7 x 11.5 long titleassets.cambridge.org/97805216/87591/index/9780521687591_index.pdf · Bayonne treaties, 41 Bechtel Corporation, 181 Behring Sea Seals cases, 42, 43, 251–252, 339

Index

Aarhus Convention, 139, 236governing body of, 135Kiev Protocol and, 135–136types of participation, 133

ad hoc regionalism, 177additionality, 30–31

definition of, 371, 372Marrakesh Accords and, 371national baselines and, 371project-by-project basis, 371

Advanced Informed Agreement procedure,124

Africa, 164, 326AIDS epidemic, 9–10, 37, 410conservation conventions, 28, 30conservation methods, 290least-developed states and, 9Lusaka Agreement, 327natural resources of, 28Protected Areas Protocol (1985), 328radioactive wastes, 430–431sub-Saharan, 9waste transfers in, 431–432water resources, 193See also specific agreements, topics

African Charter of Human and People’s Rights(1981), 129

African Conventions on Conservation of Natureand Natural Resources, 30, 326, 329, 330

agriculture, 143, 298agrobiodiversity, 16, 95, 109, 306agro-chemical market, 414–415CGIAR and, 297–298communal treasury, 311CSD and, 35developing countries and, 95, 299FAO and, 16. See FAOfarming and, 297fertilizer and, 180food and, 297–298, 416

genetic resources and, 86, 97, 99, 111IARCs and. See IARCsMultilateral Treaty on Agrobiodiversity

Resources, 311patentability and, 413PGR and. See plant genetic resourcesresearch and, 294, 299. See also IARCsseed banks, 311seed market, 414–415seed wars, 414sustainable. See sustainabilitytransnational corporations and, 299TRIPs and, 404, 419. See also TRIPswater and, 180, 206–207, 223See also specific organizations, topics

AIA. See Advanced Informed Agreement procedureAIDs epidemic, 9–10, 37, 410air pollution, 89, 102, 343

air as commons, 90bubble approach, 350–351climate change and. See climate changeCLRTAP and, 121common pool resources, 77distributive effects, 102economies of scale and, 90emission credits, 360–361enclosure and, 90, 112gasoline and, 387Montreal Protocol. See Montreal Protocolnotification and, 122ozone and. See ozoneprivatization and, 90regulation and, 377. See specific topicstradable permits, 250. See tradable permitstransboundary pollution, 61–62, 90, 102,

374Albania, 39Amazon region, 289, 333Amazonian Cooperation Treaty, 333American Convention on Human Rights, 129

495

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496 Index

Amoco Cadiz disaster, 160animal rights movement, 16–17Antarctic Seals Convention, 332, 340Antarctic Treaty, 8anthropocentric approach, 30, 33aquifer supplies, 170–171Arabian Gulf Region, 147Aral Sea, 236, 237Arava/Araba basin, 221Areas of Special Conservation Interest (ASCIs),

323Asbestos case, 386, 393ASCIs. See Areas of Special Conservation InterestASCOBANS Agreement, 340–341ASEAN. See Association of South East Asian

NationsAsian Development Bank and the South Asian

Association for Regional Cooperation, 15Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN),

15, 330, 331, 332Australia, 254, 295

EEZ violation, 257MDBC and, 184Nauru case and, 471nuclear tests and, 46–47, 474salmon and, 387, 397, 398, 399

Baltic sea, 162Bamako Convention, 430–431Bangladesh, 173, 174, 177–178, 214, 215Barcelona Convention, 165Basel Convention, 18, 62, 74, 123, 432

amendments of, 433Bamako Convention and, 431compliance procedure, 127developing countries and, 430EC and, 446effectiveness and, 111hazardous wastes and, 124, 428, 432, 441information exchange, 121Liability Protocol, 450, 461OECD and, 432prior notification and, 110radioactive wastes and, 430–431wastes and, 14, 427, 431, 433–434

BAT. See best available techniqueBATNEEC. See best available technology not

entailing excessive costsbats, 336Bayonne treaties, 41Bechtel Corporation, 181Behring Sea Seals cases, 42, 43, 251–252, 339Belgium

Meuse case, 44radioactive wastes and, 151

BEP. See best environmental practiceBern Convention for the Conservation of European

Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 127, 323

Berne Convention for the Protection of Literaryand Artistic Works, 401

best available technique (BAT), 161best available technology not entailing excessive

costs (BATNEEC), 442best environmental practice (BEP), 161bio-regionalism, 295biodiversity. See biological diversitybiological diversity, 37, 166, 288, 295, 304

agrobiodiversity, 16, 64, 95, 109, 306bioprospecting, 303, 305biosphere reserves, 292biotechnology and, 109. See also biotechnologyCBD and. See Convention of Biological

DiversityCBNRM systems, 293–294co-management schemes, 292command-and-control regime, 109common pool resources and, 77communal seed treasury, 311conservation of, 107deforestation and, 289enclosure and, 94, 97, 107, 112ex situ conservation, 300exclusionary protection of, 17FAO and, 308genetic resources and, 49, 97–98Global Action Plan, 308global commons and, 94heritage sites, 94human rights and, 342internationalization and, 93, 107management of, 288market value of, 303national control over, 304national resources and, 93, 106PGR and, 49. See plant genetic resourcesprotected areas, 289rainforests and, 289Rio Treaty on, 32in situ conservation, 300, 342sovereignty and, 300trade and, 314United States and, 87

bioprospecting, 303, 305Biosafety Protocol, 109, 124biosphere reserves, 292biotechnology, 54, 87, 98, 301

biodiversity and, 109. See also biodiversitydeveloping countries and, 49, 99, 100, 342intellectual property rights and, 400, 412, 414PGR and, 97. See plant genetic resourcespatents and, 414

Birdlife International, 336birds, 335, 336black markets, 93BNF. See British Nuclear FuelsBolivia, 181






Index 497

Bonn Convention on the Conservation ofMigratory Species of Wild Animals, 31, 312,313, 335, 336, 340–341

Botswana, 204Boundary Water Treaty, 239, 240, 241Brazil, 289, 304British Nuclear Fuels (BNF), 136Brundtland Report, 32Brussels Convention, 449bubble concept, 366Budapest Treaty on the Deposit of Microorganisms,

402

Cambodia, 211Camouco case, 255CAMPFIRE system, 79, 106CAMPs. See Coastal Areas Management

ProgrammesCanada, 254, 386

asbestos imports, 394Boundary Water Treaty, 239, 240, 241Great Lake Quality Agreement, 240PCB wastes, 427Soviet Union and, 476Trail Smelter case, 40United States and, 192, 239

carbon dioxide (CO2), 20, 22, 103, 356, 375carbon monoxide (CO), 375–376carbon taxes, 26carbon tetrachloride (CT), 344Caribbean Region, 163–164, 334Cartagena Convention, 163cartelization, 84catchment management approach, 184CBD. See Convention of Biological DiversityCBNRM. See Community-based Natural

Resources Management systemCCAMLR. See Convention for the Conservation

of Antarctic Marine Living ResourcesCCRF. See Code of Conduct for Responsible

FisheriesCDM. See Clean Development MechanismCenter for the Improvement of Maize and Wheat,

297–298CERs. See certified emissions reductionscertified emissions reductions (CERs), 367–368,

370CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbonsCGIAR. See Consultative Group on International

Agricultural Researchchemical wastes, 143, 149. See waste management;

specific typesChernobyl disaster, 34, 51–52, 122, 449Chicago Climate Exchange, 374Chile, 258China, 178–179, 211chloride pollution, 231–232chlorofluorocarbons, 344, 345

illegal trade in, 355Montreal Protocol, 348ODS and, 347

CIAT. See International Center for TropicalAgriculture

CIMMYT. See Center for the Improvement ofMaize and Wheat

CITES. See Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), 91CERs and, 367–368funding under, 373Kyoto and, 367project cycle, 370

climate change, 9, 343, 356additionality and, 367–368bubble concept, 359–360, 366CERs and, 367–368Convention on. See Climate Change ConventionCO2 and, 20, 22, 103commons and, 90countries impacted, 357developing countries and, 38, 357, 361forests and, 359–360greenhouse effect, 356incentives and, 26–27Kaldor-Hicks criterion and, 75Kyoto Protocol and, 103. See Kyoto Protocolozone layer and, 103. See ozoneprecautionary principle, 364Rio Conference and, 30, 32sources and sinks, 361

Climate Change Convention, 357, 360, 361,369

administrative provisions, 363consultation process, 127–128emission credits, 360–361as framework convention, 361greenhouse gases, 125–126joint implementation projects, 360–361,

362Kyoto Protocol and, 358, 373. See also Kyoto

Protocolreporting requirements and, 125UNCLOS and, 358United States and, 365

CLRTAP. See Convention on Long-rangeTransboundary Air Pollution

CMS. See Bonn ConventionCO. See carbon monoxideCO2. See carbon dioxideCoastal Areas Management Programmes, 145Cold War, 8collective action problems, 76colonialism, 60, 290. See also specific countriesColorado river, 186, 242, 480Columbia River Basin Agreement, 231,

240






498 Index

command-and-control approach, 26–27, 74, 108differentiation and, 110environmental problems and, 25international environmental instruments and,

73–74, 108MARPOL regime, 155, 158privatization and, 247shipping and, 158waste management and, 110

Commission for the Conservation of AntarcticMarine Living Resources, 256, 283

Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD),35

common heritage rule, 306common pool resources, 294

air quality and, 77biodiversity resources and, 77common property and, 78, 106commons and. See commons, tragedy ofdefined, 76enclosure and, 80exclusionary rights and, 79Hardin on, 75quotas and, 78wastes and, 77

commons, national, 78, 107commons, tragedy of, 76, 81, 93, 401communications, global, 48Community-based Natural Resources Management

system (CBNRM), 79, 293CAMPFIRE system and, 79closed systems, 79–80

community management, 294community participation dialogues, 18complexity, of regimes, 63compliance

Aarhus Convention and, 127due process requirements, 128function of, 128mechanisms for, 114non-adversarial, 128procedures of, 127, 128verification and, 126

compromis d’arbitrage, 56compulsory licensing, 406, 407conciliation approaches, 56Conference of the Parties (COP), 16

arbitration and, 56enforcement and, 315environmental law and, 15FAO and, 16

conservation, defined, 328conservation methods, 290. See specific regimes, topicsconsultation, 123. See specific topicsConsultative Group on International Agricultural

Research (CGIAR), 297–298Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships.

See MARPOL Convention

Convention for the Conservation of AntarcticMarine Living Resources, 257

Convention for the Protection of the MarineEnvironment of the North East AtlanticConvention, 161

Convention on Access to Information, PublicParticipation in Decision Making andAccess to Justice in Environmental Matters,129

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 14, 16,61, 63, 94, 123, 299, 415

African Convention (1968), 329allocation issues in, 342bilateralism of, 311–312biodiversity and, 49, 109bioprospectors and, 305CMS Convention, 336concerns of, 301developing countries, 342equitable sharing and, 54IARCs and, 307information and, 122MTAs and, 415–416objectives of, 302PGR and, 62. See plant genetic resourcesreporting requirements and, 125in situ conservation, 301TRIPs Agreement and, 416–417United States and, 87

Convention on Civil Liability for Damage CausedDuring Carriage of Dangerous Goods(CRTD), 456

Convention on Early Notification of a NuclearAccident, 436

Convention on Environmental Impact Assessmentin a Transboundary Context, 115, 121,125–126, 127, 133

Convention on International Civil Aviation, 13Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), 31,74, 94, 109, 314

Annexes of, 314–315effectiveness of, 111enforcement of, 315–316exceptions to, 315non-compliance and, 127

Convention on Long–Range Transboundary AirPollution (CLRTAP), 122, 374–375, 376

air pollution, 121compliance procedure, 127EMEP and, 121, 377UN/ECE and, 121

Convention on Nuclear Safety, 436Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness,

Response and Co-operation, 159Convention on the Conservation of European

Wildlife and Natural Habitats. See BernConvention






Index 499

Convention on the Safety of Spent FuelManagement and on the Safety of RadioactiveWaste Management, 434

Convention on Supplementary Compensation forNuclear Damage (CSC), 449

Convention on Transboundary Air Pollution, 121,125–126

Convention Relative to the Preservation of Faunaand Flora in their Natural State, 28

cooperation, models of, 10, 11Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and

Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission ofAir Pollutants in Europe, 15

COP. See Conference of the Partiescopyrights, 399Corfu Channel case, 39, 40, 476corporations, 48. See specific organizations; topicscost-effectiveness, of programs

cost-recovery principle, 226efficiency and. See efficiency, 73equity and. See equity, 74international law and, 65regional enclosures and, 96–97See also effectiveness

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 44–45Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural

Rights, 54CRTD. See Convention on Civil Liability for

Damage Caused During Carriage ofDangerous Goods

crude oil washing (COW), 155CSD. See Commission on Sustainable DevelopmentCT. See carbon tetrachloridecultural globalization, 48customary law, 23, 24cyberspace, 81. See also Internet

damage, obligation and, 50Danube Convention, 175–176, 182Danube river, 105, 186, 235data gathering, 124DDT, 143, 162debt-for-nature swaps, 94, 95, 107decentralization, 64, 294decision making

distributive decisions, 76efficiency and. See efficiencyinformation exchange and, 121uncertainty and, 24, 153

deep ecology, 16–17deforestation, 289. See also forestsdesalination plants, 143developed countries, 11, 27. See specific countries,

organizationsdeveloping countries, 87, 169–170

agricultural research, 299agrobiodiversity resources, 95Basel Convention and, 430

Biodiversity Convention and, 342biotechnology and, 49, 100, 342black markets, 111, 327CDM and, 372CERs and, 372climate change and, 357, 361colonialism in, 28, 29compensation demands for, 98costs of enforcement, 100debt-for-nature swaps, 94, 95, 107developed countries and, 11, 33dispute settlement proceedings, 409distributional issues, 69Doha Declaration and, 411, 412enforcement and, 29environmental issues, 9, 29, 70. See also specific

topicsequity and, 68. See equityfood in, 418forests and, 95, 319, 358G-77 and, 9gene banks, 415germplasm resources, 99, 306health and, 69impact assessments and, 32incentives and, 356indigenous peoples, 419intellectual property rights and, 99, 400, 403, 404international enclosure of, 94internationalization and, 107IWRM and, 170Kyoto Protocol and, 110least-developed countries, 110, 406Montreal Protocol and, 110, 355, 356multilateralism and, 404NGOs and, 18patent system and, 404pharmaceuticals and, 49piracy in, 403PGR and, 306. See plant genetic resourcespoverty and, 33. See also povertypreferential treatment to, 68regulation in, 28sanitation and, 169sea-bed mining and, 83side payments to, 343, 349–350, 357special needs of, 33sustainable development and, 33, 38, 70technology transfer and, 32, 353, 356trade agreements and, 68TRIPs Agreement, 408waste transfers to, 446wastewater, 169water infrastructure projects, 169–170WCPC agreement and, 266WIPO and, 404See also specific countries, topics

dieldrin, 143






500 Index

differentiation, 54, 110–111dioxins (PCDDs), 143Directive for Landfill Disposal, 443Dirty Dozen, 143disease, See healthdisplaced persons, 55, 291dispute settlement, 55

developing countries and, 409DSU and, 383–384, 385, 389function of, 128GATT and, 386WTO and, 405, 423See also specific topics

distant water fishing states, 251distributive outcomes, 72Doha Declaration, 411

developing countries and, 411, 412drug patenting, 410TRIPs Agreement, 416–417

dolphins, 295drug patenting, 410drugs. See pharmaceuticalsDSU. See dispute settlementdue process rule, 66, 68dumping, 92, 104, 147, 148

chlorides and, 231–232less dangerous wastes, 148–149mining and, 231–232most dangerous wastes, 148–149

DWFs. See distant water fishing states

Earth Summit. See Rio ConferenceEBRD. See European Bank for Reconstruction and

DevelopmentEC. See European CommunityECE. See Economic Commission for

EuropeECJ. See European Court of Justiceeco-regions, 228Economic and Social Council of the United

Nations, 14, 35, 321Economic Commission for Europe (ECE/UN),

456economic theory, 10, 48economies of scale, 90ECOSOC. See Economic and Social Council of

the United Nationsecosystems, 94

bio-regionalism, 295defined, 288nature reserves, 329sustainable use, 290See also specific types; topics

ECP/GR. See European Cooperative Program forCrop Genetic Resources Networks

education, 37, 70EEA. See European Environment AgencyEEZs. See Exclusive Economic Zones

effectivenessallocation issues, 71–72distributional issues and, 71, 72, 96efficiency and, 73. See efficiencyenclosure and, 107, 111. See enclosureenforcement and, 96–97environment and, 72–73equity and, 65–66, 70. See equityinternational regimes and, 67Kaldor-Hicks optimality and, 72minimum order and, 71, 96Pareto optimality and, 72

efficiencycost-effectiveness and, 73decision making and, 74effectiveness and, 73. See effectivenessincentives and, 73. See incentivesself-enforcement and, 73–74

effort rights, 245–246Egypt, 172, 174, 177, 178, 194, 195, 197

Owen Falls Dam, 197Uganda and, 197

Egypt-Sudan Agreement, 177, 196EIA. See Environmental Impact Assessmentelites, national, 67EMEP program, 121, 125, 377Emerald network. See Areas of Special

Conservation InterestEmergency Protocol, 166emergency situation, 159emission limit values, 163emission reduction units, 367emission trading schemes, 102, 121, 374enclosure

air resources and, 112biodiversity and, 112effectiveness and, 111. See effectivenessequity and, 111. See equityfisheries and, 111genetic resources and, 111–112global commons and, 80intellectual property rights and, 81, 87international regimes and, 112seas and, 112TAP and, 112wastes and, 112–113

endangered species, 108African Convention, 326CITES. See Convention on International Trade

in Endangered Speciesmarine, 244migratory, 335

endrin, 143energy, production of, 175enforcement, 57

COP and, 315developing countries and, 29effectiveness and, 72–73, 96–97






Index 501

incentives and, 74retaliatory measures, 58self-enforcing effects, 73third party and, 73–74, 97See also specific instruments, cases

Enterprise mining company, 84, 85environmental damage, liability for, 466Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), 34, 42,

114–115consultation and, 123four-step process, 115OECD and, 118–119public authority, 134SEAs and, 118–119World Bank, 117

environmental movement, 18Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 90,

387Environmentally and Socially Sustainable

Development Network, 118EPA. See Environmental Protection Agencyepistemic communities, 19equity, principle of, 24, 44, 67, 109,

252as capability, 105

co-riparian nations, 44concept of, 54, 68corrective, 68, 106cost-effectiveness and, 74as defining concept, 53definition of, 100developing countries and, 68distributive, 68, 69, 111effectiveness and, 65–66, 70equality and, 254estoppel and, 68fisheries and, 82–83freshwater sources and, 100good faith and, 68inter-generational, 30international regimes and, 112meritocracy and, 68minimum order and, 68power and, 69power configuration and, 179procedural, 68, 175punitive, 68pursuit of, 65regional agreements, 243resource allocation, 71rules for, 100as self-sufficiency, 105substantive, 68, 172survival of the fittest and, 68tit-for-tat approach, 68utilization and. See utilizationwastes and, 105water resources and, 215, 243

ERUs. See emission reduction unitsESSD. See Environmentally and Socially Sustainable

Development Networkestablished rights, principle of, 196Estai case, 254Ethiopia, 172, 196, 197, 198EU. See European UnionEuratom Treaty, 136–137European Bank for Reconstruction and

Development, 15European Commission, 19European Community (EC), 11, 51, 145,

254fisheries, 254greenhouse gases and, 104hazardous wastes, 445Hormones case and, 396WFD and, 223

European Cooperative Program for Crop GeneticResources Networks, 299

European Court of Justice, 422European Economic Community, 51European Environment Agency, 145, 375European Landscape Convention, 324European Union, 8, 176

bubble concept, 366carbon taxes, 26Fisheries Policy, 247hazardous wastes, 441ICZM and, 247Pacific islands, 275precautionary principle and, 51radioactive wastes, 443Water Framework Directive, 182, 243WCPFC, 275

eutrophication, 141, 143, 381ex situ conservation, 300, 342exclusionary rights, 79exclusive economic zones (EEZs), 49, 149

anadromous stocks, 251delimitation of, 69enforcement and, 254, 255extensions of, 286Fish Stock Agreement and, 82fisheries, 286inspecting in, 262limited, 274small island, 274straddling fish stocks, 258UNCLOS and, 149, 250–251, 254

FAO. See Food and Agriculture Organizationfarming. See agriculturefisheries, 43, 62, 81, 96, 244

anadromous stocks, 250–251, 265–266case law and, 251catadromous stocks, 250–251common elements in agreements, 266






502 Index

fisheries (cont.)distributive issues, 96–97dolphin safe, 267DWFs and, 251EC and, 254EEZs, 286. See EEZseffort rights, 245–246enclosure and, 96, 97, 111endangered species, 244equitable apportionment of, 253equity and, 82–83exclusionary ownership and, 102FAO code of conduct for, 263Fish Stock Agreement, 82Flag of convenience (FOC), 245freshwater and. See freshwater resourcesGermany and, 252Iceland and, 252illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU)

fishing, 277international management, 250ITQs and, 90, 245–246, 249, 294IUU cases, 245, 277, 278least-developed countries, 110lottery systems, 248MPAs, 290–291national management of, 245no-take zones, 290–291oceans and, 26, 81. See also oceansopen access, 97over-fishing in, 244ownership by exclusion, 97permit transfers, 249priorities of states, 254privatization, 247property rights and, 27quotas in, 246RBOs and, 89regional management, 96, 260–261regulation of tuna, 265–266RFOs and, 82, 89, 266, 286salmon, 265–266scientific research and, 259seabirds, 285ship searches, 249sustainability of, 97TACs and, 26, 80, 109, 244–245, 247, 254toothfish, 285total production of, 244tuna, 264–265TURFs and, 245–246UNCLOS and, 250–251VMS and, 257, 271whaling, 337withdrawal rights, 245–246See also specific agreements, countries, organizations,

topicsFisheries Agreement, 61, 258

enforcement, 261

FAO and, 263, 264NGOs and, 261regional organizations, 264reporting requirements and, 125

Fisheries Jurisdiction cases, 123, 252, 260Fisheries Resources regime, 61flag of convenience (FOC), 245fluorides, 149FOC. See flag of conveniencefood, 416

agricultural research centers, 297–298Codex Alimentarius, 421developing countries and, 418right to, 418See also agriculture

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 14, 16biodiversity and, 308fisheries, 263forests and, 321ICCAT and, 281plant genetic resources and, 307RFOs and, 264

force majeure cases, 458, 473forests, 298, 318

ASEAN and, 330–331bioprospecting, 303climate change and, 359–360deforestation and, 289developing countries and, 95, 319ECOSOC and, 321FAO and, 321Forest Principles, 318–319IFF and, 321indigenous peoples and, 319ITTO and, 15, 321management of, 290natural resources, 319rainforests, 95, 289, 320resources in, 70sustainable development and, 32timber, 320UNCTAD and, 320

forum shopping, 69–70, 96, 421Framework Directive, 223France, 254, 255, 256

Commission for Access to AdministrativeDocuments, 134–135

EEZ violations and, 256Genevese aquifer agreement, 230, 231Germany and, 232Lac Lanoux case, 41, 123Netherlands and, 234New Zealand and, 472, 473nuclear testing and, 46, 474, 475ocean dumping, 161Panama and, 255Spain and, 41Switzerland and, 230, 231

free access regimes, 86, 87






Index 503

freshwater resources, 100demand-led management, 206demand-led scarcity, 88Genevese aquifer agreement, 230, 231groundwater. See groundwaterinternational management, 101jurisdictional control of, 171management regimes, 63Middle-East region, 218RBOs. See River Basin Organizationsregional agreements for, 101river basin systems, 77states and, 101TVA, 212–213water resources and, 77, 88See specific regimes, treaties

furans (PCDFs), 143

Gabcikovo-Nagymaros case, 139, 186game theory, 10Ganges Agreement, 177–178Ganges river, 173, 174, 214gas pipeline project, 373gasoline, 90, 387Gasoline case, 389GATS. See General Agreement on Trade in

ServicesGATT. See General Agreement on Tariffs and TradeGEF. See Global Environment Facilitygene banks, 87, 296

communal seed treasury, 311national, 296plants, 415. See also PGRregional, 296IARCs and, 415seeds, 297–298

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),383, 386

Article XX of, 384, 388, 390dispute resolution, 386, 409establishment of, 10most favored nation, 384national treatment rule, 384natural resources, 390

General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS),383–385

General Fisheries Commission of theMediterranean, 282

Genevese aqifer, 170–171, 230geologic disposal, 425Germany

CRTD Convention and, 456Danube regime, 235fisheries and, 252France and, 232Netherlands and, 232Switzerland and, 232

GESAMP studies, 141Dirty Dozen and, 142–143

nuclear power, 142toxic wastes, 142

GFCM. See General Fisheries Commission of theMediterranean

GIS-type databases, 131Global Action Plan, 308global commons, 93

biodiversity resources and, 94enclosure and, 80, 95See also commons; tragedy of

Global Environment Facility, 15, 166Global Programme of Action, 146, 154,

310global property, 400global trade, 299, 314, 383global warming. See climate changeGlobal Waste Survey, 152globalization, 36

anti-corporation strand, 48discontent with, 48environmental law and, 95environmental standards and, 48forms of, 48global welfare, 95human rights and, 95. See also human rightsinternational law and, 47market policies, 48sustainable development and, 47

good faith, principle of, 391good offices process, 56governance mechanisms, 114GPA. See Global Programme of ActionGrand Prince case, 256Great Britain. See United KingdomGreat Lake Quality Agreement, 240greenhouse gases, 104

climate change and, 356Climate Change Convention, 125–126declines in, 360Kyoto Protocol, 359market-based regulation, 369regulation of, 365

Greenpeace International, 167, 472groundwater, 170–171

aquifer supplies, 170–171classification of, 228degradation of, 171inherent priority of use, 171International Law Commission, 191Israel-Jordan agreement, 221landfills and, 425oceans and, 144river basin districts and, 226–227salinization and, 170–171supplies of, 93transboundary resources, 171wastes and, 425

growth hormones, 396G-77 group, 9






504 Index

habitat protection, 316, 329Hague Memorandum, 160halons, 348Hardin, G., 76, 401Harmon doctrine, 173, 214, 239, 240Hazardous Substances Superfund, 437hazardous wastes, 17, 62, 424, 428

Basel Convention, 124, 428, 432controls on, 110CRTD Convention and, 456EC and, 445HNS Convention and, 459illegal transfers of, 111incineration, 426management of, 437, 441transfrontier shipment of, 440, 445U.S. and, 437See specific cases, topics

haze pollution, 331health

AIDs epidemic, 9–10, 37developing countries and, 69drinking water and, 224malaria, 9–10pharmaceuticals and, 409risk assessment and, 396TRIPs Agreement and, 37, 408

heavy metals, 379hegemonic power, 10HELCOM. See Helsinki Convention for the

Protection of the Baltic SeaHelsinki Convention for the Protection of the

Baltic Sea (HELCOM), 153, 162, 226emission limit values, 163OSPAR Convention, 162

Helsinki Rules, 209heptachlor, 143hexachlrobenzene, 143Hobbesian model, 66Hormones case, 387, 394, 395, 396, 398hot air trading, 372human rights, 36–37, 54

African Charter, 129basic standards, 55biodiversity and, 342Declaration of Human Rights, 6displaced persons, 55, 291–292future generations, 32global welfare, 95human dignity, 6indigenous peoples, 20. See indigenous peopleinterests of nature, 16–17international law and, 6NGOs and, 411–412poverty and, 54. See povertyright to development, 8rights of future generations, 30

second generation, 70traditional, 6TRIPs Agreement and, 418water and, 180–181

Hungary, 186, 187, 235hydrocarbons, 143, 344hydroelectricity, 41

IAEA. See International Atomic Energy AgencyIARCs. See International Agriculture Research

CentersIATTC. See Inter-American Tropical Tuna

CommissionIBPGR. See International Plant Genetic Resources

InstituteIBRD. See International Bank for Reconstruction

and DevelopmentICAM. See integrated coastal zone managementICARM. See Integrated Coastal and River Basin

ManagementICCAT. See International Commission for the

Conservation of Atlantic TunasICDM. See Integrated Conservation and

Development ManagementIceland, 252ICES. See International Council for the

Exploration of SeaICJ. See International Court of JusticeICOMOS. See International Council on

Monuments and SitesICPDR. See International Commission for the

Protection of the Danube RiverICPR. See International Commission for the

Protection of RhineICZM. See Integrated Coastal Zone

ManagementIDPs. See Internally Displaced PersonsIFF. See Intergovernmental Forum on ForestsIITA. See International Institute for Tropical

AgricultureILC. See International Law Commissionillegal, unreported and unregulated fishing (IUU),

277ILO. See International Labor OrganizationIMDG. See international maritime dangerous goods

codeIMF. See International Monetary FundIMO. See International Maritime Organizationin situ conservation, 300, 301, 342INBO. See Network of Basin Organizationsincentive systems, 97

efficiency and, 73enforcement and, 74generation of, 26–27instruments and, 102international law and, 74ozone regime and, 103






Index 505

incinerationhazardous wastes, 426landfill legislation, 442oceans, 152, 162wastes, 426

Incomati-Maputo Agreement, 177, 178, 182, 185,192, 204, 205

income, 8, 9. See povertyIndia, 177–178, 214

Bangladesh and, 173, 215Ganges river, 173Nepal and, 216World Bank and, 213

Indian Ocean, 174Indian Ocean Sanctuary, 295Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, 265indigenous peoples, 17, 118

aboriginals, 338conservation methods, 290forest, 319Forum of, 20rights of, 20Rio Declaration, 301

individual transferable permits (ITPs), 26, 80, 90,245–246, 248, 249, 250, 294

Indus river, 177, 212, 213Indus Water Treaty, 175, 213industrialization, 71, 448

air pollution. See air pollutionchemicals, 143. See specific typesdirty but cheap, 91policies in, 350pollutants and, 70. See specific typestechnology and, 90. See technology

information, 120access to, 130–131Basel Convention, 121CBD and, 122exchange of, 121institutionalization of exchange, 206Montreal Protocol, 121–122notification, 122right to, 129, 136Rio Declaration, 121Stockholm Declaration, 121technology, 64, 121water regimes, 206

Institute of International Law, 188insurance markets, 450Integrated Coastal and River Basin Management,

153integrated coastal zone management, 144, 145,

247endorsement of, 144purpose of, 144

integrated conservation and developmentmanagement, 294–295

integrated river basin management (IRBM), 182,225

integrated water resources management, 170, 182,212–213

intellectual propertybiotechnology and, 400, 412commons and, 81developing countries and, 99, 400, 403enclosure and, 81, 87, 97exhaustion of, 407germplasm resources, 310global public goods, 400institutions, 401intellectual property regime, 98patents and, 99pharmaceuticals, 409piracy and, 100plants and. See plant genetic resourcespurpose of, 399regime shifting, 404rights and, 84, 86, 299–300, 310, 399as second enclosure movement, 401software, 400third party enforcement and, 100traditional resource rights, 417tragedy of anti-commons, 88TRIPs Agreement. See TRIPsworked resources and, 99

Inter-American Convention, 392Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission,

264–265Intergovernmental Forum on Forests, 321Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,

19–20, 357–358Internally Displaced Persons, 55International Agriculture Research

Centers (IARCs), 14, 99, 297, 304, 310,415

International Atomic Energy Agency, 14, 122, 124,126

International Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment. See World Bank

International Board for Plant Genetic ResourcesSee IPGRI

International Center for Tropical Agriculture,297–298

International Commission for the Conservation ofAtlantic Tunas, 268, 281

International Commission for the Protection of theDanube River, 235–236

International Commission for the Protection of theRhine, 231

International Convention on Standards of Training,Certification and Watchkeeping of Seafarers(STCW), 159

International Council for the Exploration of Sea,247






506 Index

International Council on Monuments and Sites,318

International Court of Justice (ICJ)adjudication and, 57Article 38 of, 23civil aviation and, 13compromis agreement, 12compulsory jurisdiction, 12–13equity and, 24. See also equityestablishment of international custom, 23judges elected, 13jurisdiction of, 12–13nuclear weapons and, 12, 14, 45Permanent Court of Arbitration, 13sources of law and, 21stare decisis principle, 13United Nations and. See also specific cases, 12

International Dolphin Conservation Program,267

international environmental lawas branch of international law, 67command-and-control character, 108distributional issues, 75effectiveness and, 107. See effectivenessequity and. See equityfoundations of, 59instruments in, 108. See specific organizations;

casesinternational law and. See international lawsoft law instruments, 14See also specific countries, topics, cases

International Institute for Tropical Agriculture,297–298

International Labor Organization, 5, 21, 124international law

areas of concern, 5commissions and, 175–176, 243cost-effectiveness and, 65custom and, 23development of, 5efficiency concerns, 73environment and. See international

environmental lawglobal welfare, 95human rights and, 6. See human rightsincentives and, 74. See incentivesinter-state relations, 6international legal system, 61international police force, 72–73jurisdictional overlap, 16lawmaking process, 20minimum public order, 66peace and, 66, 67, 73persuasion and, 74power and, 61, 174self-enforcing nature of, 74treaties and, 21. See specific organizations

wars and, 5world community and, 5See specific organizations, topics, cases

International Law Association, 209International Law Commission (ILC), 52, 188,

191, 468, 477, 478International Liability for Acts Not Prohibited by

International Law, 475International Management Code for the Safe

Operation of Ships and for PollutionPrevention, 160

International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code(IMDG), 158, 435

International Maritime Organization (IMO), 14International Monetary Fund (IMF), 48, 384International Plant Genetic Resources Institute

(IPGRI), 298international regimes

classification of, 112complexity of, 62, 63definition and, 61effectiveness and, 67. See effectivenessenclosure and, 112. See enclosureequity and, 112. See equityissue-focused, 62parallel bureaucracies, 64regime shifting, 62. See specific organizations,

regimesInternational Rice Research Institute (IRRI),

297–298International River Basin Organizations (IRBOs),

185International Seabed Authority (ISA), 83, 84–85,

147International Timber Trade Organization (ITTO),

15International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources

for Food and Agriculture, 312International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea

(ITLOS), 15, 254International Tropical Timber Organization

(ITTO), 320International Undertaking on Plant Genetic

Resources, 49, 306, 416International Union for the Conservation of

Nature (IUCN), 31, 290, 316–317International Union for the Protection of New

Varieties of Plants (UPOV), 414International Waste Identification Code (IWIC),

433International Whaling Commission (IWC), 16, 337Internet, 64, 131IOTC. See Indian Ocean Tuna CommissionIPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

ChangeIPGRI. See International Plant Genetic Resources

Institute






Index 507

Iraq, 11, 172, 222, 223IRBM. See Integrated River Basin ManagementIRBOs. See International River Basin

OrganizationsIreland, 136, 137, 138IRRI. See International Rice Research Instituteirrigation projects, 180ISA. See International Seabed AuthorityISM Code. See International Management Code

for the Safe Operation of Ships and forPollution Prevention

Israel, 175, 178, 218Johnston agreement, 219Jordan, 219, 220, 221, 231micro-irrigation projects, 180Palestinians and, 222West Bank aquifer, 218, 222

issue-focused regimes, 62ITLOS. See International Tribunal for the Law of

the SeaITPs. See individual transferable permitsITTO. See International Tropical Timber

OrganizationIUCN. See International Union for the

Conservation of NatureIUU. See illegal, unreported, and unregulated

fishingIWC. See International Whaling CommissionIWIC. See International Waste Identification CodeIWRM. See Integrated Water Resources

Management

JapanITLOS and, 254radioactive waste, 151whaling, 338

Jeddah Convention, 164Johannesburg conference. See World Summit on

Sustainable DevelopmentJohnston agreement, 219Jordan, 175, 178

Arava/Araba basin, 221Israel, 219, 220, 221, 231

Jordan river, 170–171, 218, 219–220, 222Jordan-Yarmouk Agreement, 185, 192Judeo-Christian tradition, 16–17justice, access to, 134, 135

Kaldor-Hicks criterion, 68, 72climate change and, 75effectiveness and, 72wealth maximizing and, 72, 74–75

Kiev Protocol on Pollutant Release and TransferRegister, 135–136

PRTRs and, 136Kiribati-EU agreement, 275Kyoto Protocol, 104, 108, 359

CDM and, 367climate change and, 103Climate Change Convention, 358, 365compliance procedure, 127developing countries and, 110emission trading, 366–367ERUs and, 367greenhouse gases, 359LULUCF and, 371Marrakesh Accords, 369NGOs and, 374ratification of, 373Russia and, 373, 374United States and, 359–360

Lac Lanoux case, 42, 53, 186consultation, 123France and, 41, 123notification, 123Spain and, 41, 123

land-use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF),371

landfills, 51Directive for Landfill Disposal, 443groundwater and, 425incineration and, 442wastes and, 425, 443

landscape management, 324, 329definition of, 324management of, 329

Laos, 211LDC. See least-developed countriesLDC. See London Dumping Conventionlead, 90, 149League of Nations, 5least-developed countries, 36, 167

Africa and, 9black waste list, 149–150developing countries and, 110, 406fisheries and, 110radioactive waste dumping, 149–150Russia and, 167TRIPs and, 406

leather industry, 162Lebanon, 218Legality of the Threat of Use of Nuclear Weapons case,

188Leipzig Declaration, 308liability regimes, 448, 450liberalism, 383life-technologies, 99Lilienthal, D., 212–213Lima Agreement, 154, 164Limpopo river basin, 204, 294–295, 296liquefied natural gas (LNG), 460liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 460LLRWA. See Low-Level Radioactive Waste Act






508 Index

Locarno Agreement, 402Lome Treaty, 68, 430–431London Dumping Convention, 31, 61, 148

black list, 142MARPOL and, 146NGOs and, 181996 protocol, 150radioactive wastes and, 142, 426UNCLOS and, 23

lottery systems, 248Low-Level Radioactive Waste Act, 439LRTAP Convention, 31Lucerne program, 299Lugano Convention, 448, 450LULUCF. See land-use, land-use change, and

forestryLusaka Agreement, 327, 328

Madrid Agreement Concerning the InternationalRegistration of Marks, 402

Madrid Offshore Protocol, 147–148Mahakali Treaty, 175, 178, 216malaria, 9–10, 37MAP. See Mediterranean Action PlanMaputo basin, 207Marine Mammal Sanctuary, 295marine protected areas, 290market-based regulation, 369markets, illegal, 111MARPOL Convention, 23, 31, 61, 146

Annexes of, 155command-and-control approach, 155, 158ratification of, 157reporting requirements, 125, 157ship requirements, 92, 156technological standards, 109

Marrakesh Accordsadditionality and, 371CDM and, 369emissions trading provisions, 370Kyoto Protocol and, 369LULUCF and, 371NGOs and, 369

Marshall Islands, 469Material Transfer Agreements, 308–309

bioprospecting, 305CBD and, 415–416plants and, 415–416

MDBC. See Murray-Darling Basin Commissionmediation, methods of, 56Mediterranean Action Plan, 146, 163, 165, 166Mediterranean Land-Based Sources Protocol, 166Mediterranean region, 295Mekong Agreement, 185, 192Mekong Commission, 175–176, 211, 212Mekong River Basin, 178–179, 209Memorandum on Port State Control, 160Merck, Inc., 304

mercury, 148, 162meritocracy, equity and, 68methyl chloroform, 344Meuse case, 44, 53, 185Mexico, 179

Colorado river, 242Harmon doctrine, 173Rio Grande, 242Tijuana rivers, 242United States and, 231, 241

Middle East regiondemand-led scarcity in, 180freshwater resources, 218Johnston plan, 219See also specific countries

migratory species, 335minimum order, 66, 71, 95, 96mining

chlorides and, 231–232dumping, 231–232goldmine, 167oceans and, 146, 147polymetallic nodules, 147sea-bed mining and, 83, 85UNEP and, 146

mixed oxide fuel, 136, 137Monaco Declaration, 324monitoring, 57

nature reserves and, 292reporting and, 124self-reporting, 368

monopoly rights, 399Monte Confurco case, 254, 255, 257Montreal Protocol, 344, 345

Beijing amendments, 349CFCs and, 348compliance procedure, 127Copenhagen amendments, 348, 354developing countries and, 110, 355, 356first phase of, 355halons and, 348information exchange, 121–122licensing system, 349–350London Amendments, 348, 351Multilateral Fund, 351ODS exports and, 347, 349–350technology transfers, 353Vienna Convention, 347

Morrocco, 459most favored nation status, 384MOU. See Memorandum on Port State ControlMOX. See mixed oxide fuelMozambique, 177, 178, 204, 205, 206, 294–295MPA. See marine protected areasMTAs. See Material Transfer Agreementsmultilateral approach, 372Multilateral Material Transfer Agreement, 309multinational companies, 98






Index 509

Murray-Darling Basin Commission, 184

NAFO. See North Atlantic Fisheries OrganizationNAFTA. See North American Free Trade

AgreementNairobi Convention, 164Namibia, 204NAMMCO. See North Marine Mammals

Conservation OrganizationNauru case, 470National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA), 19–20national parks, 28, 292, 329national protected areas, 289NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organizationnatural monuments, 329natural reserves, 28natural resources

community-based management, 293concept of, 390forests, 319. See forestsovereignty and, 299–300, 319See also specific types, regimes

nature reservescolonialism and, 290ecosystems and, 329monitoring and, 292objectives of, 329protected areas, 290in situ conservation, 342wilderness areas, 329

Nauru Agreement, 271NEAFC. See North East Atlantic Fisheries

CommissionNepal, 178, 216Netherlands

costs of pollution, 51France and, 234Germany and, 232Meuse case, 44

Network of Basin Organizations, 209networks, 19–20, 63

information technology and, 64overlapping, 64

new international economic order, 9, 84New Zealand, 46–47, 254, 472, 473newly industrialized states, 9NGOs. See non-governmental organizationsNice Agreement, 402nickel, 149Niger basin, 207, 208Niger-Nigeria Agreement, 208Niger River Commission, 207Nile Agreement, 89, 178, 192Nile Basin, 172, 175–176, 177, 193NIMBY. See not-in-my backyardnitrates, 143, 180nitrogen oxide, 156, 375, 378

no harm principle, 177, 192non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 7

access to justice provisions, 135club model and, 18developed countries and, 18environmental NGOs, 18Fisheries Agreement (1995), 261human rights, 411–412industry NGOs, 19information available publicly, 131MAP regime, 166Marrakesh Accords, 369radioactive waste, 152Rio Agreement and, 32SEAs and, 120water management and, 184World Heritage Sites, 318WSSD and, 38

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),427

North Atlantic Fisheries Organization, 254North Atlantic Marine Mammals Commission

(NAMMCO), 338North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 10North East Atlantic Convention, 154, 161North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission,

275North Pacific Fur Seals Commission, 43North Sea Continental Shelf case, 253, 260Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization,

278not-in-my backyard, 424notification requirements, 122, 123Noumea Convention, 164NPFSC. See North Pacific Fur Seals CommissionNuclear Energy Agency, 436Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 8, 14nuclear power, 462

accidents, 122, 449Brussels Convention, 464Chernobyl. See Chernobyl disasterConvention on Nuclear Safety, 436CSC Convention, 449, 463decommissioned in, 444Eastern European countries, 444generations unborn and, 45GESAMP, 142HNS Convention and, 450humanitarian law, 45–46IAEA and, 14, 126, 464ICJ and, 12, 14, 45legality of use of, 44–45liability and, 449low-level radioactive waste, 142notification, 122NWPA. See Nuclear Waste Policy ActParis Convention and, 464power plants, 428






510 Index

nuclear power (cont.)reactors and, 126regulatory authorities, 436safety and, 436sea disposal of wastes, 142self-defense and, 45terrorism and, 435–436testing. See Nuclear Tests casesVienna Convention and, 464wastes. See radioactive wastesweapons, 142, 428WHO and, 45

Nuclear Tests cases, 46, 469Australia and, 46, 47erga omnes obligation, 46, 475France and, 46, 474Marshall Islands and, 469New Zealand and, 46, 47

Nuclear Waste Policy Act, 438NWPA. See Nuclear Waste Policy Act

OAS. See Organization of American StatesOAU. See Organization of African Unityoceans, 62, 91, 104

Baltic sea, 162Behring Sea Seals cases, 251–252chemical carcinogens, 142coastal wastes, 147, 148coastal zone management, 168deep sea-bed resources, 83dumping and, 104, 147, 148ecosystem approach to, 37enclosure and, 112. See also enclosureevolution of international instruments,

146fisheries and, 26, 81. See fisheriesgroundwater and, 144heavy metals, 143hydrocarbons and, 143incineration and, 150, 152, 162integrated coastal zone management,

144land-based sources of pollution, 92, 108, 147,

154, 161marine environment, 141marine mammals, 251–252marine pollution, 108mining, 146, 147North East Atlantic, 161oil pollution, 143platforms, 150pollution from vessels, 143radioactive wastes and, 142regional seas regimes, 163sewage and, 50, 150, 153shipping and, 92, 104South East Pacific, 258sovereignty is limited, 149

UNCLOS and, 250. See UNCLOSVOCs and, 143See specific organizations, topics, cases

Oder case, 43, 53, 185, 187, 233OECD. See Organization for Economic

Co-operation and Developmentoil

Bunkers’ Liability Convention, 456chemical wastes, 157eliminate rather than control, 155Fund Convention, 453hydrocarbons and, 143Liability Convention, 453oceans and, 143Oil Pollution Funds, 450polluter pays principle, 448, 449, 479, 481pollution and, 143, 155, 450, 451shipping, 143, 451. See also shippingvoluntary compensation schemes, 451

on-site inspections, 126open access systems, 87, 97opinio juris principle, 23OPRC Convention. See Convention on Oil

Pollution Preparedness, Response andCo-operation

Orange-Senqu River Commission(ORASECOM), 204

ORASECOM. See Orange-Senqu RiverCommission

organic pollutants, 165Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD), 15, 436Basel Convention and, 432disposal facilities, 152EIAs and, 118–119industrial waste dumping, 152Nuclear Energy Agency, 436red list procedure, 433waste transfers, 433

Organization of African Unity, 15, 327, 419Organization of American States, 15, 148, 149Oslo Convention, 153OSPAR case, 136OSPAR Convention, 226

Baltic, 162HELCOM, 162Ireland, 137, 138polluter pays principle, 161precautionary principle, 161UK, 138

OSPAR. See Convention for the Protection of theMarine Environment of the North EastAtlantic Convention

Our Common Future. See Brundtland Reportozone, 38, 90, 343, 350–351, 375, 381

air pollution, 387black markets, 111climate change and. See climate change






Index 511

depleting substances (ODS), 121–122, 156, 344,345, 346, 347

hole, 20incentives and, 103Kaldor-Hicks criterion, 75Kyoto Protocol and. See Kyoto Protocollayer, 61–62, 102protection of, 26–27, 30, 346protocols for, 108self-monitoring, 353Vienna Convention and, 346Vietnam Convention and, 344

Pacific islands, 151, 272, 275pacta sunt servanda rule, 21–22, 66, 68PAHs. See polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsPakistan, 177, 212–213Palestinians, 222Panama, 255PAP. See Priorities Action Programmepaper trails, 249Papua New Guinea, 167, 295parallel imports, 407parallel systems, 63Pareto optimality, 72, 87, 100Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial

Property, 153, 401, 404patent system, 399

compulsory licensing, 406Cooperation Treaty, 401developing countries and, 404international classification, 402Patent Law Treaty, 401property rights regime, 99technology and, 405TRIPs Agreement and, 405, 407, 413

PCBs. See polychlorinated biphenylsPCIJ. See Permanent Court of International Justicepeace, international law and, 66, 67, 73Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), 56, 137,

233Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), 5,

185–186Persian Gulf, 143persistent organic pollutants, 102, 165, 375, 379persons, trafficking of, 60pesticides, 25–26, 143, 149, 162PGR. See plant genetic resourcespharmaceuticals, 37, 409

developing countries and, 49Doha Declaration, 410health and, 409intellectual property, 409patenting, 409, 410TRIPs and, 410, 421

phosphates, 143, 471PIC Procedure. See Rotterdam Convention on

Prior Informed Consent

Piggs Peak Agreement, 205plant genetic resources, 61, 64, 86, 87, 97

agriculture and, 311, 413ASEAN Agreement and, 332biotechnology and, 97enclosure and, 97–98, 99, 111–112gene banks, 415germplasm, 415–416intellectual property rights and, 310, 412IPGRI. See IPGRIMTAs and, 415–416patents and, 413, 414seeds, 297–298, 415sub-regime, 63third party enforcement and, 100TRIPs Agreement and, 310UPOV Convention, 414

Plant Genetic Resources for Food and AgricultureTreaty, 50

plastics, 148PM measurements, 375PNG. See Papua New Guineapoint sources, 162Poland, 43, 133Polar Bear Agreement, 341pollutant release and transfer registers (PRTRs),

135–136polluter pays principle, 25, 34, 51, 53, 166, 233,

448, 449identity of polluter and, 481OSPAR Convention, 161PCA and, 233Rhine Chlorides Protocol and, 233Rio Conference and, 34stricto sensu and, 449, 479Watercourses Convention and, 224

polluting of serious consequence, 41polychlorinated biphenyls, 143, 427polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 143POPs. See persistent organic pollutantspopulation control, 35portfolio concept, 372Portugal, 131post-project analysis, 116poverty, 35, 36, 48, 69

average income and, 9definition and, 70developing countries and, 33donor fatigue, 69–70human rights and, 54income and, 8WSSD and, 54

precautionary principle, 25, 50, 53, 150, 166, 188climate change, 364OSPAR Convention, 161precautionary approach, 259Watercourses Convention, 224

Prevention and Emergency Protocol, 166






512 Index

preventive principle, 50, 376prior consultation, 42Priorities Action Programme, 145privatization, 181

command-and-control regulations, 247fisheries and, 247of public utilities, 180water privatization and, 170

production controls, 84property rights, 76, 79. See specific topicsprotected areas

buffer zones, 334co-management of, 292ITPs and, 294nature reserves and, 290tourism and, 290transnational, 294

Protected Areas Protocol (1985), 328Protection & Indemnity Clubs (P&I),Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment

(SEA), 118–119, 134Protocol on the Prevention of Pollution in the

Mediterranean by Transboundary WasteMovements, 432

proximity principle, 92–93, 429, 441–442PRTRs. See pollutant release and transfer registerspublic participation, 129, 133

access to information, 130–131consultation and, 117participation of, 116public authority, 130, 132–133public opinion, 152RBMPs and, 229right to information, 131

pulp and paper industry, 162

QACU. See Quality Assurance and ComplianceUnit

Quality Assurance and Compliance Unit, 118quality of life, 18Quito Protocol, 154

radioactive wastes, 111, 142, 151, 424, 434, 436,438, 444

Africa and, 430–431Bamako Convention, 430–431Basel Convention, 430–431European Union, 443high-level, 438IAEA and, 425, 435illegal transfers of, 111Lome Treaty, 430–431low-level, 439management of, 425, 443medical origin, 443permanent repository, 444reprocessing of, 427, 435

Russia and, 167See also nuclear power

Rainbow Warrior Affair, 472rainforests

biodiversity, 289forests, 320timber trade, 320tropical rainforest, 289

Ramsar Treaty, 30, 124, 296, 322ratification process, 22RBMP. See River Basin Management PlanRBOs. See River Basin OrganizationsRCRA. See Resource Conservation and Recovery

Actreasonableness, test of, 132recycling, 93, 427, 445Red Sea, 143redundant systems, 63refineries, 90regime shifting, 62, 404regional agreements, 109, 243regional enclosures, 96–97Regional Fisheries Organizations, 82, 89, 264

FAO and, 264reprocessing, 427Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

(RCRA), 437reverse listing approach, 150RFOs. See Regional Fisheries OrganizationsRhine Convention on Chlorides, 51, 175–176,

182, 232, 233, 480Rhine river, 105, 170, 231Rio Conference (1992), 29, 32, 35, 105

Agenda 21, 32, 35anthropocentric character, 33command-and-control legislation, 38CSD and, 12, 35Earth Charter and, 33environment and, 12. See Rio Declarationenvironmental law and, 377importance of, 38NGOs and, 32polluter pays principle, 34, 51precautionary approach and, 33, 51Rio Declaration. See Rio Declaration on

Environment and DevelopmentStockholm Conference and, 35sustainable development and, 33, 35, 38

Rio Declaration on Environment andDevelopment, 30–31, 32, 123

indigenous peoples and, 301information exchange, 121polluter pays principle and, 51precautionary principle and, 51Stockholm Conference and, 35sustainable development and, 52See also specific instruments






Index 513

Rio Grande river, 241, 242risk assessment, 478

definition of, 396health and, 396requirements for, 398SPS Agreement, 397

river basin management, 172, 192classification in, 228districts, 226establishment of, 226freshwater sources and, 77institutions, 202RBMPs and, 227South African approach, 204stakeholder participation, 182sustainable development, 182

River Basin Management Plan (RBMP), 227River Basin Organizations (RBO), 176, 182, 183,

223Commissions, 172, 183fisheries and, 89freshwater treaty, 109regional agreements for, 109

Rome, Treaty of. See European EconomicCommunity

Rotterdam Convention on Prior InformedConsent, 124

RussiaCFCs and, 355Kyoto Protocol, 373, 374LDC regime, 167radioactive wastes and, 142, 167See also Soviet Union

SADC. See Southern African DevelopmentCommunity

safety management systems, 160Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS), 160safety regulation, 159salinity, 170–171, 231–232Salmon Case. See Australian Salmon case, 397salmon import, 397Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement

(SPS), 383–384, 385, 394sanitation, 169SAP. See Strategic Action ProgramSARA. See Superfund Amendment and

Reauthorization ActSBTs. See segregated ballast tanks technologyscientific communities, 19, 50, 65Sea-bed Agreement, 84, 85sea-bed mining, 83, 85SEA. See Protocol on Strategic Environmental

Assessmentseabirds, 285SEAFO. See South East Atlantic Fisheries

Organization

seals, 336, 339. See Behring Sea Seals caseSEAs. See Strategic Environmental AssessmentsSecurity Council, 7, 11seeds. See plant genetic resourcessegregated ballast tanks technology, 155self-defense, 58self-enforcement, 73–74self-help measures, 58self-reporting, 368self-sufficiency, 17, 77–78, 105, 429settlement of disputes, 383–384. See dispute

settlementsewage, 50, 153, 170Seychelles, 255shipping, 92

certificates for, 157command-and-control approach, 158crude oil washing (COW), 155flag of convenience (FOC) states, 160garbage from, 156human error, 159Liability Convention, 452limitation funds, 452MARPOL Convention and, 156P&I Clubs, 454pollution from, 104, 143, 147, 154reporting requirements, 157safety management systems, 160SBTs technology, 155STCW certificates, 159–160VMS and, 257, 271

Shrimp-Turtle case, 58, 386, 389, 393, 411–412,420–421

Silent Spring (Carson), 27Slovakia, 186, 187Small Island States, 36SMS. See safety management systemssoft law instruments, 14, 25soft norms, 62software, 249, 400SOLAS. See Safety of Life at Sea ConventionSouth Africa, 177, 179, 201, 204, 205, 294–295south-east Asian states, 9, 330. See specific statesSouth East Atlantic Fisheries Organization

(SEAFO), 268, 269, 270South Pacific Convention on the Conservation of

Nature, 154, 333South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency (SPFFA),

271Southern African Development Community, 185,

192, 199, 200, 201, 204, 328Southern Bluefin Tuna case, 254sovereignty, 6, 49, 107

biodiversity and, 300concept of, 7Harmon doctrine, 173, 239hegemonic power and, 10






514 Index

sovereignty (cont.)liability and, 41limits on, 149natural resources and, 49, 299–300principle of, 6–7self-defense and, 45Stockholm Declaration and, 34WTO and, 422

Soviet UnionAlmaty treaty of 1992, 236–237Aral Sea region, 236Canada and, 476Chernobyl disaster, 34, 51–52, 122, 449Cold War and, 8IWMC, 237Russia. See Russiaspace law, 23water management and, 237

space law, 8, 23Space Liability Treaty, 475, 476Spain, 254

France and, 41Lac Lanoux case, 41, 123

SPFFA. See South Pacific Forum Fisheries AgencySPM. See suspended particulate matterSPS Agreement, 397SPS. See Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

Agreementstakeholder participation, 182standard of living, 70, 201Standstill Agreement, 212stare decisis, principle of, 59status quo, institutions of, 59STCW Convention. See International Convention

on Standards of Training, Certification andWatchkeeping of Seafarers

steel industry, 162Stockholm Conference, 30

Declaration. See Stockholm Declarationhuman dignity and, 54Johannesburg Conference and, 38Rio Declaration and, 35UN Conference on the Human Environment,12

Stockholm Declaration on the HumanEnvironment, 30, 316–317

Fish Stock Agreement and, 82history of, 30information exchange, 121Principle 21, 31sovereignty of states and, 34

Strasbourg Agreement, 402Strategic Action Program, 166Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs), 117

bilateral donor assistance, 120EIAs and, 118–119NGOs and, 120sectorals and, 119

strategic planning and management, 180

Strong, Maurice, 30sub-Saharan Africa, 9subsidiarity, 325Sudan, 172, 174, 177, 178, 194, 195sulphur oxides, 40, 156, 375Sulphur Protocol, 377Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act,

437suspended particulate matter, 375sustainability, 32, 52

commission on, 35developing countries and, 33, 70ecosystems and, 290globalization and, 47Rio Conference and, 33, 35, 38river basin management, 182stakeholder participation, 182sustainable communities, 38WSSD and, 47. See WSSD

Swaziland, 205Switzerland, 230, 232Syria, 172, 174, 218, 222, 223

TACs. See total allowable catchesTanzania, 198, 291taxes, 25–26TBNRM. See Transboundary Natural Resource

ManagementTDPs. See tradable discharge permitstechnology, 8

deep ecology and, 17developing countries and, 32, 353environment and, 26industries and, 90information technology, 121knowledge transfer and, 74Montreal Protocol and, 353patent application, 405renewable, 25technological transfers, 32, 353TRIPs and, 405. See TRIPs

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 183, 212–213Territorial Use Rights in Fishing, 245–246terrorism, 96, 435–436textiles, 162, 404Thailand, 211Tigris-Euphrates basin, 174, 222TIIMA. See Tripartite Interim Incomati-Maputo

AgreementTijuana River, 242timber, 320toothfish, 285total allowable catches (TACs), 26, 244–245, 247,

250tourism, 29, 50, 290

ecotourism projects, 79protected areas, 290souvenir exception, 315–316






Index 515

toxaphene, 143trade, global, 299, 314, 383trade preferences, 74Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights

Agreement (TRIPs), 37, 88, 100, 308,383–384, 385, 402

agriculture and, 404, 419anti-competitive practices, 408Biodiversity Convention and, 416–417compulsory licensing, 406developing countries, 408Doha Ministerial Declaration, 416–417drug patenting, 410exhaustion and, 407germplasm resources, 310health and, 408human rights and, 418indigenous peoples, 419intellectual property rights, 310, 402–403interpretation of, 411levels of protection under, 405patents and, 405, 407, 413pharmaceuticals and, 421technology and, 405textiles and, 404WTO and, 403, 421

trade sanctions, 129Trademark Treaty, 401trademarks, 399Trail Smelter case, 40, 41, 44–45, 47transboundary effects, 42, 102

air pollution and, 61–62, 90, 102, 374harm from hazardous activities, 52International Law Commission, 52LRTAP Convention, 31

Transboundary Haze Pollution Agreement,331

Transboundary Natural Resource Management,294–296

transferable quotas. See ITPstransnational corporations, 299transnational reserves, 294transshipment exception, 315–316tree trade, 383Trail Smelter case, 476, 477trichloroethane, 344Tripartite Interim Incomati-Maputo Agreement,

205, 206TRIPs. See Trade-Related Intellectual Property

Rights Agreementtropical rainforests, 95, 289tuberculosis, 37tuna, 264–265, 281Tuna-Dolphin case, 58, 420–421Tunis-Morocco Nationality Decrees case, 7–8TURFs. See Territorial Use Rights in FishingTurkey, 223

radioactive material, 436

Tigris-Euphrates and, 222, 223as upstream state, 172

turtles, 336, 392TVA. See Tennessee Valley Authority

Uganda, 197UK. See United KingdomUkraine, 235UN Conference on Environment and

Development. See Rio ConferenceUN/ECE. See United Nations Economic

Commission for EuropeUNCED. See UN Conference on Environment

and Developmentuncertainty, 24, 153UNCLOS. See United Nations Convention on the

Law of the SeaUNCTAD. See United Nations Conference on

Trade and DevelopmentUNDP. See United Nations Development

ProgramUNEP. See United Nations Environment ProgramUNESCO. See United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUnited Kingdom, 39, 251–252

Behring Sea case, 43Chemical Release Inventory, 131ocean dumping and, 161OSPAR and, 136, 138public authority in, 130United States and, 43

United NationsCharter of, 5, 6–7, 31ECE and, 456ECOSOC, 14, 35, 321General Assembly, 12, 32ICJ and, 12primary goal of, 59Security Council. See Security Council, 7sovereignty of states and, 6–7. See sovereigntysystem of, 11World Commission, 32See also specific organizations, conferences, topics

United Nations Conference on Trade andDevelopment (UNCTAD), 320

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea(UNCLOS), 22, 61, 69, 84, 121, 123, 146,250

Climate Change Convention, 358consultation and, 124EEZs and, 149, 254enforcement and, 254enterprise mining company, 85fisheries, 251reporting/monitoring, 125Sea-bed Agreement, 84structure of, 84United States and, 85–86






516 Index

United Nations Development Program,12

United Nations Economic Commission forEurope, 115

United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO),292

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 6,12, 14, 30

IPCC and, 357–358leadership role, 200MAP and, 163mining, 146Montreal Protocol, 352Regional Seas Programme, 163ZACPLAN and, 200

United States, 179Article XX and, 390, 391Biodiversity Convention and, 54, 87biotechnology and, 87Boundary Treaty and, 239, 240Canada and, 182, 239carbon dioxide and, 356Climate Change Convention, 365Cold War and, 8Colorado river, 242Cuban embargo, 58emissions trading, 360EPA and, 90European Community and, 27, 387gasoline and, 386, 387Great Lake Quality Agreement, 240groundwater agreements, 170–171Harmon doctrine and, 173, 240hazardous wastes, 437ISA and, 85Kyoto Protocol, 359–360Marshall Islands and, 469Mexico and, 170–171, 231, 241Pacific islands and, 272precautionary principle and, 51refineries and, 388regulation of fishing, 272Rio Grande, 242space law and, 23Tijuana Rivers and, 242trade sanctions and, 58Trail Smelter case, 40UK and, 43UNCLOS and, 85–86waste disposal and, 424, 439, 440

Universal Declaration of Human Rights,6

UPOV. See International Union for the Protectionof New Varieties of Plants

US Standards for Gasoline case, 386, 387user charges, 25–26

utilization, 44, 53, 173, 174, 177, 185–186, 190,192, 196, 208, 209–210, 211

vanadium, 149verification procedures, 126vessel monitoring system (VMS), 121, 257,

271Vicuna Convention, 341Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties,

21–22, 57, 346, 347, 355, 407Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone

Layer, 125Vietnam, 211Vietnam Convention, 344virtual water, 180VMS. See vessel monitoring systemVOCs. See volatile organic compoundsvolatile organic compounds, 102, 143, 375, 379Volga case, 257

Wadden Sea, 336Waigani Convention, 432Wallonia case, 445WANO. See World Association of Nuclear

Operatorswar, 5

self-defense and, 58weapons and. See nuclear weapons

waste management, 62, 92, 105, 424, 425,447

ACP countries, 445ban on, 446Basel Convention, 427, 433–434classified, 433command and control approach, 110common pool resources and, 77dumping and, 57, 148enclosures and, 112–113geologic disposal, 425groundwater and, 425hazardous wastes, 440. See hazardous wastesincineration and, 426landfills, 425, 443marine disposal, 426not-in-my backyard, 424pre-treatment, 426proximity principle, 441–442radioactive, 434. See radioactive wastesseas and, 426sewage and, 15, 153, 170trade, liability and, 461transfer in, 110, 447U.S. and, 424, 439, 440

Water Framework Directive (WFD), 225water resources, 169

allocation, 172, 181biological quality, 228






Index 517

catchment management approach, 184chemical pollution, 231classification of, 228demand-led management of, 180–181drinking water, 36–37efficiency and, 180equity, 243freshwater. See freshwater resourcesgroundwater. See groundwaterhuman rights, 181hydrological regime, 228information and, 206irrigation, 180monitoring of, 228oceans. See oceanspricing schemes, 170privatization, 170quality, 179, 228RBAs and, 223scarcity, 180transboundary agreements, 235water pricing, 181watercourse use, 44WFD and, 225

Watercourses Convention, 44, 53, 61, 63, 88, 110,123, 173, 188, 203, 224

Article IX, 215equitable utilization, 173groundwater and, 170polluter pays principle and, 224precautionary principle and, 224Protocol on Water and Health, 224reporting/monitoring, 125TIIMA and, 206UN/ECE and, 224

WCPC. See Western and Central PacificCommission

WCPFC. See Western and Central Pacific FisheriesConvention

wealthchange and, 72income and, 8Kaldor-Hicks criterion, 72, 74–75

WENRA. See Western European NuclearRegulators’ Association

Western and Central Pacific Commission (WCPC),266, 271

Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Convention(WCPFC), 272–273, 275

Western European Nuclear Regulators’ Association(WENRA), 436

Western Hemisphere Treaty, 333wetlands, 322WFD. See Water Framework Directivewhales, 295, 337, 338Whaling Convention, 64, 337, 339WHO. See World Health Organization

wilderness areas, 329wildlife industry, 290WIPO. See World Intellectual Property Rights

Organizationwithdrawal rights, 245–246WMO. See World Meteorological OrganizationWorld Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO),

436World Bank, 15, 175

categorization of and projects, 118displaced people and, 291EIA and, 117ESSD and, 118India and, 213Indus Water Treaty, 213inspection panel, 118involuntary resettlement, 291market policies and, 48multilateral funding and, 352Pakistan and, 213QACU and, 118SEAs and, 119

World Charter for Nature, 31World Health Organization (WHO), 14, 21,

357–358, 410drinking water and, 224IPCC and, 357–358nuclear weapons and, 45

World Heritage Convention (WHC), 18, 296, 316,317

World Intellectual Property Rights Organization(WIPO), 314

classification treaties, 402Copyright Treaty, 401developing countries and, 404International Patent Classification system, 402Paris/Berne Conventions and, 401

World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 14World Summit on Sustainable Development

(WSSD), 12distributional issues, 69human dignity and, 54poverty and, 54Stockholm Conference and, 38sustainable development and, 47, 52

World Trade Organization (WTO), 6, 11, 14,383–384, 402

dispute settlement and, 405, 423ECJ and, 422market policies and, 48role of, 422sovereignty and, 422trade sanctions, 129TRIPs and, 37, 421

WSSD. See World Summit on SustainableDevelopment

WTO. See World Trade Organization






518 Index

Yugoslavia, 235

ZACPLAN. See Zambezi Action PlanZambezi Action Plan (ZACPLAN), 175–176, 179,

199, 200, 201Zambia, 199

zero pollution, 27, 71zero tolerance, 17Zimbabwe, 79, 177, 199, 204

CBNRM in, 294TBNRM and, 295–296zinc and, 149




