r i s , A p r i l

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O f f i c e o f Road S a f e t y ( O R s ) ( 1 9 8 2 ) Mak ing Road Usage S a f e r . _-I_-I_-___-

D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t , A u s t r a l i a , J a n u a r y .

O l d e r , S . J . , & G r a y s o n , G . B . ( 1 9 7 4 ) P e r c e p t i o n a n d d e c i s i o n i n t h e d r i v i n q t a s k . U K . T r a n s p o r t and Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y S u p p l e m e n t a r y R e p o r t 4 9 UC. __--I

P a s c a r e l l a , E . A . , ~ o l e y , J . D . , L e v i n e , D . N . , L S t e w a r t , J . R . ( 1 9 7 1 ) C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Y o u t h f u l B i c y c l e R i d e r s i n An Urhan Community & E v e n t s A c c u r i n g t o O p e r a t i o n o f T h e i r V e h i c l e s . U n i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a Highway S a f e t y R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , C h a p e l

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P e a r n , J. ( 1 9 8 2 ) ( E d . ) Th.e P r e v e n t i o n of C h i l d h o o d A c c i d e n t s , D e s i g n E d u c a t i o n & L e g i s l a t i o n . -- A u s t r a l i a n M e d i c a l P u b l i c a t i o n : G l e b e , N.S.W.

P e a r n , J., & N i x o n , J. ( 1 9 8 1 ) S a f e t y i n C h i l d h o o d , A S t u d y o f C h i l d h o o d T r a u m a i n t h e A u s t r a l i a n C a p i t a l T e r r i t o r y . _- C h i l d a c c i d e n t P r e v e n t i o n F o u n d a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a , A u s t r a l i a n M e d i c a l P u b l i s h i n g Company: G l e b e , N.S.W.

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I I__I_____

P e l z , D . C . , & Schuman, S.H. ( 1 9 7 1 ) " E x p o s u r e F a c t o r s i n A c c i d e n t s a n d P r o b l e m s of Young D r i v e r s " . S t u d i e s o f Young D r i v e r s , Highway S a f e t y R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n , Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n .

P e r k i n s , W.

P i a q e t , J.

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P r e s t o n , B.

P r e s t o n , B.

P r e s t o n , B.

( 1 9 8 4 ) . " I m p l e m e n t i n g C h i l d S a f e t y P rogrammes : U s i n g a H e u r i s t i c D a t a - B a s e d D e c i s i o n Making P r o c e s s " . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d t o T r a f f i c S a f e t y S e m i n a r , W e l l i n g t o n , N e w Z e a l a n d , A u g u s t .

( 1 9 5 8 ) The C h i l d ' s C o n s t r u c t i o n of R e a l i t y . London , R o u t l e d g e & Keqan P a u l .

( 1 9 8 0 ) " R e p o r t o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of i n s t i t u t i o n s , o r q a n i s a t i o n s and o t h e r g r o u p s o u t s i d e t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m i n r e l a t i o n t o r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n " . I n : E u r o p e a n C o n f e r e n c e of M i n i s t e r s of T r a n s p o r t , T h i r d J o i n t C o n f e r e n c e on Road S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n f o r C h i l d r e n a n d T e e n a g e r s , S t r a s b o u r g .

( 1 9 7 2 ) " S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s of C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s i n M a n c h e s t e r and S a l f o r d " . A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s a n d P r e v e n t i o n , I 4 ( 4 1 , 323-333.

( 1 9 8 0 a ) " C h i l d C y c l i s t A c c i d e n t s and C y c l i n g

_______I__-- _-

-I - ~ _ _ -

I

P r o f i c i e n c y T r a i n i n g " . A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s a n d P r e v e n t i o n , 1 2 ( l ) , 31-40.

( 1 9 8 0 b ) "The E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f C h i l d r e n ' s Road S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n " . I n : D . J . O b o r n e & J . A . L e v i s ( e d . s ) Human F a c t o r s i n T r a n s p o r t R e s e a r c h (Vol. 2 ) . Academic Press: London , 388-395.

Q u a y l e , G . M . L . ( 1 9 7 8 ) " T r a f f i c R e g u l a t i o n s for P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y " . J o i n t A R R B / D O T P e d e s t r i a n C o n f e r e n c e , S y d n e y , M.S.W.

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R e a

2 6 5

H., B r a d l e y , E . J . , M o r r i s o ? , ' D . , L e w a l l , I)., & C l a r k e , D . ( 1 9 6 3 ) "The E p i d e m i o l o g y and P r e v e n t i o n o f T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t s I n v o l v i n s C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n s . 'I

C a n a d i a n M e d i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n J o u r n a l , E, __ 687-701.

R e i s s , M.L. ( 1 9 7 6 ) "Young P e d e s t r i a n B e h a v i o u r ( A s D e r i v e d f r o m S t r u c t u r e d C l a s s r o o m S u r v e y s ) " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , (Vol. 1 1 , H a i f a , I s r a e l . __---____

R e i s s . M.L. ( 1 9 7 7 ) "Knowledqe & p e r c e p t i o n s o f young . - . p e d e s t r i a n s " I n : P e d e s t r i a n C o n t r o l s , B i c y c l e F a c i l i t i e s , D r i v e r R e s e a r c h , & S y s t e m S a f e t y . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n R e s e a r c h B o a r d , N a t i o n a l Academy

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o f S c i e n c e s ; W a s h i n g t o n D . C .

R e n n i e , A . M . , & W i l s o n , J . R . ( 1 9 8 0 ) " T h e O b s e r v a t i o n of b e h a v i o u r a t r o a d c r o s s i n g f a c i l l t i e s . " I n : D . J . O b o r n e & J . A . L e v i s ( E d . s ) . Human F a c t o r s i n T r a n s p o r t R e s e a r c h , (Vol, 1 1 , Academic P r e s s : London.

R i c h a n d , H. ( 1 9 7 6 ) " S a f e t y o f C h i l d r e n on t h e i r way t o and f r o m s c h o o l . ' ' I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , (vel. 2). H a i f a , I s r a e l . --- -__-I-- I-

R i c h a r d s , N . (1982) B i k e Ed Rev iew a n d E v a l u a t i o n . Hawthorn I n s t i t u t e o f E d u c a t i o n - RoSTA, V i c t o r i a .

( 1 9 8 0 ) A p p r a i s a l o f E x i s t i n g M a t e r i a l Aimed a t T e a c h i n g x o a d S a f e t y . I RoSTA, M e l b o u r n e .

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R o b e r t s , M .

R o b e r t s o n , J . S . , McLean, A . J . , & ' R y a n , G . A . ( 1 9 6 6 ) - T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t s i n A d e l a i d e , S o u t h A u s t r a l i a . A R R B S p e c i a l R e p o r t N o . 1 .

- - ~ - _I_-

R o b e r t s o n L.S . , K e l l e y , A . B . , O ' N e i l l , B . , Wixom, C . , E i s w i r t h , R . S . , & Haddon, W . ( 1 9 7 2 ) A C o n t r o l l e d S t u d y of_ t h e E f f e c t o f ~- T e l e v i s i o n M e s s a g e s % s a f e t y B e l t Use W a s h i n g t o n D . C . I n s u r a n c e I n s t i t u t e for Highway S a f e t y .

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~

R O S T A . ( 1 9 7 6 ) "Why Young C h i l d r e n Dash O n t o t h e Road" . S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n , N o . 2 5 , Autumn. --I-

R o t h e n q a t t e r , J . A . ( 1 9 7 6 ) T r a f f i c E d u c a t i o n i n T r a f f i c T r a i n i n g G a r d e n s : . A L i t e r a t u r e R e v i e w s . I__ T r a f f i c R e s e a r c h - U n i t , G r o n i n g e n U n i v e r s i t y , H a r e n , The N e t h e r l a n d s .

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R o t h e n g a t t e r , J . A . ( 1 9 7 7 ) T r a f f i c T r a i n i n g o f C h i l d r e n : A l__l_

L i t e r a t u r e R e v i e w On t h e B a s i s o f a n I n s t r u c t i o n a l Model . T r a f f i c R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , U n i v e r s i t y G r o n i n q e n , H a r e n , The N e t h e r l a n d s .

----1_1_4__1_- -_ -I-

R o t h e n g a t t e r , J . A . ( 1 9 8 1 a ) "The I n f l u e n c e o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l V a r i a b l e s on t h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f T r a f f i c E d u c a t i o n " . A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s and P r e v e n t i o n , 1 3 ( 3 ) , 241-253.

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R o t h e n g a t t e r , J . A . ( 1 9 8 1 b ) T r a f f i c S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n f o r Young C h i l d r e n : A n E m p i r i c a l A p p r o a c h . S w e t s & Z e it1 i n g e r . -- _I_---_

Rothman, J. ( 1 9 8 0 ) " C o m m u n i c a t i n g Road S a f e t y t o t h e Young Ped e s t r i a n ' I . E f f e c t i ve C o m m u n i c a t i o n i n C h i I d S a f e t y : A Workshop. C h i l d A c c i d e n t P r e v e n t i o n F o u n d a t i o n o f A u s t r a l i a , S y d n e y , O c t o b e r , p.75.

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Rothman , J . , & F r e e d m a n , K . ( 1 9 8 2 ) S p e c i a l p r o b l e m s of t h e y o u n g c h i l d w i t h r e g a r d t o r o a d s a f e t y . T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t , T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y o f N e w S o u t h Wales , A p r i l . RN/5182.

Ro thman , J . & K e a r n s I . ( 1 9 8 5 ) C r o s s i n g Roads I s n ' t C h i l d ' s P l a y . An A d u l t A w a r e n e s s Campa ign A b o u t t h e V u l n e r a b i l i t y o f t h e Young P e d e s t r i a n . T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t R e s e a r c h N o t e , 2 / 8 5 , J a n u a r y .

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R o u t l e d g e , D . A . , R e p e t t o - W r i g h t , R . , & H o w a r t h , C . I . ( 1 9 7 4 a ) "The E x p o s u r e o f Young C h i l d r e n t o A c c i d e n t R i s k a s P e d e s t r i a n s " . E r g o n o m i c s , 1 7 , ( 4 ) , 457-480 . --

R o u t l e d g e , D . A . , R e p e t t o - W r i g h t , R . , & H o w a r t h , C . I . ( 1 9 7 4 b ) " A C o m p a r i s o n o f I n t e r v i e w s and O b s e r v a t i o n s t o O b t a i n M e a s u r e s of C h i l d r e n ' s E x p o s u r e t o R i s k a s P e d e s t r i a n s " . E r g o n o m e , 1 7 , ( S ) , 623-638 .

R o u t l e d g e , D . A . , R e p e t t o - W r i g h t , R . , & H o w a r t h , C . I . ( 1 9 7 6 a ) " F o u r T e c h n i q u e s f o r M e a s u r i n g t h e E x p o s u r e o f Young C h i l d r e n t o A c c i d e n t R i s k a s P e d e s t r i a n s " .

P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n E e r e n c e I n : __-I_-_-------------

on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y ( V o l . l ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l . _-_--_____I-___I

R o u t l e d g e , D . A . , R e p e t t o - W r i g h t , R . , & H o w a r t h , C . I . ( 1 9 7 6 b ) "The D e v e l o p m e n t o f Road C r o s s i n g Skill, b y C h i l d P e d e s t r i a n s " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y ( V o l . l ) , H a i f a , Israel.

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R O Y , L . A . ( 1 9 7 6 ) " B i c y c l e S a f e t y : E v e r y o n e ' s R e s p o n s i b i l i t y " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y (Vel. l ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

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R o y a l A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e g e o f S u r g e o n s (RACS) ( 1 9 8 2 ) Road _I

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R o y a l A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e g e o f S u r g e o n s . ( 1 9 8 3 ) "The R o l e o f E d u c a t i o n i n Road C r a s h P r e v e n t i o n " . P r o c e e d i n a s ~ > - ~~

of S e m i n a r , Road Trauma C o m m i t t e e , M e l b o u r n e , V i c t o r i a , November. -_ __

Ruch , C . R . , S t o c k h o u s e , D . , & A l b r i g h t , D.J. ( 1 9 7 0 ) " A u t o m o b i l e A c c i d e n t s O c c u r r i n g i n a Male C o l l e g e P o p u l a t i o n . " J o u r n a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n C o l l e g e H e a l t h A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 8 ( 4 1 , 308-312.

~_II

Russam, K . t 1 9 7 6 ) "The P s v c h o l o u v o f C h i l d r e n i n T r a f f i c " . _ - I n : P r o c e e d i n q s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y ( V o l . 2 ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

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( 1 9 6 8 ) " C h i l d r e n i n T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t s " . Second N a t i o n a l C h i l d h o o d I n j u r y Symposium, U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r q i n i a , C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e , V i r g i n i a , J u n e

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Ryan , G.H.

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28-30 .

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S a d l e r , J. ( 1 9 6 9 ) C h i l d r e n & Road S a f e t y : A S u r v e y Amolr M o t h e r s . Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , O f f i c e P o p u l a t i o n C e n s u s e s a n d S u r v e y s , London.

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S a l v a t o r e , S. ( 1 9 7 3 ) "The A b i l i t y o f E l e m e n t a r y and S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l C h i l d r e n To S e n s e Oncoming C a r V e l o c i t y . It

Highway R e s e a r c h R e c o r d No. 4 3 6 , Pede S a f e t y , 19-28.

S a n d e l s , S. ( 1 9 6 6 ) "Young C h i l d r e n ' s A b i l i t y t o U n d e r s t a n d T r a f f i c E d u c a t i o n " . I n : H.B. W u l f f , E. F o r s b e q S k a n e t r y k & A . B . Malmo ( e d . s ) P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e S e c o n d C o n g r e e o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A c c i d e n t a n d T r a f f i c M e d i c i n e , S t o c k h o l m , Sweden, A u g u s t 9-1 2 .

--

S a n d e l s , S. (19 .70) "Young C h i l d r e n i n T r a f f i c " . __-_ B r i t i s h __ J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y , 40, 111-116.

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( 1 9 7 1 ) The S k a n d i a R e p o r t : A R e p o r t o n C h i l d r e n i n T r a f f i c . S k a n d i a I n s u r a n c e Company L t d . , S t o c k h o l m , Sweden.

( 1 9 7 4 ) "Why A r e C h i l d r e n I n j u r e d i n T r a f f i c ? Can we P r e v e n t C h i l d A c c i d e n t s i n T r a f f i c ? " The

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S k a n d i a R e p o r t 11, S k a n d i a I n s u r a n c e Company, Sweden, J u n e . -l__l----

( 1 9 7 5 ) C h i l d r e n i n T r a f f i c . P a u l E l e k : London. -_-i__--_II

( 1 9 7 8 ) " C h i l d r e n i n T r a f f i c " , I T E J o u r n a l , J u n e , I n s t i t u t e o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n E n g i n e e r s , 32-35.

( 1 9 8 3 ) S u r v e y o f S e a t B e l t W e a r i n g i n N.S.W. 1970-1981. R e s e a r c h Note 5 / 8 3 . T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t , T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y of N.S.W., F e b r u a r y .

-- --

R o b e r t s , D. ( E d . s ) ( 1 9 7 1 ) The P r o c e s s a n d E f f e c t s of Mass C o m m u n i c a t i o n . Urban U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s .

( 1 9 7 8 ) C o m m u n i c a t i n g Road S a f e t y t o t h e Young P e d e s t r i a n . " J o i n t ARRB/DOT P e d e s t r i a n C o n f e r e n c e , Pape r 2 .

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& B e r r y , C. ( 1 9 7 8 ) C o m m u n i c a t i n g Road S a f e t y t o t h e Young P e d e s t r i a n . E v a l u a t i o n of Road S a f e t y R e s o u r c e Ma te r i a l f o r I n f a n t S c h o o l s . T A R U R e p o r t 4 / 7 8 , D e p a r t m e n t o f Motor T r a n s p o r t N . S . W .

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A u g u s t .

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Motor T r a n s p o r t , N.S.N.

( 1 9 8 0 ) " U n r e p o r t e d T r a f f i c C r a s h e s i n S v d n e v " . - A u s t r a l i a n Road R e s e a r c h B o a r d 1 0 t h C o n f e r e n c e P r o c e e d i n g s , S y d n e y , - 1 0 ( 4 1 , 62-74 . -- ___-

( 1 9 8 3 ) "Bike-Ed What H a s Been A c h i e v e d ? " . I n : P r o c e e d i n q s of S e m i n a r T h e R o l e of E d u c a t i o n i n Road C r a s h P r e v e n t i o n . Road T r a G a C o m m i t t e e , 11111 _- R o y a l A u s t r a l a s i a n C o l l e g e of S u r g e o n s . M e l b o u r n e , V i c t o r i a , November 5 .

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S h e e h y , N . P . ( 1 9 8 2 ) " A c c i d e n t s and t h e S o c i a l E n v i r o n m e n t . " I n : A . J . Chapman, F.M. Wade & H.C. F o o t ( e d . s ) . P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s . J o h n W i l e y & S o n s : C h i c h e s t e r , 2 0 5 - 2 3 0 . --

S h e l n e s s , A . , & C h a r l s , S. ( 1 9 7 5 ) " C h i l d r e n a s P a s s e n g e r s i n A u t o m o b i l e s : The N e g l e c t e d M i n o r i t y on t h e N a t i o n ' s H ighways" . P a e d i a t r i c s , 5 5 ( 2 ) , ___ I 2 7 1 - 2 8 3 .

S h e p p a r d , E . J . ( 1 9 7 5 ) C o m p r e h e n s i o n b y C h i l d r e n o f A e r i a l V i e w s i n Road S a f e t y T e a c h i n g A i d s . T r a n s p o r t & Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t S R I S A V C . D e p a r t m e n t o f

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. - - E n v i r o n m e n t , C r o w t h o r n e , B e r k s h i r e .

( 1 9 7 7 ) Ways I n Which S c h o o l C r o s s i n q P a t r o l s I n s t r u c t T h i l d r e n __- A b o u t - C r o s s i n g Roads . T r a n s p o r t & Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t 7 7 9 ,

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il___________I

- 3 9 6 - 4 0 4 .

S h i n a r , D . ( 1 9 7 8 ) P s y c h o l o g y o n t h e Road: The Human F a c t o r i n T r a f f i c S a f e t y , N e w York , W i l e y .

S i n g h , A. ( 1 9 8 2 ) " P e d e s t r i a n E d u c a t i o n " . I n : A . J . Chapman, F.M. Wade & H.C. F o o t ( E d . s ) . P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s . J o h n W i l e y & S o n s : C h i c h e s t e r , 71 - 1 0 3 .

( 1 9 7 6 ) " P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y ( V o l . 2 ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

--_I

Smeed, R . J . I

S n y d e r , M . B . , & K n o b l a u c h , R.L. ( 1 9 7 1 ) P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y , t h e I

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f P r e c i p i t a t i n g F a c t o r s and P o s s i b l e C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s . O p e r a t i o n s R e s e a r c h R e p o r t No. F.H 1 1 - 7 3 1 2 , U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t , W a s h i n g t o n D . C .

S o u t h A u s t r a l i a n D e p a r t m e n t o f Moto r T r a n s p o r t and D i v i s i o n o f Road S a f e t y ( 1 9 8 3 ) C a r e l e s s D r i v i n g - P e d e s t r i a n P r o m o t i o n a l Campaign . B r i e f i n g N o t e s .

_ _ _ _ ~ -__-

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41-52.

S t a p l e t o n , C . J . ( 1 9 8 4 ) The S t r e e t s Where W e L i v e : A Manual f o r t h e D e s i g n o f S a f e r R e s i d e n t i a l E s t a t e s . D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t P l a n n i n g , T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y of N.S.W., & Land Commiss ion o f N . S . W . S y d n e y .

( 1 9 8 0 ) Road S a f e t y on t h e way t o and f r o m s c h o o l . T h i r d J o i n t C o n f e r e n c e o n Road S a f e t y

I_ S t e i n a u e r , F.

E d u c a t i o n f o r C h i l d r e n & T e e n a g e r s : S t r a s s b o u r g , December .

S t r o n g , S . & R e n k i n , A. ( 1 9 8 3 ) " T h a t ' s j u s t s o m e t h i n g I d o i n t h e a f t e r n o o n s s o m e t i m e s " : A-Study D i r e c t e d a t t h e I m p r o v e m e n t of T r a f f i c S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n i n V i c t o r i a f o r t h e Road S a f e t y a n d T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y (RoSTA). Hawthorn I n s t i t u t e o f E d u c a t i o n V i c t o r i d .

I__ --- -_l--l

- - _ _ ~ -~ l-l_-

I

S t u r t z , G . ( 1 9 7 7 ) " T r a u m a t i c & C o s t M a i n p o i n t s o f I n j u r y Model & C a u s e o f I n j u r y C o n c e r n i n g U n r e s t r a i n e d a n d R e s t r a i n e d C h i l d C a r O c c u p a n t s & A q g r e s s i v i t y a n d C o s t o f I n j u r i e s b y V e h i c l e F r o n t S h a p e s & E l e m e n t s i n R e a l P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s of T w e n t y - F i r s t-STAPP C a r C r a s h C o n f e r e n c e , I S o c i e t y o f A u t o m o t i v e E n g i n e e r s , N e w O r l e a n s , L o u i s i a n a , O c t o b e r 19 -21 , 1093-1140.

--I_

S u m n e r , R . , & B a q u l e y , C. ( 1 9 7 8 ) Speed C o n t r o l Humps i n N o r w i c h - a n d H a r i n g a y . D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t , T r a n s p o r t a n d Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , S u p p l e m e n t a r y R e p o r t 4 2 3 , T r a n s p o r t a n d Road R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , C r o w t h o r n e , B e r k s h i r e .

S.W.O.V. ( 1 9 7 7 ) The P e d e s t r i a n a s a Road User I n s t i t u t e f o r Road S a f e t y R e s e a r c h P u b l i c a t i o n 1977-13 , V o o r b u r q , The N e t h e r l a n d s .

--

T -N r , N. ( 1 9 7 6 ) " P e d e s t r i a n & C y c l i s t B e h a v i o u r and I t ' s M o d i f i c a t i o n - G e n e r a l R e p o r t " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y (Vol. 2 ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

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ll_l--_l

d

A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A c c i d e n t a n d T r a f f i c M e d i c i n e , Highway S a f e t y R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n .

l____l_____l__----l_I_-__-_

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Your Head a n d S a v e Your K i d s " , Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y , S e p t e m b e r , M e l b o u r n e .

T r a f f i c E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n o f P u b l i c Works D e p a r t m e n t . ( 1 9 7 7 ) P e d e s t r i a n , B i c y c l e a n d Motor D r i v e r C y c l e S a f e t y . P r o j e c t N o . 1 4 7 6 0 3 , Pomona, C a l i f o r n i a , A p r i l . l_l--_-__-l_-_ll-__-_-_l_

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--I____

-

T r i n c a , G . ( 1 9 8 2 ) " W h a t ' s B e s t F o r Your C h i l d I n A C a r " . I n : J. P e a r n ( E d . ) The P r e v e n t i o n o f C h i l d h o o d A c c i d e n t s - D e s i g n , E d u c a t i o n and L e g i s l a t i o n . C h i l d A c c i d e n t P r e v e n t i o n F o u n d a t i o n . A u s t r a l i a n M e d i c a l P u b l i s h i n g Company: G l e b e , N.S.W. c h . 4 .

__I___ ~

_I_

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____----I--

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l_-l_-l_-l

_---------I----

( V o l . 1 1 , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

U . K . M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t and A v i a t i o n ( 1 9 5 7 ) The S l o u g h E x p e r i m e n t . H.M. S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , U.K. -- --I-I

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I_

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lll-_l_

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I-

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~ I

- M e d i c i n e P r o j e c t R e s e a r c h R e p o r t 2/283, D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t a n d Road S a f e t y C o u n c i l , Q u e e n s l a n d .

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--

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Wigan , M.R. ( 1 9 8 2 ) "Moto r V e h i c l e a n d B i c y c l e O w n e r s h i p and t h e S t r u c t u r e of U r b a n H o u s e h o l d s " . P r o c . ARRB

I

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Pe r s pe c t i ve s f r o m T r a n s p o r t _-

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W i t t i n g s l o w , G.E. ( 1 9 8 3 ) " I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f F a c t o r s S i g n i f i c a n t l y A f f e c t i n g C h i l d S e a t B e l t U s a g e " . A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s a n d P r e v e n t i o n , 1 5 ( 4 ) ,

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-- Wood, H.T.

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___ __ - -

Z a i d e l , D . ( 1 9 7 6 ) " P e d e s t r i a n and C y c l i s t B e h a v i o u r a n d I t ' s M o d i f i c a t i o n - G e n e r a l R e c o r t " . I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y (Vol. Z ) , H a l f a , I s r a e l . I-__ I_______ _-_I____

--- Z e b r o w i z - M c A r t h u r , L. & E i s e n , S . V . ( 1 9 7 6 ) " A c h i e v e m e n t s o f

Male a n d F e m a l e S t o r y b o o k C h a r a c t e r s a s D e t e r m i n a n t s o f A c h i e v e m e n t B e h a v i o u r b y B O Y S and G i r l s . ' ' J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l i t y and S o c i a l ---I-_ -I_

P s y c h o l o g y , 3 3 , 467-73.

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Z u e r c h e r , R . ( 1 9 7 6 ) “ C o m m u n i c a t i o n s a t P e d e s t r i a n C r o s s i n a s . ‘I ~~

I n : P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y (Vol. l ) , H a i f a , I s r a e l .

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1 . SXate: N.S.W., VICTORIA, Q ' L V .

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