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World History

Summer School

Quarter 3 Name:

World History ~ Summer School ~ Quarter 3

Each day of summer school will involve the following activities:

Quiz over the previous day’s work. Individual reading & answering questions. Group discussion of the day’s information. Completing graphic organizers and maps. Working on an individual project (one per week).

Quarter 3 Schedule:

Monday Intro Reading & Discussion - Chapters 21 & 22 Project work time

Tuesday Quiz (Ch. 21 & 22) Reading & Discussion – Chapters 23 & 24 Project work time

Wednesday Quiz (Ch. 23 & 24) Reading & Discussion – Chapters 25 & 26 Project work time

Thursday Quiz (Ch. 25 & 26) Reading & Discussion – Chapters 27 & 28 Project work time

Friday Present projects Test (Ch. 21-28)

Absolute Monarchs in Europe 81

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Name Date

CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Absolute Monarchs in Europe,1500–1800

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Spain lost territory and money. The Netherlands split fromSpain and grew rich from trade. For a time, France was Europe’s most powerfulcountry, where King Louis XIV ruled with total control. Austria’s queen resisted a Prussian land grab. Peter the Great modernized Russia. England’s Parliamentstruggled with different kings and became the greatest power in the country.

Summary

Spain’s Empire andEuropean Absolutism

KEY IDEA During a time of religious and economic insta-bility, Philip II ruled Spain with a strong hand.

Charles V ruled the Holy Roman Empire andvarious other European countries. In 1556, he

retired from the throne and split his holdings. Hisbrother Ferdinand received Austria and the HolyRoman Empire. His son, Philip II, got Spain and itscolonies.

Philip expanded his holdings by taking Portugaland gaining its global territories. When he tried toinvade England in 1588, though, he failed. Thedefeat made Spain weaker. However, Spain stillseemed strong because of its wealth—gold and sil-ver—that flowed in from the colonies in theAmericas.

This wealth led to some serious problems, how-ever. The prices of goods constantly rose. Also,unfair taxes hit the poor, keeping them from build-ing up any wealth of their own. As prices rose,Spaniards bought more goods from other lands.The silver from the colonies, then, began to flow toSpain’s enemies.

In the middle of these troubles, Spain lost land.Seven provinces of the Spanish Netherlands rose inprotest against high taxes. Also, they were Protestantand Spain was strongly Catholic. In 1579, theseseven provinces declared their independence fromSpain.

In the new Dutch republic, each province had aleader elected by the people. The Dutch also prac-ticed religious tolerance, letting people worship asthey wished. Dutch merchants established a tradingempire. They had the largest fleet of merchantships in the world and were the most importantbankers in Europe.

Though he lost possessions, Philip held tightcontrol over Spain. He and others who ruled in the

same way were called absolute monarchs. Theybelieved in holding all power. The Church’s powerhad weakened, which helped make this possible.Some absolute rulers ended conflict within theircountries by increasing their power. That is whathappened in France.

The Reign of Louis XIVKEY IDEA After a century of wars and riots, Louis XIV,the most powerful monarch of his time, ruled France.

France was torn by eight religious wars betweenCatholics and Protestants from 1562 to 1598.

In 1589, a Protestant prince, Henry of Navarre,became King Henry IV. He changed religions in1593, becoming a Catholic to please the majority ofhis people. In 1598, he issued an order called theEdict of Nantes. It gave Huguenots—FrenchProtestants—the right to live in peace and havetheir own churches in some cities.

Henry rebuilt the French economy and broughtpeace to the land. He was followed by his son, aweak king. However, that son had a very capablechief minister, Cardinal Richelieu. He ruled theland for him and increased the power of the crown.

The cardinal ordered that Huguenots could notbuild walls for their cities. He also said nobles hadto destroy their castles. As a result, Protestants andnobles could not hide within walls to defy the king’spower. Richelieu used people from the middleclass—not nobles—to work in his government.That also cut nobles’ power.

French thinkers had reacted to the religiouswars with horror. They developed a new attitude—skepticism. Nothing could be known for certain,they argued. Doubting old ideas was the first stepto learning the truth, they said.

In 1643, Louis XIV, age four, became king.Cardinal Mazarin ruled for him until Louis was 22.Louis became a powerful ruler, with total control.

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82 Unit 5, Chapter 21

Louis determined never to let nobles challenge him.He froze the nobles out of his government. He

gave more power to government officials and madesure that they answered only to him. He alsoworked hard to increase the wealth of France. Hischief minister of finance, Jean Baptiste Colbert,tried to build French industry. Colbert aimed toconvince French people to buy French-made goodsand not those from other countries. He urged peo-ple to settle in the new French colony in Canada.The fur trade there brought wealth to France.

Louis enjoyed a life of luxury at his court. Hebuilt a huge and beautiful palace at Versailles nearParis. He also made sure that nobles had to dependon his favor in order to advance in society.

Louis made France the most powerful nation inEurope. France had more people and a larger armythan any other country. However, Louis made somemistakes that later proved costly. After winning somewars against neighboring countries, he becamebolder and tried to seize more land. Other nationsjoined together to stop France by the late 1680s.The high cost of these wars combined with poorharvests to produce problems at home in France.

The final war fought in Louis’s time lasted from1700 to 1714. In this War of the Spanish Succession,France and Spain attempted to set up unitedthrones. The rest of Europe felt threatened andjoined in war against them. Both France and Spainwere forced to give up some of their American andEuropean colonies to England, the new risingpower.

Central European Monarchs Clash

KEY IDEA After a period of turmoil, absolute monarchsruled Austria and the German state of Prussia.

Germany had suffered from religious wars thatended in 1555. Rulers of each state agreed

that they would decide whether their lands wouldbe Catholic or Protestant. Over the next decades,though, the two sides had tense relations. In 1618, anew war broke out and lasted for 30 terrible years.

In the first half of the war, Catholic forces ledby Ferdinand, the Holy Roman Emperor, won.However, Germany suffered, because he allowedhis large army to loot towns. Then the Protestantking of Sweden won several battles against him. In the last years of the war, France helped theProtestants. Although France was a Catholic nation,

Richelieu feared growing Hapsburg family power.The Thirty Years’ War ended in 1648 with the

Peace of Westphalia. It had been a disaster forGermany. About 4 million people had died, and theeconomy was in ruins. It took Germany two centuriesto recover. The peace weakened the power of Austriaand Spain and made France stronger. Because of thiswar, each nation of Europe was seen as having anequal right to negotiate with all the others.

While strong states arose in western Europe,none emerged in central Europe. The economiesthere were less developed than in the West. Mostpeople were still peasants. This region had not builtan economy based in towns. Nobles enjoyed greatpower, which kept the power of rulers in check.Still, two important powers arose.

The Hapsburg family ruled Austria, Hungary,and Bohemia in an empire that linked many differ-ent peoples. Maria Theresa, Queen of Austria,managed to increase her power and cut that of thenobles. She was opposed by the kings of Prussia, anew state in northern Germany. Those kings built a strong state with much power given to the large,well-trained army. In 1740, Frederick the Great ofPrussia invaded one of Maria Theresa’s lands. Thequeen fought hard to keep the territory, but lost.Still, in fighting this War of the Austrian Succession,she managed to keep the rest of her empire intact.The two sides fought again beginning in 1756. Inthis Seven Years’ War, Austria abandoned Britain,its old ally, for France and Russia. Prussia joinedwith Britain. The Prussians and British won. In thatvictory, Britain gained complete control overFrance’s colonies in North America and India.

Absolute Rulers of RussiaKEY IDEA Peter the Great made many changes inRussia to try to make it more like western Europe.

Ivan III had made Moscow the center of a newRussian state with a central government. His son

continued that work. His grandson, Ivan IV—calledIvan the Terrible—began as a successful ruler. Headded lands to Russia and gave the country a codeof laws. After his wife died, however, he ruledharshly. He used secret police to hunt down oppo-nents and kill them. Ivan even killed his own oldestson. A few years after he died, Russian nobles metto name a new ruler. They chose Michael Romanov,the grandnephew of Ivan IV’s wife. He began adynasty that ruled Russia for about 300 years.

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The Romanovs restored order to Russia. In thelate 1600s, Peter I—called Peter the Great—beganan intense program of trying to modernize Russia.Peter admired the nations of western Europe. Hetraveled in Europe to learn about new technologyand ways of working. He returned to Russia deter-mined to make his country more advanced. His firststeps were to increase the powers of the czar, orruler, so he could force people to make the changeshe wanted. He put the Russian Orthodox Churchunder his own control. He cut the power of nobles.He built up the army and made it better trained.

He took several steps to make Russia morewestern. He brought potatoes as a new food, beganRussia’s first newspaper, gave more social status towomen, and told the nobles to adopt Westernclothes. He promoted education and built a grandnew capital city, St. Petersburg, on the shores ofthe Baltic Sea.

Parliament Limits theEnglish Monarchy

KEY IDEA Absolute monarchs in England were over-thrown, and Parliament gained power.

When Queen Elizabeth I died, her cousin James,king of Scotland, became king of England.

James fought with Parliament over money. His reli-gious policies also angered the Puritans in Parliament.They wanted to reform the English church to rid it ofCatholic practices. James was unwilling to make thesechanges.

His son, Charles I, continued the tensionbetween king and Parliament. Parliament forcedhim to sign a Petition of Right in 1628. By signing,Charles allowed that the king was answerable toParliament. Then he dissolved the Parliament andtried to raise money without it—going directlyagainst the Petition of Right.

Other actions of Charles had caused Scotland tothreaten to invade England. To meet the danger,Charles needed some money, and to raise taxes heneeded Parliament. When Charles called a newParliament, it quickly passed laws to limit hispower. Charles responded by trying to arrest itsleaders. Soon England was plunged into a civil war:Charles and his Royalists against the supporters ofParliament, many of whom were Puritans.

The English Civil War lasted from 1642 to 1649.Under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, the forces

of the Puritans won. They tried and executed Charlesfor treason—the first time a king had ever been exe-cuted in public. Cromwell became a military dictator,ruling until 1658. He crushed a rebellion in Irelandand tried to reform society at home. Soon after hisdeath, though, the government collapsed. The newParliament asked Charles’s older son to restore themonarchy. Charles II began to rule in 1660.

Charles II’s reign was a period of calm after tur-moil. After his death in 1685, James II becameking. His pro-Catholic policies angered and worriedthe English, who feared that he would restoreCatholicism. Finally, in 1688, seven members ofParliament contacted James’s older daughter, Mary,and her husband, William of Orange, prince of theNetherlands—both Protestants. They wanted themto replace James II on the throne. The event wascalled the Glorious Revolution, a bloodless revolu-tion that forced James to flee to France. Williamand Mary agreed, swearing to rule according to thelaws made by Parliament. They agreed to acceptthe Bill of Rights, which guaranteed English peoplecertain rights. From then on, no king or queencould rule England without the consent ofParliament.

Review1. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

Why did Spain weaken in power?2. Summarizing How did Richelieu and Louis

XIV increase the power of the French king?3. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

How did the Thirty Years’ War affect Germany?4. Clarifying What did Peter the Great do to

modernize Russia?5. Drawing Conclusions How did England

develop away from an absolute monarchy?

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Use the space below to write your answers for the questions to the Chapter Brief that

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Mark ten (10) events or developments from this chapter, in order,

on the timeline shown below.

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Enlightenment and Revolution 85

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Enlightenment and Revolution,1550–1789

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Starting in the 1500s, European thinkers overturned old ideas about the physical world with a new approach to science. Thinkers of theEnlightenment hoped to use reason to make a better society in which people werefree. Enlightenment ideas spread throughout Europe. They had a profound effectin North America, forming the basis of the new government of the United States.

Summary

The Scientific RevolutionKEY IDEA In the mid-1500s, scientists began to questionaccepted beliefs and make new theories based onexperimentation.

During the Middle Ages, few scholars ques-tioned ideas that had always been accepted.

Europeans based ideas about the physical world onwhat ancient Greeks and Romans believed or whatwas said in the Bible. Therefore, people stillthought that the earth was the center of the uni-verse. To them, the sun, moon, other planets, andstars moved around it.

In the mid-1500s, however, attitudes changed.Scholars now started a scientific revolution drawnfrom a spirit of curiosity. One factor was the newfocus on careful observation. Another was the will-ingness to question old beliefs. European explo-rations were a third factor. When they reached newlands, Europeans saw new plants and animals neverseen by ancient writers. These discoveries led tothe opening of new courses of study in universities.

The first challenge came in astronomy. In theearly 1500s, Nicolaus Copernicus studied the starsand planets for many years. He concluded that theearth, like the other planets, revolved around thesun, and the moon revolved around the earth.Fearing attack, he did not publish his findings untiljust before his death. In the early 1600s, JohannesKepler used mathematics to confirm Copernicus’sbasic idea.

An Italian scientist—Galileo Galilei—made sev-eral discoveries that undercut ancient ideas. Hemade one of the first telescopes and used it to studythe planets. He found that Jupiter had moons, thesun had spots, and Earth’s moon was rough. Thesestatements went against church teaching, and Galileowas forced to deny their truth. Still, his ideas spread.

Interest in science led to a new approach, thescientific method. With this method, scientists ask a question based on something they have seen in

the physical world. They form a hypothesis, or anattempt to answer the question. Then they test thehypothesis by making experiments or checkingother facts. Finally, they change the hypothesis ifneeded. The English writer Francis Bacon helpedfoster this new approach to knowledge by tellingscientists they should base their ideas on what theycan see and test in the world. The French mathe-matician René Descartes also had great influence.His thinking was based on logic and mathematics.

In the mid-1600s, the English scientist IsaacNewton described the law of gravity. Using mathe-matics, Newton showed that the same force ruledthe motion of planets and the action of bodies onthe earth.

Scientists made new tools to study the worldaround them. One invented a microscope to studycreatures too small for the naked eye to see. Othersinvented tools for understanding weather.

Doctors also made advances. One made draw-ings that showed the different parts of the humanbody. Another learned how the heart pumped bloodthrough the body. In the late 1700s, Edward Jennerfirst used the process called vaccination to preventdisease. By giving a person the germs from a cattledisease called cowpox, he helped that person avoidgetting the more serious human disease of smallpox.Scientists made advances in chemistry as well. Onechallenged the old idea that things were made ofonly four elements—earth, air, fire, and water. Heand other scientists were able to separate oxygenfrom air.

The Enlightenment in Europe

KEY IDEA A revolution in intellectual activity changedEuropeans’ view of government and society.

New ways of thinking arose in other areas. In the intellectual movement called the

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Enlightenment, thinkers tried to apply reason andscientific method to laws that shaped human actions.They hoped to build a society founded on ideas ofthe Scientific Revolution.

Two English writers were important to thismovement. Thomas Hobbes wrote that without agovernment, there would be a war of “every managainst every man.” As a result, Hobbes said, peo-ple formed a social contract—an agreement—inwhich they gave up their rights so they couldsecure order and safety. The best government, hesaid, is that of a strong king who can force peopleto obey. John Locke believed that all people havethe rights to life, liberty, and property. The purposeof government is to protect those rights. When itfails to do so, he said, people have a right to over-throw the government.

A group of French thinkers had wide influence.They had five main beliefs: (1) thinkers can find thetruth by using reason; (2) what is natural is goodand reasonable, and human actions are shaped bynatural laws; (3) acting according to nature canbring happiness; (4) by taking a scientific view, people and society can make progress and advanceto a better life; and (5) by using reason, people cangain freedom.

Three French thinkers had great influence.Voltaire wrote against intolerance and criticized the laws and customs of France. The Baron deMontesquieu made a long study of laws and gov-ernments. He thought government power shouldbe separated into different branches. Each shouldbe able to check the other branches to preventthem from abusing their power. Jean JacquesRousseau wrote strongly in favor of human free-dom. He wanted a society in which all people wereequal. The Italian Cesare Beccaria wrote aboutcrime and justice. Trials should be fair, he said, andpunishments should be made to fit the crime.

Many Enlightenment thinkers held traditionalviews about women’s place in society. They urgedequal rights for all men but ignored the fact thatwomen did not enjoy such rights. Some womenprotested this unfairness. “If all men are born free,”wrote one, “how is it that all women are bornslaves?”

Enlightenment ideas had strong influence on theAmerican and French Revolutions, which came atthe end of the 1700s. They had three other effects.They helped spread the idea of progress. By usingreason, people thought, it is possible to make soci-

ety better. These ideas also helped make Westernsociety more secular—that is, more worldly and lessspiritual. Finally, Enlightenment ideas promotedthe notion that the individual person was important.

The Enlightenment Spreads KEY IDEA Enlightenment ideas spread through theWestern world, and influenced the arts and government.

In the 1700s, Paris was the cultural center ofEurope. People came there from other countries

in Europe and from the Americas to hear the newideas of the Enlightenment. Writers and artistsgathered in the homes of wealthy people to talkabout ideas. A woman named Marie-ThérèseGeoffrin became famous for hosting these discus-sions. She also supplied the money for one of themajor projects of the Enlightenment. With herfunds, Denis Diderot and other thinkers wrote and published a huge set of books called theEncyclopedia. Their aim was to gather together allthat was known about the world. The French gov-ernment and officials in the Catholic Church didnot like many of the ideas that were published inthe Encyclopedia. They banned the books at first,but later they revoked the ban.

Through the meetings in homes and works likethe Encyclopedia, the ideas of the Enlightenmentspread throughout Europe. The ideas also spreadto the growing middle class. This group of peoplewas becoming wealthy but had less social statusthan nobles and had very little political power.Ideas about equality sounded good to them.

Art moved in new directions, inspired by theEnlightenment ideas of order and reason. Artistsand architects worked to show balance and ele-gance. Composers wrote music of great appeal fortheir creative richness. In this period, the novelbecame a popular form of literature. This new formtold lengthy stories with many twists of plot thatexplored the thoughts and feelings of characters.

Some Enlightenment thinkers believed that thebest form of government was a monarchy. In it, aruler respected the rights of people. They tried toinfluence rulers to rule fairly. Rulers followed theseideas in part but were unwilling to give up muchpower. Frederick the Great made changes inPrussia. He gave his people religious freedom,improved schooling, and reformed the justice sys-tem. However, he did nothing to end serfdom,which made peasants slaves to the wealthy

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landowners. Joseph II of Austria did end serfdom.Once he died, though, the nobles who owned theland were able to undo his reform.

Catherine the Great of Russia was another ofthe rulers influenced by Enlightenment ideas. Shetried to reform Russia’s laws but met resistance.She hoped to end serfdom, but a bloody peasants’revolt convinced her to change her mind. Instead,she gave the nobles even more power over serfs.Catherine did manage to gain new land for Russia.Russia, Prussia, and Austria agreed to dividePoland among themselves. As a result, Poland dis-appeared as a separate nation for almost 150 years.

The American RevolutionKEY IDEA Enlightenment ideas help spur the Americancolonies to create a new nation.

The British colonies in North America grew inpopulation and wealth during the 1700s. The

13 colonies also enjoyed a kind of self-government.People in the colonies began to see themselves lessand less as British subjects. Still, Parliament passedlaws that governed the colonies. One set of lawsbanned trade with any nation other than Britain.

The high cost of the French and Indian War,which ended in 1763, led Parliament to pass lawsthat put taxes on the colonists. The colonistsbecame very angry. They had never paid taxesdirectly to the British government before. Theysaid that the taxes violated their rights. SinceParliament had no members from the colonies,they said, Parliament had no right to pass tax lawsthat affected the colonies. They met the first tax,passed in 1765, with a boycott of British goods.Their refusal to buy British products was veryeffective and forced Parliament to repeal the law.

Over the next decade, colonists and Britaingrew further apart. Some colonists wanted to pushthe colonies to independence. They took actionsthat caused Britain to act harshly. These harshresponses, in turn, angered some moderatecolonists. Eventually, the conflict led to shooting.Representatives of the colonists met in a congressand formed an army. In July of 1776, theyannounced that they were independent of Britain.They issued a Declaration of Independence thatwas based on the ideas of the Enlightenment.

From 1775 to 1781, the colonists and Britainfought a war in North America. The colonists had a poorly equipped army and the British were pow-

erful. However, in the end, they won their in-dependence. The British people grew tired of thecost of the war and pushed Parliament to agree to apeace. The Americans were also helped greatly byaid from France. In 1783, the two sides signed atreaty in which Britain recognized the independentUnited States.

The 13 states formed a new government thatwas very weak. It struggled for a few years, butstates held all the power and the central govern-ment had little. In 1787, many leaders met againand wrote a new framework of government.

The Constitution of the United States drew onmany Enlightenment ideas. From Montesquieu, itput in effect the separation of powers into threebranches of government. Each branch was able toprevent other branches from abusing their power.From Locke, it put power in the hands of the peo-ple. From Voltaire, it protected the rights of peopleto free speech and freedom of religion. FromBeccaria, it set up a fair system of justice. Many ofthese rights were ensured in a set of additions tothe Constitution called the Bill of Rights. Approvalof these additions helped win approval of theConstitution as a whole.

Review1. Contrasting Contrast how people in the Middle

Ages and people in the scientific revolutionlooked at the physical world.

2. Determining Main Ideas How is the scientificrevolution connected to the Enlightenment?

3. Drawing Conclusions What were three majorideas of the Enlightenment?

4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsWhat factors led to the spread of theEnlightenment?

5. Analyzing Issues How did the government ofthe United States reflect Enlightenment ideas?

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Maps – Chapters 21 & 22

On the blank map (found on the next page), mark the following items:

Draw the borders of: o Holy Roman Empire – 1556 C.E. o Spanish Empire – 1588 C.E. o Dutch Republic – 1579 C.E. o French Empire – 1700 C.E. o British Empire – 1688 C.E. o Russian Empire – 1790 C.E. o United States – 1787 C.E.

The French RevolutionBegins

KEY IDEA Economic and social inequalities in the OldRegime helped cause the French Revolution.

In the 1700s, France was the leading country ofEurope. It was the center of the new ideas of

the Enlightenment. However, beneath the surfacethere were major problems causing unrest. Soonthe nation would be torn by a violent revolution.

One problem was that people were not treatedequally in French society. The French were dividedinto three classes, or estates. The First Estate con-sisted of the Roman Catholic clergy. The SecondEstate was made up of rich nobles. Only about twopercent of the people belonged to these twoestates. Yet they owned 20 percent of the land andpaid little or no taxes. They had easy lives.

Everybody else belonged to the Third Estate.This huge group included three types of people:• the bourgeoisie—mostly well-off merchants and

skilled workers who lacked the status of nobles• city workers—cooks, servants, and others who

were poorly paid and often out of work• peasants—farm workers, making up more than 80

percent of the French peopleMembers of the Third Estate were angry. They

had few rights. They paid up to half of their incomein taxes, while the rich paid almost none.

Three factors led to revolution. First, theEnlightenment spread the idea that everyoneshould be equal. The powerless people in the ThirdEstate liked that. Second, the French economy wasfailing. High taxes kept profits low, and food sup-plies were short. The government owed money.Third, King Louis XVI was a weak, unconcernedleader. His wife, Marie Antoinette, was a bigspender and was disliked.

In the 1780s, deeply in debt, France neededmoney. Louis tried to tax the nobles. Instead, theyforced the king to call a meeting of delegates of thethree estates to decide tax issues. The meeting began

in May 1789 with arguments over how to countvotes. In the past, each estate had cast one vote.The top two estates always voted together and gottheir way. Now the Third Estate delegates wantedto change the system. The Third Estate had asmany delegates as the other two estates combined.They wanted each delegate to have a vote. Theking and the other estates did not agree to the plan.

The Third Estate then broke with the others andmet separately. In June 1789, its delegates voted torename themselves the National Assembly. Theyclaimed to represent all the people. This was thebeginning of representative government for France.

Louis tried to make peace. He ordered the clergyand nobles to join the National Assembly. However,trouble erupted. Rumors flew that Swiss soldierspaid by Louis were going to attack French citizens.On July 14, an angry crowd captured the Bastille, aParis prison. The mob wanted to get gunpowderfor their weapons in order to defend the city.

A wave of violence called the Great Fear sweptthe country. Peasants broke into and burned nobles’houses. They tore up documents that had forcedthem to pay fees to the nobles. Late in 1789, a mobof women marched from Paris to the king’s palaceat Versailles. They were angry about high breadprices and demanded that the king move to Paris.They hoped he would end hunger in the city. Theking and queen left Versailles, never to return.

Revolution Brings Reformand Terror

KEY IDEA The revolutionary government of France madereforms but also used terror and violence to retain power.

In August 1789, the National Assembly took stepsto change France. One new law ended all the

special privileges that members of the First andSecond Estates had enjoyed. Another law gave allFrench men equal rights. Though women did notget these rights, it was a bold step. Other laws cutthe power of the Catholic Church. The government

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The French Revolution andNapoleon, 1789–1815

CHAPTER OVERVIEW France’s lower classes revolted against the king. Thousandsdied. Napoleon took control of France and created an empire. After his defeat,European leaders restored the rule of monarchs to the continent.

Summary

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took over church lands, hoping to sell them andraise money.

The new laws about the church divided peoplewho had backed the Revolution. Catholic peasantsremained loyal to the church. They were angry thatthe church would be part of the state. Thereafter,many of them opposed the Revolution’s reforms.

For months the assembly worked on plans for anew government. During this time, Louis was fear-ful for his safety in France. One night he and hisfamily tried to escape the country. They were caught,brought back to Paris, and lived under guard. Afterthis, the king and queen were even less popular.

In the fall of 1791, the assembly drew up a newconstitution that gave the king very little power.The assembly then handed over its power to a newassembly, the Legislative Assembly. After the newassembly began to meet, however, it divided intoopposing groups. Some wanted an end to revolu-tionary changes. Others wanted even more radicalchanges.

At the same time, France faced serious troubleon its borders. Kings in other countries feared thatthe French Revolution would spread to their lands.They wanted to use force to restore control ofFrance to Louis XVI. Soon France found itself atwar—a war it quickly began to lose. Foreign sol-diers were coming near to Paris. Many peoplethought that the king and queen were ready to helpthe enemy. Angry French citizens imprisoned them.Many nobles were killed in other mob action.

The government took strong steps to meet thedanger from foreign troops. It took away the king’spowers. In 1792, the National Convention—anothernew government—was formed. It declared Louis acommon citizen and then put him to death. It alsoordered thousands of French people into the army.

Soon one man, Maximilien Robespierre, beganto lead France. He made many changes. Heordered the death of many people who did notagree with him. His rule, which began in 1793, wascalled the Reign of Terror. It ended in July 1794,when Robespierre himself was put to death.

France got a new, but less revolutionary, plan ofgovernment. Tired of the killing and unrest, theFrench people wanted a return to order.

Napoleon Forges an EmpireKEY IDEA Napoleon Bonaparte, a military genius, seizedpower in France and made himself emperor.

Napoleon Bonaparte became the master ofFrance. In 1795, he led soldiers against

French royalists who were attacking the NationalConvention. For this, he was hailed as the savior ofthe French republic. Later he invaded Italy to endthe threat from Austrian troops located there.

By 1799, the unsettled French government hadlost the people’s support. In a bold move, Napoleonused troops to seize control of the government. Hethen wielded complete power over the country.Other nations feared his power and attacked Franceagain. Napoleon led his armies into battle. In 1802,the three nations fighting him agreed to a peace.Napoleon went back to solve problems at home.

He made several changes that were meant tobuild on the Revolution’s good ideas:1. He made tax collection more fair and orderly. As

a result, the government could count on a steadysupply of money.

2. He removed dishonest government workers.3. He started new public schools for ordinary

citizens.4. He gave the church back some of its power.5. He wrote a new set of laws that gave all French

citizens the same rights. However, the new lawstook away many individual rights won during theRevolution. For example, they limited freespeech and restored slavery in French colonies.Napoleon had hoped to make his empire larger

in both Europe and the New World. In 1801, hehad sent soldiers to retake the island of present-dayHaiti. During a civil war, slaves on the island hadseized power. But Napoleon had to give up on hisplan. Too many of his soldiers died in battle orfrom disease. Napoleon eventually abandoned hisNew World plans. In 1803, he sold the largest partof France’s North American land—the hugeLouisiana Territory—to the United States.

Stopped in the Americas, Napoleon moved toadd to his power in Europe. In 1804, he made him-self emperor of France. He quickly captured coun-try after country. Other nations joined against him.However, after Napoleon won a major battle inAustria in 1805, almost all of his European enemiesagreed to a peace treaty. Napoleon’s only loss dur-ing this time was to the British navy off the south-west coast of Spain. This loss prevented him from

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invading and conquering Britain. That failurewould be costly.

Napoleon’s Empire CollapsesKEY IDEA Napoleon’s conquests aroused nationalisticfeelings across Europe and contributed to his downfall.

Napoleon loved power. He took steps to makehis empire larger. However, these steps led to

mistakes that brought about his downfall.Napoleon’s first mistake was caused by his desire

to crush Britain. He wanted to hurt the British econ-omy. So in 1806 he tried stopping all trade betweenBritain and the lands he controlled. The effort failed,for some Europeans secretly brought in Britishgoods. At the same time, the British put their ownblockade around Europe. Because their navy was sostrong, it worked very well. Soon the French econ-omy, along with others, began to grow weak.

Napoleon’s second mistake was to make hisbrother king of Spain in 1808. The Spanish peoplewere loyal to their own king. With help fromBritain, they fought back against Napoleon for fiveyears. Napoleon lost 300,000 troops.

Napoleon’s third mistake was perhaps his worst.In 1812, he tried to conquer Russia, far to the east.He entered Russia with more than 400,000 sol-diers. He got as far as Moscow, which was desertedand on fire. His soldiers found no food or suppliesthere. Winter was coming, and Napoleon orderedthem to head back to France. As the soldiersmarched west, bitter cold, hunger, and attacks byRussian troops killed thousands. Thousands moredeserted. By the time the army exited Russian ter-ritory, only 10,000 of its men were able to fight.

Other leaders saw that Napoleon was weakernow, and they moved to attack. He was defeated inGermany in 1813. In 1814, Napoleon gave up histhrone and was sent away. Nevertheless, in March1815, he boldly returned to France. He took powerand raised another army. By June, though,Napoleon had lost his final battle near a Belgiantown called Waterloo. This time he was sent to afar-off island in the southern Atlantic Ocean. Hedied there in 1821.

The Congress of Vienna KEY IDEA After exiling Napoleon, European leaders atthe Congress of Vienna tried to restore order andreestablish peace.

After Napoleon’s first defeat, in 1814, leaders ofmany nations met for months. They tried to

draw up a peace plan for Europe that would lastmany years. They called the meeting the Congressof Vienna. The key person there was the foreignminister of Austria, Klemens von Metternich. Heshaped the peace conditions that were accepted.

Metternich insisted on three goals. First, hewanted to make sure that the French would notattack another country again. Second, he wanted abalance of power in which no one nation was toostrong. Third, he wanted to put kings back incharge of the countries from which they had beenremoved. The leaders agreed with Metternich’sideas. An age of European peace began.

Across Europe, kings and princes reclaimedtheir thrones. Most of them were conservatives anddid not encourage individual liberties. They did not want any calls for equal rights. However, manypeople still believed in the ideals of the FrenchRevolution. They thought that all people should beequal and share in power. Later they would fightfor these rights again.

People in the Americas also felt the desire forfreedom. Spanish colonies in the Americas revoltedagainst the restored Spanish king. Many nationswon independence from Spain. National feelinggrew in many places in Europe, too. Soon people inareas such as Italy, Germany, and Greece would rebeland form new countries. The French Revolution hadchanged the politics of Europe and beyond.

Review1. Analyzing Causes What factors led to the

French Revolution?2. Following Chronological Order Trace the

fate of Louis XVI during the Revolution.3. Summarizing What did Napoleon do to restore

order in France?4. Making Inferences Why did Napoleon’s empire

collapse?5. Determining Main Ideas What were the goals

of the Congress of Vienna?

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Name Date

CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West, 1789–1900

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Spurred by the French Revolution, Latin American colonieswon independence. In Europe, liberals and radicals pushed for change but con-servatives resisted. Nationalism spread throughout Europe, and Germany andItaly formed as nations. Artistic and intellectual movements emphasized natureand feelings, true life, and “impressions” of a subject or moment.

Summary

Latin American Peoples Win Independence

KEY IDEA Spurred by discontent and Enlightenmentideas, peoples in Latin America fought colonial rule.

In the early 1800s, colonial peoples throughoutLatin America followed the example of the

French Revolution. In the name of freedom andequality, they fought for their independence.

In Latin America, society was divided into sixclasses of people. Peninsulares—those born inSpain—were at the top. Next came creoles, orSpaniards who had been born in Latin America.Below them were mestizos, with mixed Europeanand Indian ancestry. Next were mulattos, withmixed European and African ancestry, and Afri-cans. At the bottom were Indians.

The first movement for independence was theFrench colony of Saint Domingue, on the island ofHispaniola. Almost all of the people who lived inthe colony were slaves of African origin. In 1791,about 100,000 of them rose in revolt. ToussaintL’Ouverture became the leader. By 1801, he hadmoved to the eastern part of the island and freedthe slaves there. In 1804, the former colonydeclared its independence as Haiti.

Meanwhile in other parts of Latin America, cre-oles felt that they were unfairly treated by the gov-ernment and the peninsulares. This bad feelingboiled over when Napoleon overthrew the king ofSpain and named his own brother as king. Creoles inLatin America had no loyalty to the new king andrevolted. However, even after the old king wasrestored, they did not give up their fight for freedom.

Two leaders pushed much of South America toindependence. Simón Bolívar was a writer, fighter,and political thinker. He survived defeats and exileto win independence for Venezuela in 1821. Joséde San Martín helped win independence forArgentina in 1816 and Chile in 1818. Bolívar ledtheir combined armies to a great victory in 1824

that gave independence to all the former Spanishcolonies.

Turmoil continued in the region. Local leadersdisagreed and split the new countries up into smallerunits. In 1830, the territory of Gran Colombiadivided into Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.

In Mexico, mestizos and Indians led the fightfor independence. The struggle began in 1810when Miguel Hidalgo, a village priest, called for arevolt against Spanish rule. Creoles united withthe Spanish government to put down this revolt bythe lower classes, whom they feared. Fightingcontinued until 1815, when the creoles won. In1820, a new government took charge in Spain.Fearing that they would lose their rights this time,the creoles now united with the rebels and foughtfor independence. In 1821, Spain acceptedMexico’s independence. In 1823, the region ofCentral America separated itself from Mexico. In1841, the United Provinces of Central Americasplit into five republics.

In Brazil, independence took a different turn.When Napoleon’s armies entered Portugal in 1807,the royal family escaped to Brazil, its largest colony.For the next 14 years, it was the center of thePortuguese empire. By the time Napoleon wasdefeated, the people of Brazil wanted their inde-pendence. In 1822, 8,000 creoles signed a paperasking the son of Portugal’s king to rule an inde-pendent Brazil. He agreed, and Brazil became freethat year through a bloodless revolt.

Europe Faces RevolutionsKEY IDEA Liberal and nationalist uprisings challengedthe old conservative order of Europe.

In the first half of the 1800s, three forces strug-gled for power within the countries of Europe.

Conservatives supported the kings who had ruledthese lands for many centuries. These were noblesand other people who owned large amounts of

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property. Liberals wanted to give more power toelected legislatures. They were typically middle-class merchants and business people. They wantedto limit voting rights to people who were educatedand owned property. Radicals wanted the end ofrule by kings and full voting rights for all people,even the poor.

At the same time, another movement arose inEurope—nationalism. This was the belief that aperson’s loyalty should go not to the country’s rulerbut to the nation itself. Nationalists thought thatmany factors linked people to one another. Firstwas nationality, or a common ethnic ancestry.Shared language, culture, history, and religion werealso seen as ties that connected people. Peoplesharing these traits were thought to have a right toa land they could call their own. Groups with theirown government were called nation-states. Leadersbegan to see that this feeling could be a powerfulforce for uniting a people. The French Revolutionwas a prime example of this.

The first people to win self-rule during thisperiod were the Greeks. For centuries, Greece hadbeen part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1821, Greeksrevolted against this Turkish rule. Rulers in Europedid not like the idea of revolts, but the Greek causewas popular. Other nations gave aid to the Greeks,helping to defeat the Ottomans’ forces in 1827. TheGreeks won their independence by 1830.

Other revolts broke out. In 1830, the Belgiansdeclared their independence from rule by theDutch. Nationalists began a long struggle to unifyall of Italy, which had been broken into many dif-ferent states. Poles revolted against Russian rule.Conservatives managed to put down these rebel-lions. However, new ones broke out again in 1848among Hungarians and Czechs. Once again, theywere put down forcefully.

Events differed in France. Riots in 1830 forcedthe king to flee and put a new king in his place. Anew revolt broke out in 1848 that overthrew theking and established a republic. However, the radi-cals who had won this victory began arguing overhow much France should be changed. Somewanted only political changes. Others wanted socialand economic changes that would help the poor.When these forces fought in the streets, the Frenchgave up on the radical program. They introduced anew government, with a legislature and a strongpresident. The new president was Louis-Napoleon,Napoleon Bonaparte’s nephew. He later named

himself emperor of France. He built railroads andpromoted the growth of France’s industry. Theeconomy revived and more people had jobs.

Russia in the early 1800s had yet to build anindustrial economy. The biggest problem was thatserfdom still existed there. Peasants were bound tothe nobles whose land they worked. Russia’s rulersdid not wish to free the serfs, though. They fearedthey would lose the support of the nobles. In the1850s, the Russian army lost a war to take over partof the Ottoman Empire. The new ruler of Russia,Alexander II, decided that Russia’s lack of a mod-ern economy caused the defeat. He decided tobegin many reforms.

The first, in 1861, was to free the serfs. Thoughit seemed bold, Alexander’s move went only partway. Nobles kept half their land and were paid forthe half that went to the peasants. The former serfswere not given the land. They had to pay for it, andthis debt kept them still tied to the land. The czar’sefforts to make changes ended short when he wasassassinated in 1881. Alexander III, his successor,brought back tight control over the country andmoved to make the economy more industrial.

Nationalism Case Study:Italy and Germany

KEY IDEA The force of nationalism contributed to theformation of two new nations and a new political orderin Europe.

Nationalism can be a force uniting people whoare divided from others like themselves. The

case studies on Germany and Italy will show this.However, nationalism can also cause the break-upof a state. This may occur when a group resistsbeing part of a state. The Greeks in the Ottomanempire are an example. Finally, nationalism canpull different groups together to build a nation-state. The United States is a good example of this.

In the late 1800s, feelings of nationalism threat-ened to break apart three aging empires. TheAustrian Empire was forced to split in two parts,Austria and Hungary. However, nationalist feelingcontinued to plague these rulers for 40 years andthe kingdoms later broke up into several smallerstates. In Russia, harsh rule and a policy of forcingother peoples to adopt Russian ways helped pro-duce a revolution in 1917 that overthrew the czar.The Ottoman Empire, like the other two, brokeapart around the time of World War I.

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Italians used national feeling to build a nation,not destroy an empire. Large parts of Italy wereruled by the kings of Austria and Spain. Nationaliststried to unite the nation in 1848, but the revolt wasbeaten down. Hopes rested with the Italian king ofthe state of Piedmont-Sardinia. His chief minister,Count Cavour, worked to expand the king’s controlover other areas of the north. Meanwhile, GiuseppiGaribaldi led an army of patriots that won controlof southern areas. He put those areas under controlof the king. In 1866, the area around Venice wasadded to the king’s control. Four years later, theking completed the uniting of Italy.

Germany had also been divided into many differ-ent states for many centuries. Since 1815, 39 stateshad joined in a league called the German Con-federation. Prussia and Austria-Hungary controlledthis group. Over time, Prussia rose to become morepowerful. Leading this move was prime ministerOtto von Bismarck. He joined with Austria to gaincontrol of new lands. He then quickly turned againstAustria, defeating it in war to gain even more terri-tory. Other German states formed a new confedera-tion that Prussia alone controlled. Bismarck’s nextstep was to win the loyalty of the remaining Germanareas in the south. He purposefully angered a weakFrance so that it would declare war on Prussia.When the Prussian army won, Bismarck reached hisgoal. The war with France had given the southernGerman states a nationalistic feeling. They joinedthe other states in naming the king of Prussia ashead of united Germany.

As a result of these events, the balance of powerin Europe had changed. Germany and Britain werethe strongest powers, followed by France. Austria,Russia, and Italy were all even weaker.

Revolutions in the ArtsKEY IDEA Artistic and intellectual movements bothreflected and fueled changes in Europe in the 1800s.

In the early 1800s, the Enlightenment wasreplaced by another movement, called romanti-

cism. This movement in art and ideas showed greatinterest in nature and in the thoughts and feelingsof the individual person. Gone was the idea thatreason and order were good things. Romanticthinkers valued feeling, not reason, and nature, notsociety. Romantic thinkers held idealized views ofthe past as simpler, better times. They valued thecommon people. As a result, they enjoyed folk sto-

ries, songs, and traditions. They also supported callsfor democracy. However, not all romantic artistsand thinkers supported these ideas.

Romantic writers had different themes. Frenchwriter Victor Hugo—who wrote The Hunchback ofNotre Dame—told stories of the poor individualwho fights against an unfair society. English poetWilliam Wordsworth celebrated the beauty ofnature. Novels such as Mary Shelley’s Frankensteinwere horror tales about good and evil.

Romanticism was important in music as well.Composers wrote music that tried to appeal to thehearts and souls of listeners. The German Ludwigvan Beethoven was the foremost of these composers.

In the middle 1800s, however, the grim realitiesof industrial life made the dreams of romanticismseem silly. A new movement arose—realism. Artistsand writers tried to show life as it really was. Theyused their art to protest social conditions that theythought were unfair. French writer Emile Zola’sbooks revealed harsh working conditions for thepoor, which led to new laws aimed at helping thosepeople. In England, Charles Dickens wrote manynovels that showed how poor people suffered in thenew industrial economy.

A new device, the camera, was developed inthis period. Photographers could use it to capture areal moment on film. In the 1860s, Parisian paintersreacted against the realistic style. This new art style—impressionism—used light and shimmering colors toproduce an “impression” of a subject or moment.Composers created moods with their music. Theyused combinations of musical instruments and tonepatterns to create mental pictures. Things like thesight of the sea or a warm day were favorites of thecomposers.

Review1. Making Inferences How did the divisions

of Mexican society affect the movement to independence?

Drawing Conclusions2. Explain how the freeing of Russia’s serfs in 1861

was an example of both liberal and conservativethought.

3. Give one example each of how nationalism was aunifying and a destructive force.

4. Determining Main Ideas How did artisticideas change in the 1800s?

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Locations: o Waterloo o Haiti o Columbia o Ecuador o Venezuela o Mexico

Draw the borders of: o France – 1789 C.E. o Napoleon’s Empire o Louisiana Territory o Gran Columbia o United Provinces of Central Mexico o Brazil o Greece – 1830 C.E. o Italy – 1870 C.E. o Germany – 1871 C.E.

Mark the locations of the following revolutions: o Belgium o Hungary o Czech o Poland o France

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Industrial Revolution,1700–1900

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Britain fueled an Industrial Revolution, which changed soci-ety. Workers benefited eventually, but at first they suffered bad working and living conditions. Other nations followed Britain’s example and industrialized.Thinkers reacted to these changes by developing new views of society.Reformers pushed for changes to make society better.

Summary

The Beginnings ofIndustrialization

KEY IDEA The Industrial Revolution started in GreatBritain and soon spread elsewhere.

In the early 1700s, large landowners in Britainbought much of the land that had been owned

by poorer farmers. They introduced new ways offarming. One technique was to use a seed drill.This machine planted seeds in well-spaced rows.Before this, seeds were scattered by hand over theground. As a result, more seeds sprouted. Anothertechnique was to rotate crops annually. Those whoraised livestock used new methods to increase thesize of their animals. As a result of these improve-ments, farm output increased. More food was avail-able, and people enjoyed healthier diets. The popu-lation of Britain grew. The agricultural revolutionhelped produce the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution refers to the greatlyincreased output of machine-made goods thatbegan in Great Britain in the mid–1700s.

For several reasons, Britain was the first countryto have an economy based on industry. It had 1) coal and water to power machines, 2) iron ore to make machines and tools, 3) rivers to move peo-ple and goods, and 4) good harbors for shippinggoods to other lands. Britain also had a system ofbanks that could fund new businesses. Finally, theBritish government was stable, which gave thecountry a positive attitude.

The Industrial Revolution began in the textileindustry. Several new inventions helped businessesproduce cloth and clothing more quickly. Businessowners built huge buildings—factories—thathoused large machines powered by water.

The invention of the steam engine in 1705brought in a new source of power. The steamengine used fire to heat water and produce steam,which was used to drive the engine. Eventuallysteam-driven machines were used to run factories.

At the same time, improvements were beingmade in transportation. An American invented thefirst steam-driven boat. This allowed people to sendgoods more quickly over rivers and canals. TheBritish also built better roads that included layersof stone and rock to prevent wagons from beingstuck in the mud.

Starting in the 1820s, steam fueled a new burstof industrial growth. At that time, a British engineerset up the world’s first railroad line. It used a steam-driven locomotive. Soon, railroads were being builtall over Britain. The railroad boom helped businessowners move their goods to market more quickly.The boom in railroad building created thousands ofnew jobs in several different industries. The railroadhad a deep effect on British society. For instance,people who lived in the country moved to cities.

Industrialization Case Study: Manchester

KEY IDEA The factory system changed the way peoplelived and worked, ibringing both benefits and problems.

The change to an industrial economy broughtmany benefits to British people. They used coal

to heat their homes, ate better food, and wore bet-ter clothing. Many people also suffered, however.Industrialization caused many changes.

One change was a rise in the proportion of peo-ple who lived in cities. For centuries, most peoplein Europe had lived in the country. Now more andmore lived in cities. The number of cities withmore than 100,000 people doubled between 1800and 1850. Because they grew quickly, cities werenot ideal places to live. People could not find goodhousing, schools, or police protection. The citieswere filthy with garbage, and sickness sweptthrough slum areas. The average life span of a per-son living in a city was 17 years—compared to 38years in the countryside.

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Working conditions were harsh as well. Theaverage worker spent 14 hours a day on the job, 6days a week. Factories were dark, and the powerfulmachines were dangerous. Many workers werekilled or seriously injured in accidents. Some riotedagainst the poor living and working conditions.

Some people improved their lives in the neweconomy. The middle class—made up of skilledworkers, professionals, business people, andwealthy farmers—did well. They enjoyed comfort-able lives in pleasant homes. This class began togrow in size, and some people in it grew wealthierthan the nobles who had dominated society formany centuries. Still, nobles looked down on thepeople who gained their wealth from business.They, in turn, looked down on the poor workers.

Overall, the Industrial Revolution had many goodeffects. It increased the amount of goods and servicesa nation could produce and added to its wealth. Itcreated jobs for workers and over time helped themlive better lives. It produced better diets, betterhousing, and cheaper, better clothing. Many of thesebenefits were far in the future, however.

The English city of Manchester showed howindustrialization changed society. Rapid growthmade the city crowded and filthy. The factory own-ers risked their money and worked long hours tomake their businesses grow. In return, they enjoyedhuge profits and built huge houses. The workersalso worked long hours, but had few benefits.

Many workers were children, some only sixyears old. Not until 1819 did the British govern-ment put limits on using children as workers. Withso much industry in one place, Manchester suf-fered in another way. Coal smoke and cloth dyespolluted the air and water.Yet, Manchester also cre-ated many jobs, a variety of consumer goods, andgreat wealth.

Industrialization SpreadsKEY IDEA The industrialization that began in GreatBritain spread to other parts of the world.

Other countries followed the example of Britainand began to change their economies to an

industrial base. The United States was one of thefirst. Like Britain, it had water power, sources ofcoal and iron, and a ready supply of workers. TheUnited States also benefited from conflict withBritain. During the War of 1812, Britain stoppedshipping goods to the United States. As a result,

American industries had a chance to supply thegoods that Americans wanted.

The switch to an industrial economy began in theUnited States in the textile industry. In 1789, basedon memory and a partial design, a British workerbrought the secret of Britain’s textile machines toNorth America. He built a machine to spin thread. In1813, a group of Massachusetts investors built a com-plex of factories that made cloth. Just a few yearslater they built an even larger complex in the town of Lowell. Thousands of workers, mostly young girls,came to these towns to work in the factories.

In the United States, industry grew first in theNortheast. In the last decades of the 1800s, a rapidburst of industrial growth took place that was morewidespread. This boom was fueled by large suppliesof coal, oil, and iron. Helping, too, was the appear-ance of a number of new inventions, including theelectric light. As in Britain, railroad building wasalso a big part of this industrial growth.

Businesses needed huge sums of money to takeon big projects. To raise money, companies soldshares of ownership, called stock. All those whoheld stock were part owners of the company. Thisform of organizing a business is called a corporation.

Industrial growth spread to Europe as well.Belgium was the first to adopt British ways. It wasrich in iron and coal and had good waterways. Ithad the resources needed.

Germany was politically divided until the late1800s. As a result, it could not develop a wide indus-trial economy. However, west-central Germany wasrich in coal and did become a leading industrial site.

Across Europe, small areas began to change tothe new industries. Industrial growth did not occurin France until after 1830. It was helped by thegovernment’s construction of a large network ofrailroads. Some countries—such as Austria-Hungary and Spain—had problems that stoppedthem from building new industries.

The Industrial Revolution changed the world.Countries that had adopted an industrial economyenjoyed more wealth and power than those thathad not. The countries of Europe soon began totake advantage of lands in Africa and Asia. Theyused these lands as sources of raw materials neededfor their factories. They saw the people only asmarkets for the goods they made. They took con-trol of these lands, a practice called imperialism.

The Industrial Revolution changed life foreverin the countries that industrialized. Problems

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caused by industrialization led to movements forsocial reform.

Reforming the IndustrialWorld

KEY IDEA The Industrial Revolution led to economic,social, and political reforms.

The new industrial economy led to new ways of thinking about society. Some economists

thought that the government should leave businessowners alone. Their view was called laissez-faire,from a French phrase meaning “let people do asthey please.” Adam Smith argued that putting nolimits on business or on trade would help a nation’seconomy grow the most. He and other economistssupported a system called capitalism. In a capitalisteconomy, people invest their money in businessesto make a profit. Over time, society as a wholewould benefit, said Smith and the others. Thesepeople warned the government not to make lawstrying to protect workers. Such laws would upset theworkings of the economy, they said.

Other thinkers challenged these ideas. Onegroup was called the Utilitarians. They thought thatan idea or practice was good only as it proved use-ful. They thought it was unfair that workers shouldwork so hard for such little pay and live in suchpoor conditions. They thought the governmentshould do away with great differences in wealthamong people.

Some thinkers went farther and urged that busi-nesses should be owned by society as a whole, notby individuals. Then a few people would not growwealthy at the expense of many. Instead, all wouldenjoy the benefits of increased production. Thisview—called socialism—grew out of a belief inprogress and a concern for justice and fairness.

A German thinker named Karl Marx wroteabout a radical form of socialism called Marxism.He said that factory owners and workers werebound to oppose one another in the struggle forpower. Over time, he said, the capitalist systemwould destroy itself. The great mass of workerswould rebel against the wealthy few. Marx wroteThe Communist Manifesto in which he describedcommunism, a form of complete socialism in whichall production is owned by the people. Privateproperty would not exist. In the early 1900s, theseideas would inspire revolution.

While thinkers discussed these different ideas,workers took action to try to improve their lives.Many formed into unions that tried to bargain withbusiness owners for better pay and better workingconditions. When business owners resisted theseefforts, the workers went on strike, or refused towork. The struggle to win the right to form unionswas long and hard for workers in Britain and theUnited States. Still, by the late 1800s, workers inboth countries had made some progress.

The British Parliament and reformers in theUnited States also took steps to try to fix some ofthe worst features of industrialism. Britain passedlaws that put limits on how much women and chil-dren could work. Groups in the United Statespushed for similar laws.

Another major reform movement of the 1800swas the drive to abolish slavery. The BritishParliament took the first step by ending the slavetrade in 1807. It abolished slavery completely in1833. Slavery was finally ended in the United Statesin 1865, after the Civil War. Spain ended slavery inPuerto Rico in 1873 and in Cuba in 1886. Brazilbecame the last country to ban slavery, which it didin 1888.

Women were active in these and other reformmovements. As they fought for the end of slavery,many women launched an effort to win equal rightsfor women. The movement for equality began inthe United States in 1848. In 1888, women fromaround the world formed a group dedicated to thiscause.

Reformers took on other projects as well. Somepushed for—and won—improved education.Others hoped to improve conditions in prisons.

Review1. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

Why did the Industrial Revolution begin inBritain?

Determining Main Ideas2. What was the impact of the railroad?3. What reforms were popular in the 1800s?4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

What effects did industrialization have on society?

5. Developing Historical Perspective How didindustrialization spread in the United States?

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Name Date

CHAPTERS IN BRIEF An Age of Democracy andProgress, 1815–1914

CHAPTER OVERVIEW In Britain, reforms gave all men the right to vote. A republicwas proclaimed in France, but political conflict continued. Some British colonieswon the right to govern themselves, but the struggle for that right was not easyin Ireland. The United States fought a civil war that finally put an end to slavery.New inventions and scientific advances made life more healthful and enjoyable.

Summary

Democratic Reform and Activism

KEY IDEA Spurred by the demands of ordinary people,Great Britain and France underwent democratic reforms.

Since the 1600s, Britain’s government had beena constitutional monarchy. A king or queen

ruled the country, but the elected legislature—Parliament—held the real power. Still, very fewpeople could vote for members of Parliament. Onlymen who owned property—about six percent of thepopulation—had the right. That changed in the1800s.

The Reform Bill of 1832 was the first step.Middle-class people across England protested thefact that they could not vote. Worried by revolutionssweeping Europe, Parliament passed the ReformBill. This law gave the right to vote to many in themiddle class. It also gave seats in Parliament to thenew industrial cities, which had not had any repre-sentatives before. Over time, Parliament mademore changes. By 1884, almost all adult males inBritain could vote. Parliament also made votes takeplace by secret ballot. Another law gave pay tomembers of Parliament, which in effect openedthat body to people who were not wealthy.

By 1890, a number of countries with industrialeconomies had given all men the right to vote.None, however, gave women that right. During the1800s, women in the United States and Britainpeacefully campaigned for the vote. Beginning in1903, a group called the Women’s Social andPolitical Union began a stronger campaign forwomen’s suffrage in Britain. They held rallies andparades. They also broke up the speeches of gov-ernment officials and sometimes set fire to build-ings. When the leaders were arrested, they went onhunger strikes to gain publicity for their cause. Itwas not until after World War I, however, thatwomen won the right to vote in both Great Britainand the United States.

The road to democracy in France was morerocky. After France’s defeat at the hands of Prussiain 1870, France went through a series of crises.Finally a new government—the Third Republic—was formed. It lasted over 60 years, but Franceremained divided.

In the 1890s, French society was divided overthe case of an army officer, Alfred Dreyfus, whowas accused of being a traitor. The charge was falseand was made largely because Dreyfus was a Jew.However, many believed the charge, and he wasfound guilty. A few years later, new evidenceshowed that he had been framed. Dreyfus was laterdeclared innocent.

The affair revealed that many in Europe hatedJews. In Eastern Europe, the situation was verybad. The Russian government even allowed organ-ized attacks on Jewish villages. From the 1880s on,many Jews fled to the United States.

Self-Rule for British ColoniesKEY IDEA Britain allowed self-rule in Canada, Australia,and New Zealand but delayed independence for Ireland.

Britain had colonies all around the world. Three of them were settled by colonists

from Europe who built societies strongly shaped by British culture. Canada, Australia, and NewZealand developed industrial economies. Theyreached a point where they hoped to have theirown governments.

The white settlers of Canada were split into twogroups. Britain had won Canada from France backin 1763. However, some French-speaking Catholicsstill lived in the colony. The other group wasEnglish-speaking and mostly Protestant. The twogroups did not get along. In 1791, Britain split thecolony into two provinces, each with its own gov-ernment. The French-speaking people grew angryat British rule.

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After a series of rebellions, the BritishParliament put the two sections back togetherunder one government. Other, smaller colonieswere added to create the Dominion of Canada.Canadians had the right to make all laws concern-ing their own affairs. Parliament kept the right tomake decisions about relations with other coun-tries. By 1871, Canada stretched all the way to thePacific Ocean.

New Zealand and Australia first became part ofthe British Empire around 1770. The first settlerssent to Australia were convicted criminals. Oncethey had spent the required amount of time, theywon their freedom and had the right to buy land.In the 1800s, other settlers arrived, many to join inthe growing sheep industry. The settlement of NewZealand went more slowly because the British gov-ernment recognized that the native people—theMaori—had rights to the land. By the 1840s,though, the number of settlers was growing.

During the 1850s, these two countries becameself-governing. However, they stayed in the BritishEmpire and in the early 1900s became dominions.Australia was the first country to use secret ballotsin voting for representatives. New Zealand—in1893—was the first country to give women theright to vote. The native peoples of Australia andNew Zealand enjoyed few of these rights, though.Like Native Americans, they suffered the spread ofEuropean settlement.

Irish self-rule took longer to achieve. Irelandbitterly opposed English rule from its start in the1100s. Conflict also separated the Catholic Irishand the small group of English Protestants. WhenIreland was made part of Britain in 1801, the Irishwon representation in Parliament. A leader usedthat position to win back some rights for IrishCatholics.

In the 1840s, the Irish suffered a terriblefamine. A disease destroyed the potatoes on whichthe Irish depended, causing many to starve. About1 million died and another 1.5 million left for theUnited States and other countries. Meanwhile, theBritish forced the Irish to pay their rents. Many losttheir land, and resentment against England greweven stronger.

In the late 1800s, some Irish pushed for com-plete independence. Most argued for home rule—the right to govern internal affairs. The British gov-ernment opposed this move. They were afraid thatthe Catholic majority would harshly treat the

Protestants in the north. In 1914, Parliament finallygave home rule to the southern part of Ireland.When World War I delayed its enactment, Irishnationalists rebelled. Finally, Britain split Ireland intwo. Northern Ireland remained part of Britain.The southern part became independent. Manypeople still seek independence for all of Ireland.

War and Expansion in theUnited States

KEY IDEA The United States expanded across NorthAmerica and fought a bloody civil war.

The United States had troubles of its own. In theearly 1800s, the nation grew in size. It bought

a huge piece of land from France in the LouisianaPurchase. Many said it was “manifest destiny”—theright of the United States to rule the land from theAtlantic Ocean to the Pacific. As white settlersmoved farther and farther west, Native Americanssuffered. In the 1830s, many thousands wereforced to move from their homes in the easternstates to the present state of Oklahoma. TheUnited States won a war with Mexico in the 1840sand thus gained even more land.

This growth raised serious questions. Thesouthern states used slave labor to grow crops suchas cotton. People in the South hoped to extendslavery to the new western lands. Many in theNorth, however, believed that slavery was wrongand should be ended.

Conflict over slavery eventually led to the CivilWar. The southern states seceded, or pulled out of,the Union. When southern forces fired on a Unionfort in 1861, war broke out. The fighting lasted fourlong and bloody years. The North won the war.During the fighting, President Abraham Lincolndeclared that slavery was ended in the UnitedStates. Later, the Constitution was changed to makethis the law of the land and to say that AfricanAmericans were citizens.

In the first few years after the war, newly freedAfrican Americans enjoyed equal rights. Later,whites regained control of the governments of thesouthern states. They passed laws that took awaythe rights of blacks and treated them unfairly. Itwould be many years before African Americanscould enjoy equality.

The economy of the South was destroyed by theCivil War. Elsewhere, though, the nation saw asurge of industrial growth. Helping achieve this

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great growth was a sharp rise in immigration fromEurope and Asia. By 1914, more than 20 millionpeople had come to the United States.

Nineteenth-Century ProgressKEY IDEA Breakthroughs in science and technologytransformed daily life and entertainment.

In the late 1800s, new inventions made majorchanges in how people lived. Thomas Edison got

patents on more than 1,000 inventions. Amongthem were the electric light bulb and the phono-graph. Alexander Graham Bell invented the tele-phone, and Guglielmo Marconi created the firstradio.

There were big changes in transportation too.Though someone else invented the car, HenryFord made it affordable to ordinary people. He hada factory with an assembly line that allowed him toquickly build cheap cars that cost as little as $300.In 1903, the Wright brothers flew the first motor-powered airplane flight. Soon there was an aircraftindustry.

Medicine made advances. Until the mid-1800s,no one knew about germs. French scientist LouisPasteur discovered that microscopic animals thathe called bacteria could live in food. Soon he andothers realized that bacteria could cause disease.British surgeon Joseph Lister took steps to kill bac-teria, which helped more patients survive. Soon hispractices became widespread. Public officials beganto clean up plumbing and sewage systems. All thesesteps helped people lead longer and healthier lives.

English scientist Charles Darwin developed anew theory that was hotly debated. He said that alllife on earth, even humans, had developed fromsimpler forms over millions of years. Many did notaccept this idea, which they said went against theBible.

In the mid-1800s, an Austrian monk namedGregor Mendel did some experiments that showedthat parents passed on their traits to offspring. Hiswork formed the basis of the science of genetics.Other scientists made new discoveries in chemistryand physics. They found that all matter is made oftiny particles called atoms. They also were able toidentify the differences between different elements.

In the late 1800s, some thinkers began the newsocial science of psychology, which is the study ofthe mind. A series of experiments led Russian IvanPavlov to argue that people responded to certain

situations because of how they were trained. Bychanging the training, he said, one could changethe response. Austrian Sigmund Freud argued thatpowerful forces in the subconscious mind of a per-son shaped behavior. These views shocked many.They seemed to overturn the idea that peoplecould use their reason to build better lives.

In earlier times, art, music, and the theater hadbeen of interest only to the wealthy. With the riseof the middle class, culture became available tomore people. One reason was that more peoplecould read, which led to more newspapers, maga-zines, and books.

Another reason was that working people hadmore time to enjoy art, music, and recreation.People went to music halls to enjoy singing anddancing. In the early 1900s, they began to watch thefirst silent movies. People also began to enjoy sport-ing events, both as participants and as spectators.

ReviewComparing and Contrasting1. Contrast the spread of democracy in Britain with

that in France.2. Compare the development of self-rule in the dif-

ferent colonies of Britain.3. Determining Main Ideas How did the United

States change during the 1800s?4. Drawing Conclusions What important inven-

tions were made in the late 1800s and early1900s? Which one do you think was most important?

5. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsHow did new medical and scientific discoveriesand ideas from the late 1800s change life?

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Locations: o London o Manchester

Draw the boundaries of: o U.S. Civil War – North o U.S. Civil War – South o Dominion of Canada o Australia o New Zealand o Northern Ireland o Ireland

Mark the locations and dates for the abolition (ending) of slavery: o Britain o United States o Puerto Rico o Cuba o Brazil

Draw the boundaries for the expansion of the United States: o 1783 borders o Louisiana Territory o Florida - 1819 o Lands from Mexico - 1840s o Oregon Country – 1846

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Age of Imperialism,1850–1914

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Several factors led Europeans to claim control of almost allof Africa. Some Africans resisted, but most efforts failed. The Ottoman Empirebroke apart, and European powers took some of its lands. The British took con-trol of India, where they modernized the economy to benefit themselves.Europeans gained lands in Southeast Asia, and the United States sought colonies.

Summary

The Scramble for AfricaKEY IDEA Ignoring the claims of African ethnic groups,kingdoms, and city-states, Europeans established colo-nial claims.

In the early 1800s, European nations had just atoehold in Africa, holding only areas along the

coast. In the mid-1800s, though, Europeans hadrenewed interest in Africa. This rose, in part, from adesire to create overseas empires, a movementcalled imperialism. European nations wanted tocontrol lands that had raw materials they needed fortheir industrial economies. They also wanted toopen up markets for the goods they made. National-ism fed the drive for empires as well. A nation oftenfelt that gaining colonies was a measure of its great-ness. Racism was another reason. Europeansthought that they were better than Africans. Finally,Christian missionaries supported imperialism. Theythought that European rule would end the slavetrade and help them convert native peoples.

As a result of these factors, the nations ofEurope began to seize lands in Africa. Technologyhelped them succeed. Steamships, railroads, andtelegraphs made them able to penetrate deep intoAfrica and still have contact with the home country.Machine guns gave them a weapon of far greaterpower than any African peoples possessed. Finally,the drug quinine gave doctors a weapon againstmalaria, which struck Europeans. They were alsohelped by the lack of unity among African peoples.

The competition for African land, called the“scramble for Africa” began in the 1880s. The dis-covery of gold and diamonds in Africa increasedEuropean interest in the continent. So that theywould not fight over the land, European powersmet in Berlin in 1884–85. They agreed that anynation could claim any part of Africa simply bytelling the others and by showing that it had controlof the area. They then moved quickly to grab land.

By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia were independ-ent of European control.

The Europeans began to build plantationswhere they grew peanuts, palm oil, cocoa, and rub-ber. They also mined Africa’s important minerals.The Congo produced copper and tin. South Africahad gold and diamonds.

In South Africa, three groups struggled over the land. In the early 1800s, the Zulu chief Shakacreated a large kingdom. The British seized controlof this land in 1887. Meanwhile, the British woncontrol of the Dutch colony on the southern coast.Many thousands of Dutch settlers, called Boers,moved north to escape the British. At the end ofthe century, the Boers fought a vicious war with theBritish. The Boers lost, and they joined the British-run Union of South Africa.

ImperialismCase Study: Nigeria

KEY IDEA Europeans embarked on a new phase ofempire-building that affected both Africa and the rest ofthe world.

European nations wanted to control more of thelife of their conquered peoples. As a result, each

colonized region operated under one of these forms:• colony—governed by a foreign power• protectorate—allowed its own government but

was under the control of a foreign power• sphere of influence—claimed as the exclusive

investment or trading realm of a foreign power• economic imperialism—controlled by private

businesses rather than by a foreign governmentThe imperialist powers had two main methods

of running their colonies. Britain and the UnitedStates used indirect control. In this system, localrulers had power over day-to-day matters. Therewere also councils of native peoples and govern-

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ment officials. These councils were a first step fornative peoples to someday govern themselves.

Britain tried to rule Nigeria through indirectcontrol. Because the area was huge and peopled bymany different groups, it was difficult for the Britishto rule directly. They let local chiefs maintain orderover their areas and collect taxes. The system didnot always work. Chiefs had ruled before in thesoutheast and southwest of Nigeria. The chiefsresented having their power limited.

France and other European nations used theother method—direct control. Feeling that nativepeoples could not handle the complex business ofrunning a country, the European power governed.The French also had a policy of assimilation. Allinstitutions were patterned after their counterpartsin France. They hoped that the native peopleswould learn and adopt French ways.

Some Africans tried to resist imperialism.People in Algeria fought against the French foralmost 50 years. In German East Africa, thousandsdied when they tried to use spiritual power to fightGerman machine guns. Only in Ethiopia did resis-tance succeed. There, Emperor Menelik II cleverlyplayed one European country against another. In1896, he used European weapons to defeat aninvading Italian army. With this victory, Ethiopiastayed independent.

Africans did enjoy some benefits from colonialrule. European governments put an end to ethnicconflict. Colonial powers brought Africaneconomies fully into the world market and builtrailroads, dams, and telephone and telegraph lines.

For the most part, though, imperialism causeddamage. Traditional African society was destroyed.People were forced out of their homes and made towork under horrible conditions. Finally, the politi-cal boundaries that Europeans drew had no rela-tion to ethnic divisions in Africa. These boundariescreated problems many decades later when thecolonies became independent nations.

Europeans Claim Muslim Lands

KEY IDEA European nations expand their empires byseizing territories from Muslim states.

The Ottoman Empire, based in modern Turkey,had lasted for hundreds of years. By the 1800s,

it was weak. In 1830, Greece won its independenceand Serbia won the right to govern itself. European

nations eyed what remained of the empire hungrily.Russia hoped to win control of the Black Sea so

it could ship grain across the Mediterranean Sea. Itfought a war with the Ottomans in the 1850s butlost when Britain and France joined against it. Still,the Ottomans later lost almost all of their land inEurope and parts of Africa. By 1914, the empirewas much smaller than it had ever been. Muslimleaders, seeing this decline, decided to modernizetheir countries.

In Egypt, Muhammad Ali broke away fromOttoman control. He put in place reforms to changethe army and the economy. He pushed Egypt’sfarmers to grow cotton, a cash crop in demand inEurope. However, peasants suffered when theywere turned away from growing food. His grandsoncontinued to modernize. He joined with the Frenchin building the Suez Canal, which connected theMediterranean to the Red Sea. When Egypt hadmoney troubles, Britain took control of the canal—and the country.

In Persia, the Russians and the British com-peted for control with local powers. Russia wantedto win Persia to have access to the Indian Ocean.Britain wanted some land there as a barrierbetween Russia and its colony in India. In the early1900s, oil was discovered in Persia. A British com-pany signed an agreement with Persia’s ruler todevelop these oil fields. Persians rebelled againsttheir ruler—who was corrupt—and the growinginfluence of Europeans. Then Russia and Britainstepped in and took control of the land.

British Imperialism in IndiaKEY IDEA As the Mughal Empire declined, Britainseized almost the whole subcontinent of India.

In the early 1700s, the Mughal Empire of Indiafell into decline. By the middle of the century,

the British East India Company was becoming themost important power in India. It held hugeamounts of land—almost the entire subcontinent.

British law forced India to supply raw materialssuch as tea, indigo (a dye), coffee, and cotton. Thelaw also forced Indian manufacturing out of business.India became even more important when the EastIndia Company built rail lines that linked growingregions in the interior with ports on the coast.

India enjoyed some gains from British rule. Itsrail system was the third largest in the world andhelped make the economy more modern. The

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British made other improvements, too. They builttelephone and telegraph lines, dams, bridges, andcanals. They also improved sanitation and publichealth and built schools. More and more Indianslearned to read.

British rule caused problems as well. Many eco-nomic benefits flowed out of India to Britain. Indianindustry died out because of British trade laws.Many farmers and villages lost their ability to feedthemselves because they were made to grow cashcrops. Many peoples died when famines struck.British racist attitudes damaged Indian culture.

By the mid-1800s, many Indians felt growingresentment. When Indian soldiers heard rumorsthat offended their religious feelings, manyrebelled. The East India Company needed a year—and British troops—to put it down. The Indianslost because of their own divisions. Muslims andHindus did not trust each other. After the revolt,the British government took direct control ofBritish India.

Indians tried other ways of resisting British con-trol. Leaders such as Ram Mohun Roy urgedchanges in traditional Indian practices to makeIndian society more modern. He hoped to freeIndia of foreign control with these changes. Indiansresented the fact that they were treated unfairly.They formed two groups—the Indian NationalCongress and the Muslim League. Both began topush the British to make changes. In the early1900s, they called for self-government.

Imperialism in Southeast Asia

KEY IDEA Demand for Asian products drove Westernimperialists to seek possession of Southeast Asian lands.

European nations also grabbed land in SoutheastAsia and the islands on the edge of the Pacific

Ocean. They wanted the area for its resources andbecause it was close to China. The United Statesjoined this quest for colonies.

European powers found that these lands weregood for growing such cash crops as sugar, coffee,cocoa, rubber, and fruit. As trade in these itemsgrew, Europeans moved to take more land. TheDutch ran Indonesia, where their settlers remainedat the top of society. The British took the port ofSingapore plus Malaysia and Burma (modernMyanmar). Needing workers, the British broughtmany Chinese to Malaysia. France grabbed

Indochina (modern Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam).They made farmers grow rice for export. Becausemost of the rice was shipped away, the farmers hadless to eat even though they were growing morerice than before. One land—Siam (modernThailand)—stayed independent. King Mongkut andhis son modernized Siam without giving up power.

Colonialism brought some features of modernlife to these regions. However, economic changesbenefited European-run businesses, not local people.The native peoples did benefit from better schooling,health, and cleanliness. Plantation farming broughtmillions of people from other areas to Southeast Asia.The mix of cultures and religions did not always gosmoothly. Even today, some conflict between groupsresults from this period.

In the late 1800s, the United States also beganto seek colonies. In 1898, as a result of the Spanish-American War, the United States won possession of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands.Filipino nationalists fought Americans for theirfreedom, just as they had fought the Spaniardsbefore. The United States defeated the rebels andpromised to give the Philippines self-rule later. Inthe meantime, American businesses took advantageof Filipino workers.

Some American businessmen grew wealthyfrom sugar plantations in Hawaii. In the 1890s,when Queen Liliuokalani tried to regain control ofher country, they overthrew her. They declared arepublic and asked the United States to annex—take possession of—Hawaii. In 1898, it became aterritory of the United States.

Review1. Summarizing What led to European imperial-

ism, and why did it succeed?2. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

What happened when Africans tried to resistimperialism?

3. Comparing and Contrasting Contrast how theBritish and French ruled their colonies.

4. Drawing Conclusions How were the effects ofimperialism in Southeast Asia typical of those forother regions?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Transformations Around theGlobe, 1800–1914

CHAPTER OVERVIEW In China, a weak government could not resist Europeanpower. In Japan, a reforming emperor modernized the country and launchedimperialist expansion. The Latin American economies fell prey to European businesses, and the United States became the dominant power in the region. A revolution freed Mexico from France, but civil war raged for decades.

Summary

China Resists OutsideInfluence

KEY IDEA Western economic pressure forced China toopen to foreign trade and influence.

In the late 1700s, China was self-sufficient. It hada strong farming economy based on growing rice.

Other crops, introduced from the Americas, helpedto feed its large population. Industry made silk, cot-ton, and ceramics. Mines produced salt, tin, silver,and iron. China needed nothing from the outsideworld.

China allowed only limited trade with Europeanpowers, and it all had to come through one port.Also, the trade at this port was in China’s favor. Inother words, the Chinese sold more than theybought. Europeans, especially the British, wereeager to find something that the Chinese wouldwant in large quantities. In the early 1800s, theyfound it—the drug opium, shipped mostly fromIndia. Soon millions of Chinese were addicted toopium, and the Chinese government complained.When the British refused to stop the trade, warbroke out. Because British ships had more power-ful guns, China lost the war. As a result, in 1842 theBritish took possession of Hong Kong. Later, theUnited States and European nations won the rightto trade in five ports. The Chinese resented thesetreaties but could not stop them.

China had internal problems as well. The popu-lation had grown quickly. Yet food production hadbarely increased, so millions starved. The Chinesebegan to rebel against their government. A leaderarose in southern China who hoped to save China.He launched a rebellion that won control of largeparts of the south, including the city of Nanjing.The government needed 14 years to put down theTaiping Rebellion. The fighting resulted in the deathof millions.

In the late 1800s, European powers and Japaneach won a foothold in China—a “sphere of

influence.” This is a region in which a foreignnation controls trade and investment. The UnitedStates opposed these steps. It urged an Open DoorPolicy, in which all powers had equal access toChinese markets. While the Europeans agreed, theresult had little benefit for China. Though it wasnot formally carved into colonies, it was clearlydominated by foreign powers.

The Empress Cixi ruled China in fact, eventhough younger emperors ruled in name. She supported some reforms. She backed the self-strengthening movement, which produced newships for China. The program was not a completesuccess, though. In 1898, the young EmperorGuangxu tried to put in place broader reforms.Conservatives didn’t like this. The retired Cixi hadhim arrested and took back control of the govern-ment. China had lost a chance to change.

Many Chinese grew increasingly resentful offoreign influence. They formed the Society ofHarmonious Fists, known as the Boxers. Theywanted to get rid of all Western influence—includ-ing any Chinese who had accepted Western cultureor the Christian religion. In early 1900, an army ofBoxers surrounded Beijing’s European section.After many weeks, they were finally driven out by amultinational army of soldiers.

Finally Cixi began to allow major reforms.Change came slowly, though. In 1908, the court saidthat China would become a constitutional monarchyby 1917. However, unrest would soon return.

Modernization in JapanKEY IDEA Japan followed the model of Western powersby expanding its foreign influence.

From the early 1600s to the mid-1800s, Japanwas virtually isolated. It did have relations with

China and Korea and had limited contact with Dutchtraders. That changed in 1853 when Americansteamships, with cannons, entered Japanese waters.

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The next year, Japan agreed to open up trade to theUnited States. Soon after, it made similar dealswith European nations.

Many Japanese were upset with the shogun, themilitary dictator, who had agreed to these newtreaties. The Emperor Mutsuhito rallied their sup-port and managed to overthrow the shogun. Forthe first time in centuries, the emperor ruled Japandirectly. He reigned for 45 years, from 1867 to1912, in what is called the Meiji era. The nameMeiji, which he chose for his reign, means “enlight-ened rule.”

The emperor was determined to modernize hiscountry. He sent government officials to Europeand the United States. From what they saw, theyshaped a new Japan. They modeled the govern-ment after the strong central government ofGermany. They patterned the army after Germany’sand a new navy after Britain’s. They adapted theAmerican system of schooling for all children. Theemperor also supported changes to Japan’s econ-omy. The country built railroads, mined coal, andconstructed factories.

These steps had results. In just a few years,Japan’s industrial economy equaled almost any inthe world. By 1890, it was the strongest militarypower in Asia. It asked foreigners to give up theirspecial rights in Japan. The countries agreed, and aproud Japan felt equal to them. Now, it wanted todemonstrate its power.

Japan began to expand its influence like theEuropean powers. When China broke an agreementnot to send armies into Korea, Japan went to war. Itdrove China out of Korea and gained Taiwan andsome other islands as new colonies. In 1904, Japanand Russia fought a war over China’s Manchurianterritory. Japan surprised the world by defeating alarger power that was supposed to be stronger.

The next year, Japan attacked Korea, and by1910 it had won complete control. The Japaneseproved to be harsh rulers. They shut down Koreannewspapers and changed schools so that onlyJapanese language and history were taught. Theytook away land from Korean farmers and gave it toJapanese settlers. They built factories to be run byJapanese only. Koreans were not allowed to startnew businesses. Koreans bitterly resented theseactions. They began a nationalist movement andprotested against Japanese rule.

U.S. Economic Imperialism KEY IDEA The United States put increasing economicand political pressure on Latin America in the 1800s.

In the early 1800s, the new nations of LatinAmerica had serious problems. Most people

were poor. They worked on farms for largelandowners who took advantage of them. Anotherproblem was political unrest. Local leaders rivaledone another for power. Military dictators, or caudil-los, generally held power with the backing of thelandowners, because the dictators refused to givepower to the mass of poor people. Only peoplewith property could vote. Sometimes reformers didtake office and lead their countries. They neverlasted long, though. When their reforms upset thepower of the wealthy too much, a caudillo wouldrise and remove them from office.

With Spain no longer ruling the lands, old tradelaws were gone. The new countries could now tradewith any nation. Britain and the United Statesbecame the chief trading partners. Soon businessesin these nations dominated Latin Americaneconomies.

The economies of Latin America depended onexporting goods. They shipped goods such as cof-fee, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Each countryfocused on producing and exporting one or twogoods. The volume of exports rose rapidly duringthe 1800s. The coming of railroads and steamshipshelped. The invention of refrigerated cars helpedalso, allowing producers to increase food exports.

This trade mainly went to benefit other coun-tries, though. Latin America did not develop indus-tries of its own. It had to import manufacturedgoods, which cost more than what was earned fromexports. Also, Latin American countries often bor-rowed money to expand the facilities used to increasethose exports. They had to borrow the money fromforeign banks. When they could not repay the loans,lenders took control of the businesses. In this way,much of Latin American business fell into foreignhands.

In the 1890s, the United States began to take amore active role in Latin American affairs. Thepeople of Cuba were fighting for their independencefrom Spain. American businesses had importantinterests on the island. Also, Spain had placedCuban citizens in concentration camps, which out-

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raged many Americans. For these reasons, theUnited States joined the war. The Spanish quicklygave up, and the United States gained several newterritories. After the war, though, the United Statesput a military government in place in Cuba. Thisstep and others helped promote anger among manyCubans against the United States.

The United States next set its sights on Panama.Ships traveling from the east to the west coast hadto go around the southern tip of South America,which took many weeks. Americans hoped to builda canal across Panama. President Roosevelt offered$10 million to Colombia—to which Panamabelonged—for the right to build this canal. WhenColombia asked for more money, the United Stateshelped the people of Panama revolt for independ-ence. In return, the United States won a ten-mile-wide zone in Panama in which to build a canal. Thecanal opened in 1914.

In 1904, Roosevelt said that the United Stateshad the right to act as “an international policepower” in the western hemisphere. Over the nextdecades, it acted on that belief many times. Whentrouble arose in various countries, the UnitedStates sent its troops. Sometimes they stayed formany years.

Turmoil and Change inMexico

KEY IDEA Political, economic, and social inequalities inMexico triggered a period of revolution and reform.

Antonio López de Santa Anna was a leadingfigure in the early history of independent

Mexico. He fought to win independence fromSpain and led in another war when Spain tried torecapture Mexico. He served as president fourtimes, shrewdly changing his positions in order toretain power.

In the 1830s, though, he was unable to preventpeople in Texas from winning their freedom fromMexico. In the 1840s, the United States annexedTexas, which angered many Mexicans. When a bor-der dispute broke out, the United States invadedMexico. Santa Anna led his nation’s army and wasdefeated. Mexico had to surrender huge amountsof land.

Another important leader of the middle 1800swas Benito Juárez. A Zapotec Indian, Juárezwanted to improve conditions for the poor in

Mexico. He led a movement called La Reforma—the reform—that aimed at breaking the power ofthe large landowners and giving more schooling tothe poor. He and his liberal supporters won controlof the government in the late 1850s. The conserva-tives who opposed them did not give up, however.They plotted with France to retake Mexico. In1862, Napoleon III of France sent an army thatcaptured the country in 18 months. He named aEuropean noble as emperor. But, Juárez and hisfollowers kept fighting. In 1867, they drove theFrench from Mexican soil and killed the emperor.

Juárez once again pressed for his reforms. Hemade some progress but died in office in 1872. Soonafter, a new leader emerged. Porfirio Díaz dominatedMexican politics for more than 30 years. Díazbrought order to the country and encouraged eco-nomic growth. However, he sharply limited politicalfreedom.

In the early 1900s, calls for reform got louder.Leaders “Pancho” Villa and Emiliano Zapata gath-ered support with their demand for better lives forthe poor. They raised small armies and forced Díazto step down. Fighting continued, however, formany years as several leaders struggled for power.In the midst of this turmoil, Mexico adopted a newconstitution in 1917. It called for breaking up largelandholdings and for limits on foreign ownership ofbusiness. It promoted the right to strike for work-ers and promised some rights for women. Conflictcontinued until a new political party gained controlof Mexico in 1929. The Institutional RevolutionaryParty (PRI) brought peace and political stability toa troubled land.

Review1. Summarizing Describe China’s two major

attempts to remain isolated from the outsideworld.

2. Recognizing Effects What was the result ofJapan’s feelings of pride and strength in the late1800s?

3. Evaluating Courses of Action Through whatmethod did the Japanese modernize during theMeiji era?

4. Drawing Conclusions Why did the LatinAmerican nations not benefit from growing trade?

5. Comparing What did Juárez, Villa, and Zapatahave in common?

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Locations: o Siam o United States territories:

Philippines Guam Hawaii Puerto Rico

o Cuba o Singapore o Dutch Indonesia o Suez Canal o Panama Canal o Beijing o Nanjing o Hong Kong o Russo-Japanese War

Draw the borders of: o African colonies – 1914

Mark which European country controlled the colony o Ottoman Empire – 1800 o Ottoman Empire – 1914 o Egypt – 1840 o British India – 1900 o French Indochina o China – 1850 o Japanese territory – 1910 o Mexican lands lost to the United States – 1840s

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