7. Emotions and Culture

8/6/2019 7. Emotions and Culture

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Emotions and CultureEmotions and Culture



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Emotions and RationalityEmotions and Rationality

People tend to believe that emotions make usPeople tend to believe that emotions make us

do irrational things.do irrational things.

But emotions must be beneficial. OtherwiseBut emotions must be beneficial. Otherwisenatural selection would have eliminated them.natural selection would have eliminated them.

Emotions are conscious experiences, but theyEmotions are conscious experiences, but theyseem immune to conscious control (one cannotseem immune to conscious control (one cannotdecide to feel guilty, jealous, joyful,...).decide to feel guilty, jealous, joyful,...).



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Emotions are valuable functions in linkingEmotions are valuable functions in linkingmotivations to thought and action.motivations to thought and action.

E.g.: one avoids actions which make oneE.g.: one avoids actions which make onefeels bad, one pursues positive emotions.feels bad, one pursues positive emotions.

Among cultural animals the emotionalAmong cultural animals the emotionalsystem is highly plastic.system is highly plastic.

E.g.: one feels sad about one’s team result,E.g.: one feels sad about one’s team result,envious about someone’s car, …. Thusenvious about someone’s car, …. Thusculture can influence people’s behavior.culture can influence people’s behavior.



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The nature of emotionsThe nature of emotions

emotionsemotions vs.vs. affects:affects:

The former are complex, the latter are simply The former are complex, the latter are simplypositive or negative feelings (anxiety, anger,positive or negative feelings (anxiety, anger,

jealousy, … are all grouped together as jealousy, … are all grouped together asnegative affects).negative affects).

Affects are fast reactions, while emotions canAffects are fast reactions, while emotions cantake some time to develop.take some time to develop.



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Affects seem linked to the automatic mindAffects seem linked to the automatic mindwhile emotions seem more closed to thewhile emotions seem more closed to theconscious system.conscious system.

Emotions are usually conscious experiences.Emotions are usually conscious experiences.

Affects can occur at the margin of Affects can occur at the margin of

consciousness.consciousness.





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The temporality of emotionsThe temporality of emotions

Emotions are triggered by changes andEmotions are triggered by changes and

departures from the status quo. As such theydepartures from the status quo. As such theyhelp drawing one’s attention toward somethinghelp drawing one’s attention toward somethingthat just changed.that just changed.

Affect is one important component of attitudes.Affect is one important component of attitudes.So attitudes toward most things can beSo attitudes toward most things can beassessed on a scale that simply ask for oneassessed on a scale that simply ask for onedimensional rating:dimensional rating: likingliking vs.vs. dislikingdisliking..



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The human psyche has The human psyche has two separate emotiontwo separate emotionsystemssystems, one for positive and pleasant emotions,, one for positive and pleasant emotions,the other for unpleasant ones. This reflects athe other for unpleasant ones. This reflects amixture of contradictory patterns: one cannot feelmixture of contradictory patterns: one cannot feel

good and bad simultaneously.good and bad simultaneously.

Another dimension of emotions isAnother dimension of emotions is high/lowhigh/lowarousalarousal (e.g. sadness is low in arousal).(e.g. sadness is low in arousal).

Four categories of emotions: 1. high arousal +Four categories of emotions: 1. high arousal +pleasant; 2. low arousal + pleasant; 3. highpleasant; 2. low arousal + pleasant; 3. higharousal + unpleasant; 4. low arousal +arousal + unpleasant; 4. low arousal +unpleasant.unpleasant.



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Emotions and Cultural DifferencesEmotions and Cultural Differences

People from different cultures can translatePeople from different cultures can translate

emotion words and recognize facial expressionsemotion words and recognize facial expressionsof emotions.of emotions.

Thus Thus some aspectssome aspects of emotions areof emotions are universaluniversaland innateand innate..

Innate emotional tendencies: babies expressInnate emotional tendencies: babies expressvarious emotions long before they could learnvarious emotions long before they could learnthem (e.g.: blind babies smile when happy).them (e.g.: blind babies smile when happy).



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Facial expressionsFacial expressions

They “translate” the natural innate part of They “translate” the natural innate part of

emotions.emotions.

CultureCulture

Can teach people toCan teach people to conceal conceal their feelings.their feelings.

E.g.: people don’t maximally express theirE.g.: people don’t maximally express theirfacial expressions.facial expressions.



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The role of culture is not to create emotions The role of culture is not to create emotionsbut to restrain and conceal them.but to restrain and conceal them.

Culture can use emotions to control behaviorCulture can use emotions to control behaviorinsofar as it can teach people to have variousinsofar as it can teach people to have variousemotional reactions to some particularemotional reactions to some particularevents.events.





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Emotions communicate from motivation toEmotions communicate from motivation to

both cognition and action.both cognition and action.

They help keeping the cognitive system They help keeping the cognitive system

focused on things that matter.focused on things that matter.



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Emotions and BelongingnessEmotions and Belongingness

Emotions operate to guide and support theEmotions operate to guide and support the

effort to belong.effort to belong.

Positive emotions are linked toPositive emotions are linked toforming/upgrading relationships.forming/upgrading relationships.

E.g.: unpleasant emotions coming fromE.g.: unpleasant emotions coming fromdamaging or breaking off relationships.damaging or breaking off relationships.



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AnxietyAnxiety

It’s the most powerful form of emotional distress.It’s the most powerful form of emotional distress.

Two main categories: (i) less common and less Two main categories: (i) less common and less

powerful is the fear of death and accident;powerful is the fear of death and accident;

(ii) more powerful and common is the fear of (ii) more powerful and common is the fear of social exclusion (e.g.: rejected by loved ones, bysocial exclusion (e.g.: rejected by loved ones, bypartner, …).partner, …).

Shyness and social anxiety often have the effectShyness and social anxiety often have the effectof making one avoiding other people for fear of of making one avoiding other people for fear of being rejected.being rejected.



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Emotions link motivation and cognitionEmotions link motivation and cognition

Emotions force people to think about thingsEmotions force people to think about thingsthat matter (as defined by one’s wants andthat matter (as defined by one’s wants andneeds).needs).

One doesn’t have emotional reaction aboutOne doesn’t have emotional reaction about

things one doesn’t care about.things one doesn’t care about.



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Mental effect of emotional arousalMental effect of emotional arousal

During emotions one is alert and typicallyDuring emotions one is alert and typically

focused on the present.focused on the present.

One performs better at an intermediateOne performs better at an intermediatelevels of arousal.levels of arousal.

No arousal means indifference while highNo arousal means indifference while higharousal can be disruptive.arousal can be disruptive.



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Emotions get the body ready for action andEmotions get the body ready for action andarise in connection with the image of thearise in connection with the image of theanticipated outcome.anticipated outcome.

As such they help planning.As such they help planning.

Yet the emotional system doesn’t distinguish Yet the emotional system doesn’t distinguishwell between different probabilities.well between different probabilities.

It works on theIt works on the definitely/maybe scaledefinitely/maybe scale without recognizing the varies scales of without recognizing the varies scales of maybe. This facilitates quick actions.maybe. This facilitates quick actions.



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Emotional distress makes people reactEmotional distress makes people react

quickly, ignoring risks and focusing merelyquickly, ignoring risks and focusing merely

on the outcome.on the outcome.

Hence emotions don’t always produce theHence emotions don’t always produce the

optimal outcome.optimal outcome.



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Emotionless peopleEmotionless people

Patients (with brain damage) lacking emotionsPatients (with brain damage) lacking emotions

find it difficult to make up their mind. They’refind it difficult to make up their mind. They’reunable to make choices.unable to make choices.

The thinking system merely contemplate and The thinking system merely contemplate andenvisage plenty of ideas and potentialenvisage plenty of ideas and potentialoutcomes, but it is unable to evaluate them.outcomes, but it is unable to evaluate them.

E.g.: a patient was unable to chose among twoE.g.: a patient was unable to chose among twodates and he finally accepted the doctor choice.dates and he finally accepted the doctor choice.



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Emotions are vital forEmotions are vital for evaluationevaluation..

Evaluation is done by reference to what isEvaluation is done by reference to what is

important (considering the people’s set of important (considering the people’s set of wants and needs).wants and needs).

Emotions are a crucial link betweenEmotions are a crucial link between

motivation and cognition.motivation and cognition.



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PlanningPlanning

Anticipated emotions enable people toAnticipated emotions enable people to

compare and chose among various optionscompare and chose among various optionsthat seemingly have noting in common.that seemingly have noting in common.

E.g.: should I go for a walk, watch the game,E.g.: should I go for a walk, watch the game,

do the homework, clean the house,…?do the homework, clean the house,…?

The option that promises the best The option that promises the best emotional emotional outcomesoutcomes is probably a good choice.is probably a good choice.



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Nature furnished us with some way to choseNature furnished us with some way to choseamong multiple diverse outcomes and to make of among multiple diverse outcomes and to make of rational analysis a good guide.rational analysis a good guide.

Otherwise cultural animals would freeze up at allOtherwise cultural animals would freeze up at allsort of dilemma, like a computer lacking thesort of dilemma, like a computer lacking theprogram enabling it to select the data.program enabling it to select the data.

Choosing by effect and emotions is a remarkableChoosing by effect and emotions is a remarkablesolution to the design problem.solution to the design problem.



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Emotions and ActionsEmotions and Actions

Emotions prepare the body for action (moreEmotions prepare the body for action (more

blood and thus more oxygen is sent to theblood and thus more oxygen is sent to thebrain and muscle so one notices more,brain and muscle so one notices more,focuses, …).focuses, …).

But emotions don’t cause behavior in a directBut emotions don’t cause behavior in a directand reliable manner.and reliable manner.

Behavior is based on the outcome.Behavior is based on the outcome.



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Emotions affect behavior only insofar as theyEmotions affect behavior only insofar as theyaffect how people process information andaffect how people process information andenvisage potential outcomes.envisage potential outcomes.

It is thus wrong to think that emotions’It is thus wrong to think that emotions’primary function is to be the initiators of primary function is to be the initiators of behaviors and even more wrong to think thatbehaviors and even more wrong to think that

they trigger behavior.they trigger behavior.

Emotions are an importantEmotions are an important consequenceconsequence of of behavior rather than a cause.behavior rather than a cause.



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Emotions and LearningEmotions and Learning

Emotions contribute to learning and,Emotions contribute to learning and,therefore, future actions benefit from pasttherefore, future actions benefit from past

experiences (i.e., past emotional outcomes).experiences (i.e., past emotional outcomes).

Without emotions people may fail to profitWithout emotions people may fail to profitfrom experience.from experience.



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FearFear

It may be the best candidate for the view thatIt may be the best candidate for the view thatemotions directly causes action.emotions directly causes action.

But in most of the cases people don’t react fastBut in most of the cases people don’t react fastenough when they face a dangerous situation.enough when they face a dangerous situation.

Fear like most emotions may be slow to rise. OneFear like most emotions may be slow to rise. Oneoften feel fearful after one faced a dangerousoften feel fearful after one faced a dangerousevent or situation.event or situation.



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GuiltGuilt

It is a good example showing thatIt is a good example showing that behavior behavior

pursues emotions pursues emotions..

Guild doesn’t directly make one to move one’sGuild doesn’t directly make one to move one’sbody; guilt comes after one has done somethingbody; guilt comes after one has done somethingwrong.wrong.

Emotions stimulateEmotions stimulate counterfactual thinkingcounterfactual thinking,,i.e. imagining events and outcomes that differi.e. imagining events and outcomes that differfrom reality. This is ideal for learning andfrom reality. This is ideal for learning andplanning.planning.



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People experience emotions when performingPeople experience emotions when performingnew, unfamiliar actions (routine does notnew, unfamiliar actions (routine does notstimulate emotions).stimulate emotions).

Habitude and routine do not generally requireHabitude and routine do not generally requirelearning, while new andlearning, while new and unfamiliar actions areunfamiliar actions arelinked to learninglinked to learning..

Thus emotions can facilitate learning by making Thus emotions can facilitate learning by makingpeople think and analyze their recent actions.people think and analyze their recent actions.



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Learning based on emotions isLearning based on emotions is highlyhighlysuited for a cultural animalsuited for a cultural animal whowhounderstand action within a system of values,understand action within a system of values,expectations, communications, etc..expectations, communications, etc..

Emotionless people’s reactions are often badEmotionless people’s reactions are often badand they tend to engage in dangerousand they tend to engage in dangerousbehaviors, for they don’t fear the outcomebehaviors, for they don’t fear the outcomeand the emotional reactions.and the emotional reactions.

The effect of emotions is to consolidate one’s The effect of emotions is to consolidate one’slesson so as to influence future behavior.lesson so as to influence future behavior.





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Aggression Aggression is also done for the sake of is also done for the sake of improving one’s mood.improving one’s mood.

Angry people tends to behave moreAngry people tends to behave moreaggressively because they think that aggressionaggressively because they think that aggressionmake them feel better.make them feel better.

But if angry people are told that they got aBut if angry people are told that they got a

mood-freezing pill they don’t act aggressively.mood-freezing pill they don’t act aggressively.

Again, one behaves in order to change one’sAgain, one behaves in order to change one’smood.mood.



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Depressed people eat more cookies and junkDepressed people eat more cookies and junk

food than happy people because they expectfood than happy people because they expect

the food to make them feel better.the food to make them feel better.

Again, the patterns is behavior pursuingAgain, the patterns is behavior pursuing

emotional outcomes.emotional outcomes.



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Representation of emotionsRepresentation of emotions

The ability to represents other people The ability to represents other peopleemotions is as important as mindreading.emotions is as important as mindreading.

Deficit in this ability (e.g. autism) may resultDeficit in this ability (e.g. autism) may result

in devastating social impairments.in devastating social impairments.



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FeelingsFeelings (cf. Damasio. 1994.(cf. Damasio. 1994. Descartes’ Error Descartes’ Error ))

It is wrong to consider the working of the brain andIt is wrong to consider the working of the brain and

mind as separate from the working of the body.mind as separate from the working of the body.

The mind is part and parcel of the body. The mind is part and parcel of the body.

E.g.: background feelings, i.e. the underlyingE.g.: background feelings, i.e. the underlyingawareness of the state that your body is in.awareness of the state that your body is in.



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Background awareness depends on the variousBackground awareness depends on the various

neuronal and hormonal signals arising from the bodyneuronal and hormonal signals arising from the body

organs (skin, hearth, …) that are sent to andorgans (skin, hearth, …) that are sent to and

processed by the brain.processed by the brain.

These signals provide a continuous update on the These signals provide a continuous update on the

changes that your body state undergoes.changes that your body state undergoes.

These background feelings provide our sense of ‘self’. These background feelings provide our sense of ‘self’.



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We process information emanating from ourWe process information emanating from our

entire body.entire body.

Hence, we wouldn’t be the same person if ourHence, we wouldn’t be the same person if our

brain were transplanted in another person.brain were transplanted in another person.

For the body would provide differentFor the body would provide different

information.information.





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Somatic markersSomatic markers (Damasio 1994)(Damasio 1994)

They are a special category of secondary They are a special category of secondary

emotions and are used in decision makingemotions and are used in decision making

(often unconsciously).(often unconsciously).

They can function either as alarm bells (in They can function either as alarm bells (inthe case of a negative somatic marker suchthe case of a negative somatic marker such

as fear or sadness) or add incentive (positiveas fear or sadness) or add incentive (positive

somatic marker).somatic marker).



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Somatic markers can speed up the process of Somatic markers can speed up the process of

decision making by ensuring that only thedecision making by ensuring that only the

most reasonable options are considered.most reasonable options are considered.

They may be an integrated component of our They may be an integrated component of our

theory of mind by biasing our mindreadingtheory of mind by biasing our mindreading

abilities toward the most appropriateabilities toward the most appropriate

predictions for other people behavior andpredictions for other people behavior andmind states.mind states.



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PeptidesPeptides

Are neurotransmitters produced in the brain.Are neurotransmitters produced in the brain.

They are also active in the human immune They are also active in the human immunesystem and endocrine system.system and endocrine system.

Hence, they participate in the constantHence, they participate in the constantrelationship between the brain and the body.relationship between the brain and the body.





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The The cerebral cortexcerebral cortex is a brain structure inis a brain structure invertebrates.vertebrates.

In non-living, preserved brains, the outermostIn non-living, preserved brains, the outermostlayers of the cerebrum has a grey color, hencelayers of the cerebrum has a grey color, hencethe name "grey matter". Grey matter is formedthe name "grey matter". Grey matter is formed

by neurons and their unmyelinated fibers whileby neurons and their unmyelinated fibers whilethe white matter below the grey matter of thethe white matter below the grey matter of thecortex is formed predominantly by myelinatedcortex is formed predominantly by myelinatedaxons interconnecting different regions of theaxons interconnecting different regions of thecentral nervous system. The human cerebralcentral nervous system. The human cerebralcortex is 2-4 mm (0.08-0.16 inches) thick andcortex is 2-4 mm (0.08-0.16 inches) thick and

plays a central role in many complex brainplays a central role in many complex brainfunctions including memory, attention,functions including memory, attention,perceptual awareness, "thinking", language andperceptual awareness, "thinking", language andconsciousness. (Wikipedia)consciousness. (Wikipedia)



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CortexCortex



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The The amygdalaamygdala are almond-shaped groups of are almond-shaped groups of neurons located deep within the medialneurons located deep within the medialtemporal lobes of the brain in complextemporal lobes of the brain in complexvertebrates, including humans. Shown invertebrates, including humans. Shown inresearch to perform a primary role in theresearch to perform a primary role in theprocessing and memory of emotionalprocessing and memory of emotional

reactions, the amygdalae are considered partreactions, the amygdalae are considered partof the limbic system. (Wikipedia)of the limbic system. (Wikipedia)



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In complex vertebrates, including humans,In complex vertebrates, including humans,the amygdalae perform primary roles in thethe amygdalae perform primary roles in theformation and storage of memoriesformation and storage of memoriesassociated with emotional events. Researchassociated with emotional events. Research

indicates that during fear conditioning,indicates that during fear conditioning,sensory stimuli reach the basolateralsensory stimuli reach the basolateralcomplexes of the amygdalae, particularly thecomplexes of the amygdalae, particularly thelateral nuclei, where they form associationslateral nuclei, where they form associationswith memories of the stimuli. The associationwith memories of the stimuli. The association

between stimuli and the aversive events theybetween stimuli and the aversive events theypredict may be mediated by long-termpredict may be mediated by long-termpotentiation, a lingering potential for affectedpotentiation, a lingering potential for affectedsynapses to react more readily. (Wikipedia)synapses to react more readily. (Wikipedia)



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Memories of emotional experiences imprinted inMemories of emotional experiences imprinted inreactions of synapses in the lateral nuclei elicitreactions of synapses in the lateral nuclei elicitfear behavior through connections with thefear behavior through connections with thecentral nucleus of the amygdalae. The centralcentral nucleus of the amygdalae. The centralnuclei are involved in the genesis of many fearnuclei are involved in the genesis of many fearresponses, including freezing (immobility),responses, including freezing (immobility),tachycardia (rapid heartbeat), increasedtachycardia (rapid heartbeat), increasedrespiration, and stress-hormone release.respiration, and stress-hormone release.Damage to the amygdalae impairs both theDamage to the amygdalae impairs both the

acquisition and expression of Pavlovian fearacquisition and expression of Pavlovian fearconditioning, a form of classical conditioning of conditioning, a form of classical conditioning of emotional responses.emotional responses.



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Amgdala is evolutionary ancient (it’s presentAmgdala is evolutionary ancient (it’s presentin many vertebrates).in many vertebrates).

This doesn’t mean, though, that it is not This doesn’t mean, though, that it is notinvolved in higher cognitive processes.involved in higher cognitive processes.

It is associated with several aspect of theIt is associated with several aspect of the

theory of mind.theory of mind.



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The interconnections between the cortex and The interconnections between the cortex and

the amygdala runs both ways, but thethe amygdala runs both ways, but the

amygdala can exert a much strongeramygdala can exert a much stronger

influence over the cortex than vice versa.influence over the cortex than vice versa.

This is why we often let our emotions getting This is why we often let our emotions getting

the better of us.the better of us.

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7. Emotions and Culture