Foundations of Group Behavior

Defining and Classifying GroupsGroup:Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectivesFormal Group:Defined by the organizations structure with designated work assignments establishing tasksInformal Group:Alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determinedAppear naturally in response to the need for social contact Deeply affect behavior and performance

Why Do People Form Groups?Social IdentitySimilarityDistinctivenessStatusUncertainty ReductionNeed for surviveNeed for powerNeed for affiliationCollectivity effectComfort and support

Characteristics of GroupsInterdependence Social interactionPerception of being a groupCommonality of purpose

Five Stages of Group Development Model

The Five Stages of Group DevelopmentForming Members feel much uncertaintyStormingLots of conflict between members of the groupNorming StageMembers have developed close relationships and cohesivenessPerforming StageThe group is finally fully functionalAdjourning StageIn temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than performance

Critique of the Five-Stage ModelAssumption: the group becomes more effective as it progresses through the first four stagesNot always true group behavior is more complexHigh levels of conflict may be conducive to high performanceThe process is not always linearSeveral stages may occur simultaneouslyGroups may regress Ignores the organizational context

Temporary groups with deadlines dont follow the five-stage modelPunctuated-Equilibrium ModelTemporary groups under deadlines go through transitions between inertia and activityat the halfway point, they experience an increase in productivity.Sequence of ActionsSetting group directionFirst phase of inertiaHalf-way point transitionMajor changesSecond phase of inertiaAccelerated activityAn Alternative Model for Group Formation

Group Properties

Group Property 1: Roles RoleA set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unitRole IdentityCertain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a roleRole PerceptionAn individuals view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation Role ExpectationsHow others believe a person should act in a given situationPsychological Contract: an unwritten agreement that sets out mutual expectations of management and employeesRole ConflictA situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations

Group Property 2: NormsNormsAcceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the groups membersClasses of NormsPerformance norms - level of acceptable workAppearance norms - what to wearSocial arrangement norms - friendships and the likeAllocation of resources norms - distribution and assignments of jobs and material

Group Norms and the Hawthorne StudiesA series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at Western Electric Companys Hawthorne Works in Chicago between 1924 and 1932Research ConclusionsWorker behavior and sentiments were closely related.Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting individual behavior.Group standards (norms) were highly effective in establishing individual worker output.Money was less a factor in determining worker output than were group standards, sentiments, and security.

Deviant Workplace BehaviorAlso called antisocial behavior or workplace incivilityVoluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organizationTypology:Production working speedProperty damage and stealingPolitical favoritism and gossipPersonal Aggression sexual harassmentDefying Norms: Deviant Workplace Behavior

Group Influence on Deviant BehaviorGroup norms can influence the presence of deviant behaviorSimply belonging to a group increases the likelihood of devianceBeing in a group allows individuals to hide creates a false sense of confidence that they wont be caught

Group Property 3: StatusA socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others it differentiates group members Important factor in understanding behaviorSignificant motivator

Status Characteristics TheoryStatus derived from one of three sources:Power a person has over othersAbility to contribute to group goalsPersonal characteristics

Status EffectsOn Norms and ConformityHigh-status members are less restrained by norms and pressure to conformSome level of deviance is allowed to high-status members so long as it doesnt affect group goal achievementOn Group InteractionHigh-status members are more assertiveLarge status differences limit diversity of ideas and creativityOn EquityIf status is perceived to be inequitable, it will result in various forms of corrective behavior.

Group Property 4: SizeGroup size affects behavior Size:Twelve or more members is a large groupSeven or fewer is a small groupBest use of a group:

AttributeSmallLargeSpeedXIndividual PerformanceXProblem SolvingXDiverse InputXFact-finding GoalsXOverall PerformanceX

Group Property 5: CohesivenessDegree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group

Managerial ImplicationTo increase cohesiveness:Make the group smaller.Encourage agreement with group goals.Increase time members spend together.Increase group status and admission difficulty.Stimulate competition with other groups.Give rewards to the group, not individuals.Physically isolate the group.

Group Property 6: DiversityDiversity is the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or different from, one another.It may increase group conflict which often lowers members morale, satisfaction and cohesiveness. However it encourages different thought and solutions. In the long term diversity stimulates opennes and creativity.

Group Decision Making vs. Individual ChoiceGroup Strengths:Generate more complete information and knowledgeOffer increased diversity of views and greater creativityIncreased acceptance of decisionsGenerally more accurate (but not as accurate as the most accurate group member)Group Weaknesses:Time-consuming activityConformity pressures in the groupDiscussions can be dominated by a few membersA situation of ambiguous responsibility

Group Decision-Making TechniquesInteracting groups - where members meet face-to-face and rely on verbal and nonverbal communication.BrainstormingAn idea-generating process designed to overcome pressure for conformityNominal Group Technique (NGT)Works by restricting discussion during the decision-making processMembers are physically present but operate independentlyElectronic MeetingUses computers to hold large meetings of up to 50 people

THE IMPACT OF GROUPSON INDIVIDUALSPeople obviously behave and think differently in group situations than they do when acting alone. Some of them are:Social loafingGroup polarizationComformityGroupthink

Social LoafingSocial loafing is defined as the tendency for individuals to exert less effort on a task when they are performing in groups, compared to when they are performing the same task alone.Social loafing occurs in many group situations because the contributions (good or bad) of individual group members cannot be easily identified. Such anonymity often results in group members exerting less effort than they would if they were acting alone.Also it increases in routine-simple tasks.

Managerial Implications for Social Loafing

Build in individual accountabilityPrevent social loafing by:Setting group goalsIncreasing intergroup competitionUsing peer evaluationDistributing group rewards based on individual effort

Group PolarizationAs a group discusses an issue, the views of individuals tend to shift in a more extreme direction, compared to their view prior to the discussion. This tendency is termed group polarization and is defined as the discussion-induced extremization of the group members average position in the initially preferred direction. There are basically two explanations for group polarization that researchers have put forth over the years.

ConformityIt is well known that people often do things as members of groups that they would not do as individuals.Following others and orders without considering any logic. People conform not only in response to authority, but to the demands associated with the roles they occupy in groups. In organizational settings, for example, an employee may engage in a number of behaviors because he or she occupies the role of supervisor.

Conformity

Gaining acceptance by adjusting ones behavior to align with the norms of the groupReference GroupsImportant groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conformAsch StudiesDemonstrated the power of conformance

GroupthinkGroupthinkSituations where group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular viewsHinders performanceThe three primary causes of groupthink,are: a high level of group cohesiveness, structural organizational flaws, and a provocative situational context.

GroupthinkCohesiveness represents the level of attraction that members have toward the group.The most common organizational flaw that leads to groupthink is a leaders stating his or her preferred decision alternative prior to a groups discussion of issues.The term provocative situational context is really a euphemism for a high-stress or high-pressure situation. In these types of situations, the stakes are typically high, and a group may have to make a decision very quickly.

Groups are defined as two or more individuals who come together to achieve a set goal. There are two main types of groups. The first is a formal group where the organization establishes the group with defined work tasks and outcomes. The second group is an information group that is not part of the organizational structure. They are often established in reaction to a need for social interaction and form naturally. Informal groups can have a significant influence on behavior and performance.(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*The five-stage group development model characterizes groups as moving through five distinct stages in the group process. They are forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*The forming stage is filled with uncertainty as group members figure out their roles and the group norms. The storming stage occurs as the roles are continued to be developed and conflict arises between group members. As members develop closer relationships and a sense of cohesiveness they move into the norming stage. When the group is functioning well together and achieving their goals they are in the performing stage. If it is a temporary group they will wrap up activities and adjourn in the final stage. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Although the five-stage development model is widely accepted there are some critiques of the model. The assumption that the group becomes more effective through each of the stages is somewhat suspect. The process is not always that linear and several stages may occur at the same time. Also, groups may regress into early stages at some point in the process. Also, the model ignores the organizational context. We have seen in our study of earlier theories that context can have a large impact on behavior. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model offers an alternative model of group formation for groups with deadlines. Groups that are temporary in nature tend to go through their own unique sequence of actions. These include setting the group direction, the first phase of inertia, a half-way point of transition, major changes, a second phase of inertia and accelerated activity. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*There are several properties of groups that help shape group behavior and explain and predict individual behavior. They are roles, norms, status, size, and cohesiveness. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Roles are the expected behavior individuals will take on in a group such as the leader or the task master. Each role is assigned a certain identity that explains expected attitudes and behaviors that correspond with the role identity. Each individual has their own point of view of how they are supposed to act in the context of the group; this is called role perception. Role expectations looks at how others believe a person should act in a given situation. Role conflict occurs when the expected behaviors dont match up with the behaviors being exhibited.(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Norms are standards of behavior that are acceptable by group members. There are different types of norms such as performance norms that look at an acceptable work level or quality or appearance norms about what to wear. Social arrangement norms look at acceptable relationships and allocation of resources norms look at how things are distributed. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*The Hawthorne studies were conducted in the 1920/30s. Their findings have been widely used in the understanding of group interactions. These studies found that worker behavior was highly influence by group norms and that individual productivity was influenced by the standards the group set forth. Also, money was not as important in determining worker output as group standards and sentiments were. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Some individuals do not like to conform and adhere to set norms due to a number of reasons. Individuals of this nature may engage in deviant workplace behavior or behavior that goes against organizational norms and hinders the desired outcomes of the organization.(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Group norms can discourage deviant behavior because the group wont accept the behavior. But group membership can also encourage deviant behavior because the individual will feel like they can hide in the group and the chance of being caught is lowered.(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Status is another group property and refers to the position or rank given to groups or their members in a way to differentiate members. Status can influence behavior and has been found to be a significant motivator. The status characteristics theory suggest that status is derived by one of three sources: the power a person has over others; the ability to contribute to group goals; or personal characteristics. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Status can have an impact on a number of things in groups. First, it can impact norms within a group where high-status members dont feel the need to conform to group norms, but can pressure others to conform. Second, it can impact group interaction where members who hold more status tend to be more assertive and can hinder new ideas being presented. Finally, it impacts perceived equity in a group which will influence how engaged others are in the group process.(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Size is an important factor in group behavior as well and impacts the behavior in groups. The larger the group, the harder it is to get contribution by all members and do so in a timely manner. Whereas small groups can be limited in their problem-solving ability and the availability of resources could be limited. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*The final property of groups is group cohesiveness or the degree to which group members want to stay together and are motivated to work together as a group.

Managers can do a lot to encourage group cohesiveness but they cant prescribe it. Some things they can do to foster cohesiveness is to keep groups small, encourage all members understanding of group goals, increase the time the group spends together, and heighten their perceived status. In addition, by stimulating competition with other groups, members will find ways to work together. Managers can also reward the group as a whole and not just individuals within the group. Finally they can physically isolate the group by sending them on a retreat or giving them their own work space. Their actions can significantly influence group cohesiveness. (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Group decision making comes with its strengths and weaknesses when compared to individual decision making. Groups do tend to generate more complete information and knowledge as well as offer a greater diversity of views and increased creativity. Since more people are involved in the decision, there tends to be an increased acceptance of decisions and generally group decisions are more accurate.

However, group decisions also are more time consuming and can conform to pressures in the group, thus limiting their effectiveness. In the process, discussions can be dominated by a few members. The members of the group may not always take responsibility for the actions of the group as it is hard to assign responsibility to a single person.(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*Some group techniques can assist in the decision-making process. The first technique that can help is brainstorming. This is a process that is aimed at generating ideas where all ideas are welcomed and the group tries to create an environment that overcomes pressure for conformity. The nominal group technique works by restricting discussion during the decision-making process to help participants to operate independently. The third method is to utilize computers to hold large meetings and people submit their ideas in writing electronically.(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.*