UNIVERSITY STUDENT 'S SELF-PERCEPTION OF SELECTED

CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO SEX

AND TO ORDINAL POSITION

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

By

Carol Ann Brennan Skelton, B. S.

Denton, Texas

May, 1977

-"I -

45,-7 s'

Skelton, Carol Ann Brennan, University Student's

Self-Perception of Selected Characteristics Related to Sex

and to Ordinal Position. Master of Science (Home Economics),

May, 1977, 107 pp., 13 tables, bibliography, 25 titles.

Nineteen selected self-perception characteristics of

university students were related to sex and to ordinal

position. The 60 selected males and 120 selected females

were enrolled during the summer of 1976 at North Texas State

University in Denton County, Texas.

A self-rating, group-administered instrument was

originated for collecting information. Ordinal positions

were only child, first-born with later siblings, intermedi-

ate, and last-born. The intermediates had the most positive

self-perceptions. Of the males, intermediates were highest

and only children lowest. Of the females, only children

reported more positive self-perceptions. Females had more

positive self-perceptions than males. Effects of ordinal

positions tended to depend on the child's sex.

Further study was recommended utilizing a larger, more

varied population.

0 1977

CAROL ANN BRENNAN SKELTON

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLESi....... . ....... *... .. iv

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ................. .. 1

Review of LiteratureStatement of the ProblemPurposes of the StudyDefinition of TermsLimitations

II. PROCEDURE .. *................... .......... 16

III. ANALYSISOFDATA..... ................. 21

Self-Perception of StudentsSelf-Perception by SexOrdinal PositionSex and Ordinal PositionMales by Ordinal PositionFemales by Ordinal PositionMales and Females by Ordinal Position

IV. CONCLUSIONS ....................... ........ 85

Self-Perception by SexSelf-Perception by Ordinal PositionMales by Ordinal PositionFemales by Ordinal PositionSelf-Perception by Sex and Ordinal PositionRecommendations

APPENDIX...................... ......... . . . . . . 99

BIBLIOGRAPHY....-.-.-............................. 105

iii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

I. Numbers and Percentages of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas1976, by Ordinal Position and Sex . . . . . 24

II. Classification of 180 Selected UniversityStudents, Denton, Texas 1976 . . . . . . . 24

III. Age Range of 60 Male and 120 FemaleSelected University Students, Denton,Texas 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

IV. Marital Status of 60 Male and 120 FemaleSelected University Students, Denton,Texas 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

V. Response Choices of 60 Male and 120 FemaleSelected University Students, Denton,Texas1976, by Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

VI. Response Choice Totals and Percentages of60 Male and 120 Female SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas1976, by Sex ...... . . .. . .. . . 33

VII. Self-Perception Responses of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

VIII. Highest and Lowest Means of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

IX. Self-Perception Responses of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position and Sex . . . . . . . . 54

X. Self-Perception Means of 180 SelectedUniversity Students, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position and Sex . . . . . . . . 71

XI. Highest and Lowest Means of 60 SelectedUniversity Males, Denton, Texas 1976,by Ordinal Position . . . . . . . . . . 79

iv

v

Table Page

XII. Highest and Lowest Means of 120 SelectedUniversity Females, Denton, Texas1976, by Ordinal Position . .. . ..... . 80

XIII. Highest and Lowest Means of 60 Male and120 Female Selected University Students,Denton, Texas 1976 by Ordinal Positionand Sex................... . . . . . . . . 81

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCT ION

A descriptive study of selected self-perception

characteristics of the university student is necessary to

obtain a basic foundation for understanding the self-concept.

Such a study is necessary for the reason that the self-

rating of specifically defined self-perception characteris-

tics by the university student can provide insight into the

student's concept of self. Felker states that "self-

evaluation can contribute to the maintenance of a positive

self-concept" provided that the evaluation is both realistic

and accurate (7, p. 75). Authoritative findings regarding

self-perception of selected university students are essen-

tial if relevant information is to evolve concerning self-

perception as related to sex and ordinal position.

In the past, many individuals have investigated spe-

cific characteristics in young children and related the

characteristics to ordinal position. Research information is

inadequate concerning traits in university students, self-

perception of the traits, and the relationship of self-

perception to sex and ordinal position. Child development

authorities are in general agreement that personality is

partially shaped by one's order of birth into a family

(20, 21).

1

2

Self-perception of the college-age individual has been

investigated by Bigner (4) and Koenig (11) during the past

decade. For the purposes of assessing self-attitudes Kuhn's

Twenty Statements Test was administered in each of the

inquiries. Subjects were asked to complete the statement

"I am" in twenty spaces. First-borns in the Koenig study

evidenced a greater need for social affiliation than did

later-borns and the Bigner investigation concluded that

self-description is influenced by sibling position. The use

of a more clearly defined instrument for the self-rating of

selected characteristics and a more extensive categorization

of subjects indicates the possibility for a new understand-

ing of self-perception related to ordinal position, and thus

a need for further study.

The study was undertaken to obtain information regarding

the identification of selected self-perception characteris-

tics from a selected group of university students attending

North Texas State University in Denton County, Texas during

the summer of 1976. The purposes of the investigation were

to consider the degree of occurrence of the selected charac-

teristics and to provide a comparison by sex and a compari-

son by ordinal position: only child, first-born with later

siblings, intermediate, and last-born.

Review of Literature

"Self-Perception," the self-constructed instrument used

in the collection of self-perception information, was

3

designed as a result of the review of literature because of

the yielding of pertinent information concerning self-

perception, self-concept and self-evaluation (Appendix A).

A self-designed instrument was necessary to elicit the type

of information desired. Specific personality traits listed

as desirable in a mature, well-adjusted individual were

repeatedly mentioned in the review of literature. Traits

mentioned most often were selected as self-perception items

by the individual conducting the study. Degrees of desira-

bility of each trait were then selected for the self-rating

choices of each item.

To facilitate the review of literature and the purposes

of discussion, the material was divided into five categories:

Social Adjustment, Emotional Adjustment, Common Sense, Per-

sonality Adjustment and Morality. Social Adjustment includes

Friendship, Friendliness and Cheerfulness, Sense of Humor,

Communication, Cooperation, Loyalty and Trust, and Accepting

Authority. Emotional Adjustment involves Expressing Affec-

tion and Handling Conflicts. Common Sense encompasses

Facing Reality, Responsibility, Decision-Making and Problem-

Solving, Perseverence, Timeliness and Philosophy of Life.

Personality Adjustment includes Acceptance, Confidence, and

Improvement. Morality, the final item for discussion, was

considered as a separate category because the review of

literature revealed that morality implies a standard of be-

havior different from those of the aforementioned items (9).

4

Social Adjustment

Learning socially approved behavior is a necessary

developmental task of childhood (9). As a child grows older

and daily contacts with others increase, the need for social

adjustment becomes evident. Social adjustments are a

necessity if harmonious relationships are to exist (10,

p. 353).

Cheerfulness, a socially desirable trait, enhances a

person's attractiveness in the other person's eyes (10,

pp. 298-299). According to current sources, friendliness

toward others, interest in others and the enjoyment of the

company of others are also highly desirable attributes (9,

12, 16). Hurlock suggests that qualities of extroversion

and gregariousness, both indicative of a cheerful, friendly

individual, have a high incidence of frequency in second-

borns and last-borns, while introversion has a high inci-

dence of frequency in first-borns and middle-borns (9,

p. 481). Schwendiman, Larsen and Parks also report that

second-borns are more cheerful than first-borns (17).

An extroverted individual would be more experienced in

intercommunication than would an introverted individual.

Good communication techniques are important if a rapport is

to exist between two people. An open, tactful, discreet

approach to communication can enhance an already attractive

personality (8, 16),. The ability to listen is also an asset

to good communication (13).

5

Several sources are in agreement that a sense of humor

is an admirable trait in any personality (2, 9, 10, 13, 16).

Information is inadequate concerning the possible relation-

ship between sense of humor and ordinal position, yet it has

been reported that siblings are very influential in the

formation of characteristics of a fellow sibling (19, 20).

Research indicates that if a child has no siblings that

child will be influenced by the personality of the parents

(20), thus disclosing a possible explanation for recogniza-

ble similarities of characteristics among members of the

same family.

Three findings reported by Landis and Landis (13)

relate to friendships. Self-centeredness and selfishness

are clearly definable as negative qualities which hinder

harmonious interpersonal relationships. An individual

habitually exhibiting such traits will undoubtedly have

difficulty maintaining friendships. Conversely, a mature

person, interested in meeting the needs of others in

interpersonal relationships, will increase the likelihood

of satisfying friendships.

A cooperative attitude exemplifies a willingness to

work with others in a total effort, regardless of the

absence of personal rewards and acknowledgement (16).

Weiner reports that first-borns display a tendency toward

independence and high achievement (21). As a result of

6

one's need for high achievement, a competitive attitude may

prevail, thus inhibiting cooperation with others (9).

An individual's capacity for loyalty and trustworthiness

may well be governed by his genuine concern for others. The

person continually looking out for himself before considering

the needs or feelings of others may have the loyalty and

trust of only a very few persons. Authoritative findings

relating characteristics of loyalty and trust to ordinal

position are inadequate, yet sources reveal that traits of

loyalty and trust are highly desirable in any human being

(9, 12, 16).

The acceptance of authority has been reported to be

difficult for high school students (16). Though the same

research study did not relate the acceptance of authority

to ordinal position, concurrence exists among several

sources that first-borns tend to be more conforming than

later-borns (9, 11, 23). A study by Bragg and Allen (6)

revealed that females generally conform more than males, and

that all first-borns tend to be influenced more than later-

borns by adults in authority. The acceptance of authority

and the ability to request assistance from persons in

authority, when needed, are qualities of a mature individual

(12).

Emotional Adjustment

Emotion implies an overt quality of behavior. The

characteristics of expressing emotion and handling conflicts

7

have been classified as Emotional Adjustment because of the

overt behavior often involved in each. Lawton has described

the "well-adjusted" person as being able to display affection

and anger in an appropriate and acceptable manner (15). A

cold, rejecting disposition is as undesirable as a disposi-

tion that is easily angered and frustrated. Warmth, affec-

tion, anger, frustration, and tension are common emotions

that, when expressed constructively, can intensify the

satisfaction of interpersonal relationships (14, 16).

Common Sense

Items classified as Common Sense are facing reality,

responsibility, decision-making and problem-solving, per-

severance, timeliness, and philosophy of life.

The ability to accept reality is a trait of the well-

adjusted individual (15, p. 213). Landis and Landis

indicate that one's acceptance of reality is a sign of

emotional maturity (13, pp. 57-58). A flexible, compromis-

ing person will have far less difficulty accepting things

that cannot be changed, than will the person taking refuge

from reality in wishful thinking and fantasy (5, 15).

The characteristic of responsibility has been cited by

Landis and Landis (13) and Barrett-Lennard (3) as a maturity-

related trait. An individual acting responsibly can be

depended upon to carry a task through from start to comple-

tion even under difficulty (16, p. 12). A degree of

independence is apparent when one is self-directing and can

8

take responsibility for his own actions (3, p. 100).

Hurlock specifically cites the trait of responsibility as

characteristic of the first-born child, while citing

irresponsibility as a characteristic of the last-born child

(9, p. 481).

The ability to think independently seems necessary if

one is to make decisions and to solve problems with a

minimum of conflict, worry and advice-seeking (15, p. 213).

Barrett-Lennard reports that a mature person makes cautious,

prudent decisions, and admits to an error in judgement

without a loss of self-respect (3). A well-adjusted person

abides by his own decisions and learns from defeats (15,

p. 213). Weiner (21) cites independence and Hurlock (9)

cites shrewdness as qualities of the first-born, both of

which may well contribute to decision-making and problem-

solving abilities.

Ryder has defined perseverance as the striving for

goals (16). Poor self-awareness may allow one to be unre-

alistic concerning personal limitations (2, 3). Persistence

in reaching goals despite setbacks (9), patience, and a

knowledge of personal assets and limitations (2, 3) can

contribute to a high degree of perseverance in an individual.

Weiner states that first-borns tend to be more oriented

toward achievement (30, p. 89), thus indicating a possible

higher degree of perseverance in first-borns.

9

A sense of propriety and timeliness may well have to be

learned through one's personal experiences. The postpone-

ment of temporary satisfaction and gratification is not

always a simple task. Lawton states that the well-adjusted

person can postpone immediate gratification and also act

upon things that may be momentarily unpleasant (15). It was

stated previously that first-borns in the Koenig study (11)

evidenced a greater need for social affiliation than did

later-borns. Hurlock also suggests that the first-born has

a need for affiliation (9). The need for affiliation implies

a need for membership or association with a group. Such a

need may inhibit one from the postponement of gratification

if such is not fitting at the time with the behavior of the

group.

Writers have inferred that the individual, continually

resorting to wishful thinking, may be unable to face the

realities of life. The same may be stated about the person

clinging to the past. A person's contentment with his

assigned role in life reflects an optimistic philosophy of

life. It seems likely that the same contented person would

look forward to the pleasures that life brings with each age

level (15, p. 213), rather than revert to the past for

security and comfort. A study by Altus (1) revealed that

first-borns tend to be better satisfied with assigned sex

roles in life than do later-borns.

10

Personality Adjustment

Wylie states that one's feelings of self-acceptance

embody a conscious recognition of one 's own shortcomings and

failings (22). The self-accepting individual with good

emotional adjustment tries to see himself as others see him

(12). Hurlock states that the first-born child, the middle

child and the last-born child each suffer from feelings of

either inferiority or inadequacy (9, p. 481). A person with

a high level of self-acceptance will have self-respect

despite recognized and admitted faults (22).

Self-acceptance and confidence in oneself imply an

inner sense of well-being. Feelings of insecurity and

inadequacy may cause a person to be less self-reliant and

more dependent on others. Belief in oneself and feelings

of self-assuredness seem to enable an individual to function

independently (9). Weiner states that first-borns tend to

be more independent than later-borns (21, p. 89), while

Hurlock implies that the intermediate child is more inde-

pendent than the first-born child (9). The self-confident

individual can perhaps function independently as a result of

the absence of fear of personal limitations (10).

Criticism, when offered in a constructive manner, may

generate change. Feelings of self-acceptance embody a

conscious recognition of one's own shortcomings. Serious

self-evaluation or criticism from others may reveal such

shortcomings. Regardless of the manner in which a person is

11

made aware of personal shortcomings or undesirable traits,

it is the mature individual who can change such character-

istics in the interest of self-improvement (13).

Morality

The quality of a person's moral behavior is governed by

the absence or presence of internal control (9, p. 375; 18,

p. 364). Such internal control is referred to by Hurlock

(9) and Sears and his associates (18) as the conscience. An

individual possessing high standards (18) of behavior and a

sense of right and wrong is considered to have learned moral

behavior (9). The personalities of the first-born child and

the middle child, according to Hurlock (9), are prone to

behavior disorders, thus indicating a possible problem in

learning moral behavior.

Though the review of literature yielded either direct

or indirect relationships of specific personality traits to

ordinal positions of birth, it seems important to reiterate

that many relationships which appear to be solid may only be

strong tendencies.

Statement of the Problem

The problem of the study was to compare the self-

perception of selected university students enrolled in North

Texas State University during the summer, 1976 with selected

characteristics.

12

Purposes of the Study

The purposes of the study were

1. To investigate the occurrence of nineteen selected

self-perception characteristics in selected

university students and to compare differences by

sex.

2. To investigate the occurrence of nineteen selected

self-perception characteristics in selected

university students and to compare differences by

ordinal position: only child, first-born with

later siblings, intermediate, and last born.

Definition of Terms

The following definitions were used in the study:

1. Characteristics: traits, qualities, features.

2. First-born with later siblings: chronologically,

the oldest of siblings.

3. Intermediate: any child other than the first-born,

last-born, or only child.

4. Last-born: chronologically, the youngest of

siblings.

5. Only child: an individual with no siblings.

6. Self-perception: self-concept, self-attitude,

self-image, self-evaluation, self-understanding,

self-awareness.

13

Limitations

The selection of the subjects itself and the small

number of cases involved in some ordinal positions could

limit the applicability of the study. The students con-

sisted of graduate and undergraduate men and women enrolled

in selected classes at North Texas State University during

the summer of 1976.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Altus, William D., "Sex Role Dissatisfaction, BirthOrder, and Parental Favoritism," Proceedings of theAnnual Convention of the American PsychologicalAssociation, VI (Part I), 1971, 161-162.

2. Bain, Read, "Making Normal People," Marriage and FamilyLiving, XVI (February, 1954), 27-31.

3. Barrett-Lennard, G. T., "The Mature Person," MentalHygiene, XLVI (January, 1962), 98-102.

4. Bigner, Jerry J., "Sibling Position and Definition ofSelf," Journal of Social Psychology, 84 (August,1971), 307-308.

5. Bossard, James H. S. and Eleanor Stoker Boll, TheSociology of Child Development, 3rd ed., New York,Harper and Row, 1966.

6. Bragg, Barry W. and Vernon L. Allen, "Ordinal Positionand Conformity: A Role Theory Analysis," Sociometry,XXXIII (December, 1970), 371-381.

7. Felker, Donald W., Building Positive Self-Concepts,Minneapolis, Minnesota, Burgess Publishing Company,1974.

8. Germer, Sondra, "Self-Concept and Communication," TheFamily Coordinator, XXIII (October, 1974), 421-422.

9. Hurlock, Elizabeth, Child Development, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1972.

10. _, Child Growth and Development, NewYork, McGraw-Hill, 1970.

11. Koenig, Frederick, "Definition of Self and OrdinalPosition of Birth," Journal of Social Psychology, 78(November, 1969), 287-288.

12. Landis, Judson T. and Mary G. Landis, Building YourLife, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1964.

13. , Youth and

Marriage, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-HallInc., 1957.

14

15

14. Langdon, Grace and Irving W. Stout, These Well-AdjustedChildren, New York, John Day Company, 1951.

15. Lawton, George, Aging Successfully, New York, ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1946,

16. Ryder, Verdene, "Family Life Education: HelpingStudents to Know Themselves," Journal of HomeEconomics, 67 (January, 1975), 8-14.

17. Schwendiman, Gary, Knud S. Larsen, and Chris Parks,"Birth Order, Aggression Training and Authoritarian-ism," The Psychological Record, XX (Winter, 1970),69-71.

18. Sears, R. R., Eleanor E. Maccoby, and Harry Levin,Patterns of Child Rearing, New York, Row, Petersonand Company, 1957.

19. Sonstegard, Manford, "Life Style Identification andAssessment," Individual Psychologist, X (November,1973), 1-4.

20. Toman, Walter, "Birth Order Rules All," PsychologyToday, 4 (December, 1970), 45-49, 68-69.

21. Weiner, Irving B. and David Elkind, Child Development:A Core Approach, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,1972.

22. Wylie, Ruth C., The Self-Concept, I (revised), Lincoln,Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1974.

23. Yando, Regina, Edward Zigler, and Susan Litzinger,"A Further Investigation of thettEffects of BirthOrder and Number of Siblings in DeterminingChildren's Responsiveness to Social Reinforcement,"The Journal of Psychology, 89 (January, 1975),95-111.

CHAPTER II

PROCEDURE

The study investigated the self-perception of a

selected group of university students attending North Texas

State University in Denton County, Texas during the summer

of 1976. The purposes of the investigation were to consider

the degree of occurrence of selected self-perception charac-

teristics and to provide a comparison by sex, and a compari-

son by ordinal positions: only child, first-born with later

siblings, intermediate, and last-born. "Self-Perception,"

the self-rating instrument used in the collection of data,

was designed to elicit information regarding each individual

student, and each student's self-perception (Appendix),'

The format of the self-constructed instrument was

formulated for purposes of ease in both reading and self-

rating. A separate answer sheet was utilized to facilitate

later ease in tabulation and organization (Appendix).' , The

"Self-Perception" rating scale was developed by utilizing

the methods reported by Good and Scates (1). The validity

was judged in light of various types of evidence.

1. The questions are relevant to the subject andsaturated with the subject. A minimum of threereliable sources were utilized for establishmentof the statements.

16

17

2. The instrument does cover many facets of thesubject, and there is no duplication of the items.Items used are those most often mentioned in thereview of literature.

3. As a result of construction, revision and pretest-ing, the statements are clear and unambiguous.

4. The responses show a range of variation. Sometimesthe range is not large and at other times it isgreater.

Thirteen sources were used in originating the instrument.

The questionnaire was designed, and child development

specialists reviewed the questionnaire and recommended

revisions prior to pretesting. Revisions were made by the

individual conducting the study, then the instrument was

pretested. Pretesting of the instrument was conducted under

the supervision and in the presence of the individual con-

ducting the study. University students enrolled at North

Texas State University in Denton County, Texas during the

Spring Semester, 1976, participated in the pretesting

situation. Modifications were made in the questionnaire

after the pretesting.

The self-perception instrument used in the collection

of data consists of twenty-seven items, the first eight of

which were designed to elicit descriptive information only:

classification, sex, age, race, marital status, ordinal

position, twin, and adopted. The remaining nineteen self-

perception items were selected for the purpose of personal-

ity self-rating by selected university students.

18

University students participating in the study received

verbal and written instructions for completion of the self-

rating instrument and answer sheet. Students were directed

to select the answers that corresponded with the correct

self-information on the rating scale, and to circle the

appropriate number on the separate answer sheet. A self-

rating of one was considered to be the lowest and least

desirable score while a self-rating of three was considered

to be the highest and most desirable score and behavior.

The following verbal instructions were read prior to

the distribution of the rating scales and answer sheets:

Good morning. Your cooperation will be greatlyappreciated in the development of my thesis. Pleasecomplete the rating scale following the directions atthe top of page one.

Your identity will be of no use to me in my research,therefore it is unnecessary for you to write your nameanywhere on the rating scale or answer sheet.

The following verbalization was made after the completed

answer sheets and the rating scales were collected:

Thank you for these ten minutes of your time, and thankyou Dr. /Mr. /Ms.

Because a high percentage of returns was desirable, the

questionnaires were completed in the presence of and under

the supervision of the individual conducting the study.

Basic sources of data for the study were 180 university

students enrolled in selected Home Economics and Education

courses at North Texas State University in Denton County,

Texas during the summer of 1976. Male and female graduate

19

and undergraduate students participated, and the ages of

the subjects ranged from seventeen to fifty years. The

total population of the study was a combination of Caucasian,

Black, Latin American, and other ethnic backgrounds. Par-

ticipating students were either married, single, divorced,

widowed, or separated (broken or troubled marriage).

Information was gathered regarding the possible status of a

student's being a twin or as having been adopted. Informa-

tion regarding each student's ordinal position--only child,

first-born with later siblings, intermediate or last-born--

was also collected.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Good, Carter V. and Douglas Scates, Methods of Research,New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954.

20

CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS OF DATA

The self-perception of a selected group of university

students attending North Texas State University in Denton

County, Texas during the summer of 1976, was investigated in

the study. The purposes of the investigation were to con-

sider the degree of occurrence of selected self-perception

characteristics and to provide a comparison by sex, and a

comparison by ordinal positions--only child, first-born with

later siblings, intermediate, and last-born. Information

regarding each individual student, and each student's self-

perception, was gathered through the use of a self-rating

instrument. (See Appendix.)

Basic sources of data for the study were 180 university

students enrolled in selected Home Economics and Education

courses at North Texas State University in Denton County,

Texas during the summer of 1976. Both male and female

graduate and undergraduate students participated in the

responses. The ages of the students ranged from seventeen

to fifty years and the total population was a combination of

Caucasian, Black, Latin American, and other ethnic back-

grounds. Students participating in the study were either

married, single, divorced, widowed, or separated (broken

21

22

or troubled marriage). Information was gathered to deter-

mine the number of twins and adopted students participating

in the study. Information was also gathered regarding each

student's ordinal position--only child, first-born with

later siblings, intermediate, or last-born.

"Self-Perception," the instrument used in the collec-

tion of self-perception information, was constructed and

designed as a result of the pertinent information yielded in

the review of literature concerning self-perception, self-

concept, and self-evaluation. Thirteen sources were used in

originating the instrument. The questionnaire was designed

and revised after evaluations were secured. Pretesting of

the instrument was conducted under the supervision and in

the presence of the individual conducting the study. Uni-

versity students enrolled at North Texas State University in

Denton County, Texas during the Spring Semester, 1976, par-

ticipated in the pretesting situation. The responses and

evaluations were examined, and modifications were made so

that the questionnaire could be utilized with large groups.

Twenty-seven self-rating items were included in the

questionnaire. The first eight items were designed to

elicit specific descriptive information regarding each in-

dividual student--classification, sex, age, ethnic back-

ground, marital status, ordinal position, twin and adopted.

The remaining nineteen self-rating items were designed to

gather self-evaluative information that would indicate each

23

student's perception, or concept of self. A self-rating

item of one was considered to be the lowest and least de-

sirable score and behavior, while a self-rating item of

three was the highest and most desirable score and behavior.

Self-Perception of Students

One hundred eighty university students completed the

"Self-Perception" questionnaire. Of the total number of

students participating in the study, 60 students were males

and 120 students were females. The male population consti-

tuted 33 per cent of the subjects and the females 67 per

cent.

Ordinal positions designated for use in the study were

only child, first-born with later siblings, intermediate,

and last-born. One hundred eighty students yielded 28 only

children, 52 first-borns with later siblings, 48 intermedi-

ates, and 52 last-born students. (See Table I.)

Only children in the study thus represented approxi-

mately 16 per cent, first-borns with later siblings repre-

sented approximately 29 per cent, intermediates represented

approximately 27 per cent, and last-borns represented

approximately 29 per cent of the participating subjects.

Classification of the 180 selected students partici-

pating yielded two freshmen, four sophomores, seventeen

juniors, 54 seniors, and 103 graduate students. (See

Table II.)

24

TABLE I

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF 180 SELECTED UNIVERSITYSTUDENTS, DENTON, TEXAS 1976, BY ORDINAL

POSITION AND SEX

Ordinal Number'J Per Cent

Position Male Female Male Female

Only Child 6 22 3.33 12.22

First-Born 20 32 11.11 17.78

Intermediate 15 33 8.33 18.33

Last-Born 19 33 10.55 18.33

Of the 60 male students, one was a freshman, one was

a sophomore, two were juniors, four were seniors, and 52

were graduate students. One hundred twenty female students

TABLE II

CLASSIFICATION OF 180 SELECTED UNIVERSITYSTUDENTS, DENTON, TEXAS 1976

Classification Number of Students Per Cent

Freshman 2 1.11

Sophomore 4 2.22

Junior 17 9.44

Senior 54 30.00

Graduate 103 57.22

25

participated in the study. One female was a freshman, three

were sophomores, 15 were juniors, 50 were seniors, and 51

were graduate students. The 103 graduate students repre-

sented a majority of the 180 students. Freshmen students

were the least represented classification. Only two of the

180 students were freshmen.

Seventeen to 50 years was the age range of the 60 male

and the 120 female participants. Nine males and 57 females

were in the 17 to 22 year age range, 19 males and 32 females

were in the 23 to 28 year age range, 17 males and 18 females

were in the 29 to 34 year age range, seven males and six

females were in the 35 to 40 year age range, and eight males

and seven females were in the 41 to 50 year age range. More

male students were in the 23 to 28 year age range than in

any other age range. The 17 to 22 year age range claimed

more of the female students than did any other age range

utilized. Both males and females had the least representa-

tion in the 35 to 40 year age range. Seven male students

and six female students were in the 35 to 40 year age range.

(See Table III.)

Caucasian, Black, Latin American and other ethnic

groups participated in the study. Students belonging to

ethnic groups differing from those specifically listed, were

classified as "other." Fifty-one of the 60 male students and

99 of the female students were Caucasian. A total of 150 of

the 180 students involved were Caucasian, thus representing

26

TABLE III

AGE RANGE OF 60 MALE AND 120 FEMALE SELECTEDUNIVERSITY STUDENTS, DENTON, TEXAS 1976

Age Range Number Per CentMale Female Male Female

17-22 9 57 15.00 47.50

23-28 19 32 31.67 26.67

29-34 17 18 28.33 15.00

35-40 7 6 11.67 5.00

41-50 8 7 13.33 5.83

a large majority of the total population. The remaining

participants included 3 Black males, 16 Black females, 5

Latin American males, and 3 Latin American females. Only

1 male and 2 females were classified as members of "other"

ethnic groups.

The marital status of each of the 180 students was

gathered through the use of 5 categories--married, single,

divorced, widowed, and separated (broken or troubled

marriage). Married male students numbered 37, and repre-

sented the majority of the total males. The number of

married female students participating was 48. Twenty single

male students and 63 single female students were repre-

sented. Single female students represented the majority

of the total females. Two males and 8 females were

27

divorced, and none were widowed. One male and 1 female

were separated at the time. (See Table IV.)

TABLE IV

MARITAL STATUS OF 60 MALE AND 120 FEMALE SELECTEDUNIVERSITY STUDENTS, DENTON, TEXAS 1976

Marital NumberStatus Male Female

Married 37 48

Single 20 63

Divorced 2 8

Widowed 0 0

Separated* 1 1

*Broken or troubled marriage.

Per Cent

Male Female

61.67 40.00

33.33 52.50

3.33 6.67

0 0

1.67 .83

The final two self-perception items for gathering

descriptive information were utilized to determine whether

or not each participant in the study was a twin sibling or

an adopted child. Two of the 120 females were twins, and 4

female students were adopted. None of the male students

participating in the study were twins, and only 1 of the 60

male students was adopted.

Self-Perception by Sex

Sixty male students and 120 female students comprised

the 180 selected university students. A comparison of

28

self-perception responses was done on the basis of sex.

(See Table V and Table VI.)

A comparison by sex was necessary to ascertain simi-

larities and differences in the 19 responses chosen by males

and females. The 19 items were designed to elicit self-

perception information from each student. The number of

males and females responding to an item, utilizing a self-

rating of 1, 2, or 3, was recorded for comparison with the

60 males, the 120 females, and the total 180 students.

Mean, median, and modal scores for the males and

females were computed for each of the 19 self-perception

items. A comparison by sex, per self-perception item, was

therefore facilitated.

An item rated 1, considered to be the lowest and least

desirable score and behavior, was least often chosen by the

180 students, regardless of sex. Three, the highest and

most desirable self-rating score, was most often chosen by

the total group, regardless of sex, for 13 of the 19 self-

perception items. The most highly scored items were

Friendship, Sense of Humor, Cooperation, Loyalty and Trust,

Accepting Authority, Expressing Affection, Facing Reality,

Responsibility, Perseverance, Timeliness, Philosophy of

Life, Acceptance and Morality. A self-rating score of 2

was most often chosen by the total population, regardless

of sex, for 6 of the 19 self-perception items. The self-

perception items most often scored with a self-rating of 2

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39

were Friendliness and Cheerfulness, Communication, Handling

Conflicts, Decision-Making and Program-Solving, Confidence

and Improvement. Therefore, a self-rating of 3 was most

often chosen by the total group on 68 per cent of the items,

and a self-rating of 2 was most often chosen by the total

group on 32 per cent of the self-perception items.

Overall, the scores received by the men were higher

than the women's on 42 per cent of the self-perception items.

Mean scores for the males were higher than the mean scores

for the females on 8 of the 19 self-perception items. Male

student's means were higher than female's on the items of

Communication, Handling Conflicts, Responsibility, Decision-

Making and Problem-Solving, Perseverance, Confidence, Im-

provement and Morality. The high mean for the males was

2.80 on the self-perception item of Morality. (See Table V.)

The females had higher means on 11, or 58 per cent, of the

19 self-perception items. The items receiving higher means

from females than males were Friendship, Friendliness and

Cheerfulness, Sense of Humor, Cooperation, Loyalty and

Trust, Accepting Authority, Expressing Affection, Facing

Reality, Timeliness, Philosophy of Life, and Acceptance.

The highest mean for the females was 2.81 on the self-

perception item of Loyalty and Trust. Generally, the fe-

males appeared to rate themselves higher on the self-

perception items than did the males.

40

Men and women, regardless of age, ethnic background,

and marital status showed similar median and modal scores,

with identical medians in 16 of the 19 self-perception items.

Identical modals were tabulated for 15 of the 19 items. The

3 median differences were in Communication, Cooperation, and

Expressing Affection. The 4 modal differences were in Sense

of Humor, Communication, Cooperation, and Expressing Affec-

tion. (See Table V.)

An additional comparison of self-perception response

choices by sex, was facilitated by a tabulation of percent-

ages of male respondents, female respondents, and the com-

bined total respondents to individual response choices of 1,

2, or 3 on each of the 19 selected self-perception items.

(See Table VI.)

A self-rating of 3 on the self-perception item of

Loyalty and Trust, indicative of a person who is loyal to

friends and able to be counted on, was scored by 83 per cent

of the 180 selected university students, thus composing the

highest percentage of the total population in agreement with

a rating of 3 on any single item. Three per cent of the

total group scored a 1, the lowest and least desirable

score, indicating that they were unable to carry through

with agreements and looked out for themselves before others.

A self-rating score of 2 was scored by the remaining 14 per

cent of the 180 participants, indicating that they did not

gossip, and were usually trustworthy.

41

A self-rating of 3, on the self-perception item of

Improvement, was scored by the smallest percentage of the

university students. A score of 3 on the item is indicative

of a person who changes undesirable traits in himself upon

the realization that they exist. Twenty-three per cent

scored a 3 on the item. The same item, Improvement, was

scored a self-rating of 1 by 6 per cent of the population,

indicating that students were discouraged by criticism and

resented suggestions. Seventy-one per cent scored a 2 on

Improvement and felt that suggestions and criticisms were

usually accepted gracefully. Only one other item on the

"Self-Perception" questionnaire was scored a self-rating of

2 by a larger percentage of the total group. The item of

Friendliness and Cheerfulness received a self-rating of 2

by 72 per cent of the total study population of 180 students.

Generally, more than two-thirds of the 180 students indicat-

ed that they could improve, be friendlier and more cheerful.

The self-rating of 1, considered to be the lowest and

least desirable score and behavior, was not utilized by any

of the 180 students in response to the self-perception item

of Morality. The same item was scored a self-rating of 3,

the highest and most desirable score and behavior, by 76 per

cent of the total population of the study. More than three-

fourths of the students perceived themselves as being

self-disciplined, having high standards and a sense of

justice. The remaining 24 per cent reported inconsistencies

42

in self-discipline and control and responded to the item of

Morality with a self-rating of 2.

Of the remaining self-perception items scored 1, the

lowest and least desirable score and behavior, by a partial

percentage of the students, Appeptance yielded the lowest

percentage of respondents. Only six-tenths of one per cent

of the 180 selected university students scored a self-rating

of 1 on the item of Acceptance. Students felt that they did

not have a false sense of importance nor magnify their suc-

cesses.

A self-rating score of 3, considered to be the most

desirable behavior, was chosen by the greatest percentage

of the 60 males on the two self-perception items of Morality

and Loyalty and Trust. Each of the items yielded 80 per

cent of the total males scoring a self-rating of 3. There-

fore, four-fifths of the men felt that they were loyal to

friends, could be counted on, were self-disciplined, had

high standards and a sense of justice. Conversely, the

smallest percentage of the males scoring a self-rating of

3 on any item was 22 per cent on the self-perception item

of Friendliness and Cheerfulness. Seventy-three per cent

of the males felt that they could not give themselves the

highest rating on Friendliness and Cheerfulness.

One, indicating cold, rejecting, unaffectionate behav-

ior, was scored by a larger percentage of the males on the

self-perception item of Expressing Affection, than on any

43

other item. Twelve per cent of the 60 males scored a self-

rating of 1 on the item of Expressing Affection. None of

the 60 selected male students scored an item self-rating of

1 on the self-perception items of Loyalty and Trust, Handling

Conflicts, Decision-Making and Problem-Solving, Acceptance,

and Morality.

Loyalty and Trust was the self-perception item scored

3 by the largest percentage of the 120 females. Eighty-five

per cent of the females gave themselves the top rating and

felt that they were loyal to friends and could be counted

on. Twenty-one per cent scored 3 on the self-perception

item of Improvement, thus the smallest percentage of the

females scoring a rating of 3 on a single item. The lowest

mean of the females was made on Improvement. (See Table V.)

A lowest self-rating, angers easily and takes frustra-

tions out on others, was scored by the greatest percentage

of the 120 females on the self-perception item of Handling

Conflicts. Seven and one-half per cent of the total female

population scored a self-rating of 1 on the item. None of

the 120 females scored 1 on the item of Morality. Among the

entire 180 selected university students, none of the stu-

dents scored 1 on the item of Morality. None felt that they

lacked internal control and self-discipline nor did they

feel that they were unethical.

44

Ordinal Position

One hundred and eighty selected university students

participated in the study. Information concerning each

student 's ordinal position was gathered for purposes of

comparison. The four ordinal positions were only child,

first-born with later siblings, intermediate, and last-born.

Of the 180 students, 28 were only children. Doren's state-

ment that ". . . the college sample would have more true

onlies than an elementary school sample, because there are

more incompleted families represented in the earlier school

levels . . er may provide insight for one feeling that 28

only children out of 180 students was proportionately large

(35). Fifty-two of the students participating in the study

were first-born with later siblings, 48 were intermediates,

and 52 were last-born children. (See Table VII.)

Only Child

Thirteen of the 19 self-perception items received the

highest and most desirable score and behavior by over half

of the 28 students in the only child category. The self-

perception item of Improvement was least often scored 3 by

students in the only child category. Only 7 per cent

checked the best rating. Ninety-three per cent felt that

regardless of self-evaluation, undesirable behavior did not

change. However suggestions and criticisms were usually

accepted gracefully. On any given self-perception item,

45

TABLE VII

SELF-PERCEPTION RESPONSES OF 180 SELECTEDUNIVERSITY STUDENTS, DENTON, TEXAS

1976, BY ORDINAL POSITION

Self-Perception Ratings Only First Inter- Last_Child Born mediate Born

Number in Study 28 52 48 52

1. Friendship1 2 3 0 02 2 11 8 123 24 38 40 40

2._Friendlinessand_ Means 2.79 2.67 2.83 2.762. Friendliness and

Cheerfulness1 4 1 1 12 16 39 34 413 8 12 13 10

--. Means 2.14 2.21 2.25 2.173. Sense of Humor

1 2 5 1 12 12 19 24 263 14 28 23 25

Means 2.43 2.44 2.46 2.464. Communication

1 0 4 2 12 12 26 25 273 16 22 21 24

5.______________ Means 2.57 2.35 2.40 2.445. Cooperation

1 2 0 1 02 10 28 17 263 16 24 30 26

Means 2.50 2.46 2.60 2.506. Loyalty and Trust

1 0 2 2 12 8 5 4 83 20 45 42 43

Means 2.71 2.83 2.83 2.817. Accepting Authority

1 12 2 3 12 10 17 13 24

Mean...f3 16 33 32Means 2.50 2.60 2.60

272.50

46

TABLE VII--Continued

Self-Perception Ratings Only First Inter- LastChild Born mediate Born

8. Expressing Affec-tion

1 4 2 2 12 6 24 18 313 18 26 28 20

Means 2.50 2.46 2.54 2.37

9. HandlingConflicts

1 2 4 1 22 16 31 26 353 10 17 21 15

Means 2.29 2.25 2.42 2.2510. Facing Reality

1 2 1 1 12 11 25 16 193 15 26 31 32

Means 2.46 2.48 2.63 2.6011. Responsibility

1 0 1 1 02 10 22 16 183 18 29 31 34

-Means 2.64 2.54 2.63 2.6512. Decis ion-Making

and Problem-Solving

1 0 2 2 02 20 32 26 283 8 18 20 24

Means 2.29 2.31 2.38 2.4613. Perseverance

1 2 5 1 32 2 21 22 273 24 26 25 22

Means 2.79 2.40 2.50 2.3714. Timeliness

1 0 5 0 32 10 15 19 183 18 32 29 31

Means 2.64 2.52 2.60 2.5415. Philosophy of Life

1 0 4 0 12 6 17 16 193 22 31 32 32

Means 2.79 2.52 2.67 2.58

47

TABLE VII--Continued

Self-Perception Ratings Only First Inter- Last________IChild Born mediate Born

16. Acceptance

1 0 1 0 02 12 20 12 203 16 31 36 32

Means 2.57 2.58 2.75 2.6217. Confidence

1 2 0 2 22 12 32 26 293 14 20 20 21

Means 2.43 2.38 2.38 2.3718. Improvement

1 0 3 2 62 26 33 35 343 2 16 11 12

Means 2.07 2.25 2.19 2.1219. Morality

1 0 0 0 02 6 9 11 173 22 43 37 35~

Means 2.79 2.83 2.77 2.67

a self-rating of 1 was scored by a maximum of

students in the only child category. Friendl

4 of the 28

iness and

Cheerfulness, and Expressing Affection were given the lowest

score by 14 per cent of the only children. The lowest

rating was not chosen by an only child on 9 of the 19 self-

perception items. The only children saw themselves more

favorably on the items involving Communication, Loyalty and

Trust, Responsibility, Decision-Making and Problem-Solving,

Timeliness, Philosophy of Life, Acceptance, Improvement, and

Morality.

48

Overall the only child recorded the second highest

number of favorable means and the greatest number of lower

means. The five self-perception items yielding the highest

means by the students in the only child category were Com-

munication, Perseverance, Timeliness, Philosophy of Life, and

Confidence. The only children had the lowest means in seven

areas, and the same as the last-borns on the eighth. The

lowest means were in Friendliness and Cheerfulness, Sense

of Humor, Loyalty and Trust, Accepting Authority, Facing

Reality, Decision-Making and Problem-Solving, Acceptance and

Improvement. Students in the only child category attained

the lowest mean score tabulated on any single self-perception

item. The lowest mean score computed was 2.07, attained by

the only children on the item of Improvement. (See Table VII

and Table VIII.)

First-Borns with Later Siblings

Fifty-two students participating in the study were

classified as first-borns with later siblings. At least

half of the first-born students recorded the highest score

on 12 of the 19 self-perception items. The self-perception

item least often responded to with the top rating was the

item of Friendliness and Cheerfulness. Only 23 per cent

felt that they were gregarious, extroverted, and tried to

see that others had a good time.

49

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50

Not more than 5 of the 52 first-born students recorded

the minimum self-rating on any single self-perception item.

Ten per cent gave themselves the lowest rating on the items

of Sense of Humor, Perseverance and Timeliness. The lowest

rating was not chosen by a first-born student on the self-

perception items of Cooperation, Confidence or Morality.

A score of 2.83 was the highest mean tabulated on any

one of the self-perception items scored by first-born stu-

dents. The two items of Morality and Loyalty and Trust

yielded the highest mean from the students in the category

of first-born with later siblings. Friendliness and Cheer-

fulness was the self-perception item yielding the lowest

mean by first-born students. The mean for Friendliness and

Cheerfulness was 2.21. The first-born received the third

highest number of favorable means and the second greatest

number of lower means. The only child had one more lower

rating than the first-born. The first-borns with later

siblings had higher means in two areas than students in the

other three categories and tied with the intermediates in

two areas. First-borns had the highest means in the areas

of Improvement and Morality, and tied with the intermediates

in the areas of Loyalty and Trust and Accepting Authority.

The means for 6 items were lower in this group than any

other. The 6 poorest averages were in the areas of Friend-

ship, Communication, Cooperation, Responsibility, Timeliness,

and Philosophy of Life. First-borns tied with last-borns

51

for the lowest mean score on the item of Handling Conflicts.

(See Table VIII.)

Intermediate

Forty-eight students were categorized as intermediate

children. A majority of the students in the intermediate

category scored a self-rating of 3 on 12 of the 19 self-

perception items. The self-perception item of Improvement

was least often responded to with a self-rating of 3 by

students in the intermediate category. Only 23 per cent of

the intermediates felt that they utilized self-evaluation

and changed undesirable traits.

Not more than 3 students in the intermediate category

scored 1 on any single self-perception item. Accepting

Authority was given the lowest score by 6 per cent of the

intermediate students. None of the intermediates recorded

the lowest rating on the items of Friendbhip,, Timeliness,

Philosophy of Life, Acceptance and Morality.

Friendship and Loyalty and Trust were the self-perception

items yielding the highest mean attained by the intermediate

students. The mean tabulated for each of the items was 2.83.

The intermediates had higher means than all other groups in

seven of the areas and tied on an additional three self-

perception items. The higher items were Friendship, Friend-

liness and Cheerfulness, Cooperation, Expressing Affection,

Handling Conflicts, Facing Reality and Acceptance. The

52

three tied means were in Sense of Humor, Loyalty and Trust,

and Accepting Authority. The lowest mean score computed for

the intermediate students was 2.19 on the self-perception

item of Improvement. The intermediates did not have the

lowest means on any item but did have more higher means than

the other three groups. The overall self-perception of the

intermediate born was more favorable than the only child,

first-born, or last-born.

Last-Born

Fifty-two students were last-born children. More than

half of the last-born students recorded the top score: on

9 of the 19 self-perception items. A self-rating of 3 was

least often scored by the students in the last-born category

on the self-perception item of Improvement. Only 23 per

cent of the last-borns felt that they utilized self-evalua-

tion and changed undesirable behavior.

A maximum of 6 last-born students scored 1 on any

single self-perception item. Eleven per cent of the last-

born students gave themselves the lowest rating on the item

of Improvement. None of the last-born students rated the

lowest score on the items of Friendship, Cooperation,

Responsibility, Decision-Making and Problem-Solving, Accept-

ance and Morality.

The highest mean tabulated on any single self-perception

item and scored by students in the last-born category, was

53

2.81 on the item of Loyalty and Trust. Overall the last-

born received fewer higher means than the other three groups

and fewer lower means than the only child and the first-born.

The last-borns had higher means than all other groups in the

two areas of Responsibility and Decision-Making and Problem-

Solving and tied on a third, Sense of Humor. Improvement

was the self-perception item yielding the lowest mean score

attained by last-born students. The mean score for the item

of Improvement rated by students in the last-born category

was 2.12. The last-borns had lower means than all other

groups in the four areas of Expressing Affection, Persever-

ance, Confidence and Morality, and tied with the only

children in the area of Accepting Authority and with the

first-borns in the area of Handling Conflicts. (See

Table VIII.)

Sex and Ordinal Position

Comparison of self-perception responses by sex and

ordinal position were necessary for comparisons within each

ordinal position category. Sixty male students and 120

female students participated in the study. Of the male

population, 6 were categorized as only children, 20 as

first-borns with later siblings, 15 as intermediates, and

19 as last-borns. Twenty-two of the female students were

categorized as only children, 32 as first-borns, 33 as

intermediates, and 33 as last-borns.

54

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60

Male Only Child

At least 3 of the 6 males classified as only children

chose the top rating on the self-perception items of Fried-

ship, Communication, Accepting Authority, Handling Conflicts,

Perseverance and Morality. No male classified as an only

child recorded the best score on the items of Friendliness

and Cheerfulness, Sense of Humor, Cooperation, Expressing

Affection, Facing Reality, Acceptance and Improvement. A

percentage of all other groups utilized the highest rating

on each of the self-perception items. The lowest score was

recorded by 66 per cent of the male only children on the

self-perception items of Friendliness and Cheerfulness, and

Expressing Affection. Sixty-six per cent of the male only

children felt that they were introverted and uncomfortable

with other people, and that they were cold, rejecting and

unaffectionate. In the areas of Communication, Loyalty and

Trust, Handling Conflicts, Responsibility, Decision-Making

and Problem-Solving, Perseverance, Timeliness, Philosophy of

Life, Acceptance, Improvement, and Morality, none of the

male only children utilized the lowest rating. Thus the

lowest rating was not chosen by the male only children on

58 per cent of the self-perception items.

The highest mean score tabulated for the male only

children was 3.00 on the items of Perseverance and Morality.

No other group attained the highest possible mean score of

3.00 on any item. All of the male only children felt that

61

they were patient, persisted in striving for goals regard-

less of occasional setbacks, and knew their own limitations,

as well as feeling that they were self-disciplined, had high

standards, and a sense of justice. The male only children

had higher means than any other group in the four areas of

Communication, Handling Conflicts, Perseverance and Morality.

The lowest mean score computed for the male only children

was 1.33 on Friendliness and Cheerfulness, and Expressing

Affection. Of all the groups, the male Qnly children had

the lowest mean scores on 74 per cent or 14 of the 19 self-

perception items. The items were Friendship, Friendliness

and Cheerfulness, Sense of Humor, Cooperation, Loyalty and

Trust, Accepting Authority, Expressing Affection, Facing

Reality, Responsibility, Timeliness, Philosophy of Life,

Acceptance, Confidence, and Improvement.

Median and modal scores of 3.00 were tabulated for the

male only children on 32 per cent of the 19 self-perception

items. The six items receiving the high median and modal

scores were Friendship, Communication, Accepting Authority,

Handling Conflicts, Perseverance, and Morality. The lowest

median and modal scores, 1.00, were attained by the male

only children in the two areas of Friendliness and Cheerful-

ness and Expressing Affection. No other group attained the

lowest median and modal scores. The remaining 11 self-

perception items received median and modal scores of 2.00.

(See Table IX.)

62

Female Only Child

Twenty-two female only children participated in the

study. Fifty per cent or more of the 22 females recorded

the top score on 15, or 79 per cent, of the 19 self-percep-

tion items. Not more than 9 per cent of the female only

children utilized the lowest score on any single self-

perception item. Nine per cent of the female only children

scored 1 on the items of Handling Conflicts and Perseverance.

Two of the 22 female only children felt that they were

easily angered and took frustrations out on others, and had

unrealistically high goals and often tired of tasks before

completion. No female only child recorded the lowest score

on 89 per cent, or 17 of the 19 self-perception items. All

other groups utilized the lowest self-rating more often than

the female only children.

The self-perception items of Friendship and Philosophy

of Life yielded the highest mean score, 2.91, tabulated for

the female only children. Of all the groups, the female

only children scored higher means in 7 areas and tied with

other groups in 2 areas. The highest averages were in

Friendship, Friendliness and Cheerfulness, Sense of Humor,

Expressing Affection, Perseverance, Philosophy of Life and

Confidence. The female only children tied with the female

intermediates on Cooperation, and with the male intermediates

on Timeliness. The lowest mean score computed for the

female only children was 2.09 on the self-:perception item of

63

Improvement. The female only children did not have the

lowest means on any items.

Median and modal scores of 3.00 were computed for the

female only children on 79 per cent, or 15 of the 19 self-

perception items. The remaining 4, or 21 per cent,of the

19 items received median and modal scores of 2.00. None of

the self-perception items scored by the female only children

received the lowest median and modal scores of 1.00.

Male First-Born

A total of 20 first-born males participated in the

study. The highest score was chosen by 50 per cent or more

of the male first-borns on 13 of the 19 self-perception

items. Sixty-eight per cent of the items were given the

highest rating by at least half of the first-born male

participants. Timeliness was given the lowest rating by

20 per cent of the first-born males, indicating that they

felt they seldom knew how to postpone gratifications. None

of the male first-borns utilized the lowest self-rating on

9, or 47 per cent, of the 19 self-perception items. The

lowest rating was not chosen by a male first-born on the

items of Friendliness and Cheerfulness, Cooperation, Loyalty

and Trust, Handling Conflicts, Facing Reality, Decision-

Making and Problem-Solving, Acceptance, Confidence, and

Morality.

64

The highest mean score computed for the male first-born

participants was on Loyalty and Trust. The mean score was

2.90. The lowest mean score attained by the male first-

borns was 2.20 on Improvement. The male first-borns did not

have the highest, nor the lowest, means on any self-perception

item.

In the areas of Friendship, Sense of Humor, Loyalty and

Trust, Accepting Authority, Responsibility, Perseverance,

Timeliness, Philosophy of Life, Acceptance and Morality, the

male first-born students attained median and modal scores of

3.00. Median scores of 2.50 were tabulated on the items of

Communication, Cooperation and Confidence. A modal score of

3.00 was computed on Communication, and bimodal scores of

2.00 and 3.00 were computed on Cooperation and Confidence.

Median and modal scores for the remaining self-perception

items were 2.00. (See Table IX.)

Female First-Born

Thirty-two first-born females participated in the study.

The highest self-rating was chosen by at least 50 per cent

of the first-born females on 58 per cent, or 11 of the 19

self-perception items. Twelve per cent of the first-born

females scored 1, the least desirable score, on the self-

perception item of Handling Conflicts. Four of the 32

first-born females felt that they were easily angered and

took frustrations out on others. None of the first-born

65

females recorded the lowest score on the self-perception

items of Cooperation, Responsibility, Confidence, and

Morality.

The highest mean score tabulated for the female first-

born students was 2.81 on Morality. The female first-borns

did not have the highest mean on any self-perception item.

Friendliness and Cheerfulness yielded the lowest mean score

computed for the female first-born participants. The mean

score was 2.12. Of all groups, the female first-borns had

the lowest mean scores on 21 per cent, or 4, of the 19 self-

perception items. The items were Communication, Handling

Conflicts, Decision-Making and Problem-Solving and Perse-

verance.

Median and modal scores of 3.00 were computed for the

first-born females on 58 per cent, or 11, of the 19 self-

perception items. On the 8 remaining self-perception items,

median and modal scores of 2.00 were tabulated. None of

the 19 self-perception items scored by the first-born

females yielded a median or modal score of 1.00. (See

Table IX.)

Male Intermediate

A total of 15 intermediate males participated in the

study. At least 8 of the intermediate males chose the high-

est self-rating, 3, on 63 per cent of the 19 self-perception

66

items. Thirteen per cent of the intermediate males chose

the lowest score on Expressing Affection, indicating that

they felt they were cold, rejecting, and unaffectionate. The

lowest self-rating was not chosen by an intermediate male on

79 per cent, or 15, of the 19 self-perception items.

Loyalty and Trust yielded the highest mean score at-

tained by the male intermediate participants. The mean

score of 2.94 was both the highest mean score attained by

the male intermediate students and the highest mean score of

all groups. The male intermediates had higher means than

all other groups on 21 per cent, or 4 of the 19 self-perception

items, and tied with other groups on 2 items. The 4 highest

means were in Loyalty and Trust, Facing Reality, Acceptance,

and Improvement. The male intermediates tied with the male

last-borns on Decision-Making and Problem-Solving, and with

the female only children on Timeliness. The lowest mean

score computed for the male intermediates was 2.07 on the

self-perception item of Expressing Affection. The male

intermediates did not have the lowest means on any self-

perception item.

Sixty-eight per cent of the self-perception items

scored by the male intermediate students yielded median and

modal scores of 3.00. A modal score of 2.00 and 3.00 was

computed on Perseverance, while a median score of 2.00 was

computed for the same item. Median and modal scores of 2.00

were tabulated for the remaining 5 self-perception items.

67

Female Intermediate

Thirty-three intermediate females participated in the

study. Fifty per cent or more of the female intermediates

chose the highest self-rating on 13 of the 19, or 68 per

cent of the self-perception items. Six per cent of the fe-

male intermediate participants gave themselves the lowest

self-rating on 32 per cent of the self-perception items.

One, the lowest and least desirable score and behavior, was

not chosen by a female intermediate participant on 42 per

cent, or 8, of the 19 self-perception items.

The highest mean score tabulated for the female inter-

mediates was 2.85 on Friendship. The female intermediates

had a higher mean score on Accepting Authority than all

other groups, and tied with the female only children on

Cooperation. Improvement was the self-perception item

yielding the lowest mean score attained by the female inter-

mediates. The mean score was 2.09. The female intermediates

did not have the lowest means on any self-perception item.

Median and modal scores of 3.00 were computed on 68 per

cent, or 13, of the 19 self-perception items. For the

remaining 32 per cent of the items, median and modal scores

of 2.00 were tabulated. None of the self-perception items

scored by the female intermediates yielded a median or modal

score of 1.00.

68

Male Last-Born

Nineteen last-born males participated in the study. At

least 10 of the 19 last-born males chose the highest self-

rating on 47 per cent of the 19 self-perception items.

Fifty-three per cent or more of the male last-borns recorded

the highest rating on 9 of the 19 items. Sixteen per cent

of the male last-borns chose the lowest self-rating on Im-

provement. Three students felt discouraged by criticism and

resented suggestions. The lowest score was not chosen by

any male last-born participants on 74 per cent, or 14, of

the 19 self-perception items.

Responsibility was the self-perception item yielding

the highest mean score attained by the male last-born par-

ticipants. The mean score was 2.79. Of all groups, the

male last-borns had the highest mean on Responsibility. The

lowest mean calculated for the male last-borns was 2.05 on

Improvement. The male last-borns had a lower mean on the

self-perception item of Morality than all other groups.

Forty-seven per cent, or 9 of the 19 self-perception

items rated by the male last-born participants, yielded

median and modal scores of 3.00. A median score of 2.00 was

computed on Perseverance, while the bimodal score for the

same item was 2.00 and 3.00. For the remaining 9 self-

perception items, median and modal scores of 2.00 were

tabulated. None of the items yielded median or modal scores

of 1.00.

69

Female Last-Born

Thirty-three last-born females were included in the

study. The highest self-rating was chosen by 17 or more of

the last-born females on 10, or 53 per cent, of the 19 self-

perception items. A self-rating of 1, the lowest and least

desirable score, was chosen by 9 per cent of the female

last-borns on Improvement. Three of the students felt dis-

couraged by criticism and resented suggestions. The lowest

self-rating was not chosen by a female last-born participant

on 42 per cent, or 8, of the 19 self-perception items.

Loyalty and Trust was the self-perception item yielding

the highest mean score achieved by the female last-borns.

The mean score computed was 2.85. The female last-borns

did not have the highest means on any self-perception item.

The lowest mean score tabulated for the female last-borns

was 2.12 on the self-perception item of Handling Conflicts.

Of all groups, the female last-born students had the lowest

mean score in the area of Handling Conflicts.

Median and modal scores of 3.00 were computed for ten,

or 53 per cent, of the 19 self-perception items. Median

scores of 2.00 were tabulated for the self-perception items

of Communication and Expressing Affection. Bimodal scores

of 2.00 and 3.00 were computed for each of the same items.

None of the self-perception items rated by female last-borns

yielded median or modal scores of 1.00.

70

A comparison of self-perception means by ordinal posi-

tion and sex was facilitated through the use of a table

(Table X). Means were compared on each of the 19 self-

perception items.

The female only children had a higher mean score than

all other groups on the self-perception item of Friendship.

The lowest mean tabulated was attained by the male only

children. Women, regardless of ordinal position, received

higher means than men on Friendship. Overall, the female

only children and the male intermediates felt that they were

better friends to other than did the members of the other

groups. (See Table X.)

Friendliness and Cheerfulness yielded a high mean score

attained by the female only children, and a low mean score

attained by the male only children. Males in 3 of the 4

ordinal position categories had lower means than females in

the same categories. Of all groups, the male first-borns

and the female only children felt they were friendlier and

more cheerful than did other groups. (See Table X.)

The female only children had a higher mean score than

all other groups on Sense of Humor. The low mean score

tabulated was achieved by the male only children. Females

had higher means than males in three ordinal position cate-

gories. Generally, the female only children and the male

last-borns felt they had a better sense of humor than other

participants. (See Table X.)

71

TABLE X

SELF-PERCEPTION MEANS OF 180 SELECTED UNIVERSITYSTUDENTS, DENTON, TEXAS 1976, BY ORDINAL

POSITION AND SEX

Only First- Inter- Last-

Self-Perception Child Born mediate BornMale Fe- Male Fe- Male Fe- Male Fe-

male [_male male . male

1. Friendship

2. Friendliness andCheerfulness

3. Sense of Humor

4. Communication

5. Cooperation

6. Loyalty andTrust

7. AcceptingAuthority

8. ExpressingAffection

9. HandlingConflicts

.0. Facing Reality

1. Responsibility

2. Decision-Makingand Problem-Solving

3. Perseverance

4. Timeliness

5. Philosophy ofLife

2.33

1.33

1.67

2.67

1.67

2.91

2.36

2.64

2.54

2.73,

2 L65

2.35

2.40

2.45

2.50

2.33 2.82 2.90

2.33 2.54 2.60

1.33 2.82 2.40

2.67

1.67

2.33

2.33

3.00

2.33

2.33

2.18

2.73

2.73

2.27

2.73

2.73

2.911

2.40

2.45

2.55

2.45

2.55

2.69

2.12

2.47

2.28

2.44

2.78

2.80

2.13

2.40

2.54-

2.34

2.94

2.5912.5412.64

2.5012.07

2.16

2.50

2.53

2.22

2.31

2.40 12.59

2.55 2.50

2.40

2.80

2.74

2.53

2.40

2.73

2.73

2.85

2.30

2.48

2.34

2.73

2.74

2.16

2.53

2.42

2.37

2.79

2.18

2.42

2.45

2.58

2.79(2.7412.85

2.37

2.76 12.21

2.42

2.54

2.58

2.30

2.54

2.54

2.64

2.47

2.63

2.79

2.53

2.42

2.37

2.53

2.58

2.45

2.12

2.58

2.58

2.42

2.33

2.64

2.64

1

1

1

1

1

I

72

TABLE X--Continued

Only~ First- Inter- Las t-Child Born mediate BornSelf-Perception -Male Fe- Male Fe- Male Fe- Male Fe-

male male male _male

16. Acceptance 2.00 2.73 2.55 2.59 2.87 2.70 2.58 2.63

17. Confidence 2.00 2.54 2.50 2.31 2.53 2.30 2.42 2.33

18. Improvement 2.00 2.09 2.20 2.28 2.40 2.09 2.05 2.15

19. Morality 3.00 2.73 2.85 2.81 2.87 2.73 2.63 2.70

The self-perception item of Communication yielded

higher means from males in 3 of the 4 ordinal position cate-

gories. The highest mean score computed was achieved by the

male only children, while the lowest mean score was achieved

by the female first-borns. Male and female only children

and male intermediates generally felt more adept at communi-

cation skills than other participants in the study. (See

Table X.)

The highest mean score tabulated on the self-perception

item of Cooperation was achieved by both the female only

children and the female intermediates. The low mean score

tabulated for Cooperation was achieved by the male only

children. Males in three ordinal position categories had

lower means than females in the same groups. Of all groups,

male first-borns, female only children and female intermedi-

ates felt more cooperative than other groups. (See Table X.)

73

Males had both the lowest and the highest mean scores

on Loyalty and Trust. The male only children had the lowest

mean and the male intermediates had the highest mean. Of

all groups, the male intermediates felt they were more loyal

and trustworthy than other groups. (See Table X.)

On the self-perception item of Accepting Authority,

females in three of the four ordinal position categories had

higher means than males in the same categories. The male

only children had the lowest mean, score computed, and the

female intermediates had the highest mean score. Overall,

the male first-borns and the female intermediates felt they

were better able to accept authority than other groups.

(See Table X.)

Expressing Affection yielded higher means from females

in all ordinal position categories. The low mean score

tabulated for Expressing Affection was achieved by the male

only children and the high mean score was achieved by the

female only children. Of the 60 male participants, the male

first-borns felt better able to express affection appropri-

ately than other male groups. Of the 180 participants, all

females felt better able to express affection than did males

in the study. Female only children felt best able to

express affection. (See Table X.)

Male only children had the highest mean score computed

on the self-perception item of Handling Conflicts, and female

last-borns had the lowest score. Males in 3 ordinal

74

position categories had higher means than females in the

same categories. Overall, males in the study felt they could

handle conflicts better than did the females. Of all groups

in the study, male only children, male last-borns, and

female intermediates felt better able to handle conflicts

than other groups. (See Table X.)

Facing Reality yielded a high mean score achieved by

the male intermediates and a low mean score achieved by the

male only children. The highest mean achieved by the female

participants was achieved by the female only children.

Generally, the male intermediates and the female only chil-

dren indicated they felt better able to face reality than

did the other groups. (See Table X.)

Male only children had the lowest mean, and male last-

borns had the highest mean, on the self-perception item of

Responsibility. The three highest means tabulated were

attained by the male last-borns, the male intermediates, and

the female only children, indicating that they felt them-

selves to be more responsible than did the other groups.

(See Table X.)

Male participants had higher means than females in all

ordinal position categories, on the self-perception item of

Decision-Making and Problem-Solving. The high mean score

tabulated was attained by both the male intermediates and

the male last-borns, and the low mean was attained by the

female first-borns. Overall, the male intermediates and the

75

male last-borns felt more positive about making decisions

and solving problems than all other groups. Of the 120

female participants, the last-borns felt better able to make

decisions and solve problems than did females in other

groups. (See Table X.)

The highest possible mean score, 3.00, was achieved

by the male only children on Perseverance. Males in 3 of

the 4 ordinal position categories achieved higher means than

females in the same categories. The lowest mean tabulated

for Perseverance was achieved by the female first-borns.

Among the female participants, the only children had a

higher mean than other groups. Of all groups, the male only

children and the female only children felt higher levels of

perseverance than other groups. (See Table X.)

The male intermediates and the female only children

had the highest mean computed for the self-perception item

of Timeliness. The lowest mean tabulated was attained by

the male only children. Generally, the male intermediates

and the female only children felt their behavior to be more

timely and appropriate than did other participants. (See

Table X.)

The self-perception item, Philosophy of Life, yielded

a high mean score attained by the female only children, and

a low mean score attained by the male only children. Among

the male participants, the intermediates had a higher mean

than males in other ordinal position categories. Overall,

76

the female only children and the male intermediates felt a

more positive philosophy of life than did other participants.

(See Table X.)

Females in 3 of the 4 ordinal position categories had

higher means than males in the same categories on the self-

perception item of Acceptance. The highest mean tabulated

for Acceptance was achieved by the male intermediates, and

the lowest mean tabulated was achieved by the male only

children. Among the females, the only children and the

intermediates felt more self-accepting than the other fe-

males. However, of all groups, the male intermediates felt

a higher level of self-acceptance than all other groups.

(See Table X.)

On the item of Confidence, male only children had the

lowest mean score, and female only children had the highest

mean score. Males had higher means than females in 3 of the

4 ordinal position categories, indicating that the males

felt more self-confident than the females. Of all groups,

the female only children and the male intermediates felt

more self-confident than other groups. (See Table X.)

Males in 3 of the 4 ordinal position categories had

lower means than females in the same categories on Improve-

ment. The highest mean computed was attained by the male

intermediates, and the lowest mean computed was attained

by the male only children. Of the 120 female participants,

the first-borns felt more capable of self-improvement than

77

other groups, and the only children and the intermediates

felt least capable of self-improvement. Of the 60 males,

the last-borns felt least capable of self-improvement. Of

all groups, the male last-borns and the female first-borns

felt more capable of self-improvement than other groups.

(See Table X.)

Morality yielded the highest possible mean score from

the male only children. The lowest mean score computed for

Morality was attained by the male last-borns. Of the fe-

males, the lowest mean score was also attained by the last-

borns. The three highest means tabulated for Morality were

attained by the male only children, the male first-borns,

and the male intermediates, thus indicating that the males

generally felt a more urgent sense of morality than the

females. Of the female participants, the first-borns felt

a more urgent sense of morality than females in other

ordinal position categories. (See Table X.)

Males by Ordinal Position

Sixty males participated in the study. Six were only

children, 20 were first-borns with later siblings, 15 were

intermediates, and 19 were last-borns. Of all males, the

male intermediates had higher means on more self-perception

items than the other groups. Intermediate males, therefore,

had more favorable self-perceptions than males in other

categories. The male only children received more lower

78

self-perception means than any other group, thus indicating

less favorable, more negative self-perceptions among the

male only children than other male participants. (See

Table XI.)

Females by Ordinal Position

A total of 120 females participated in the study.

Twenty-two were only children, 32 were first-borns, 33 were

intermediates, and 33 were last-borns. Female only children

had more higher self-perception means than the other groups,

thus indicating more favorable self-perception among the

female only children than among the other female partici-

pants. The female first-borns had more lower self-perception

means than other groups. The least favorable self-perceptions

among the females were recorded by the first-borns. (See

Table XII.)

Males and Females by Ordinal Position

The greatest number of higher self-perception means

were received by the female only children and the group did

not receive a single lower average. (See Table XIII.) The

female only children recorded more positive self-perceptions

than any other group. The female first-born seemed to have

a lower self-perception than any other group of women. The

intermediate born male recorded more positive self-perceptions

than any other group of males. The male only children re-

ceived more lower self-perception means than all other

79

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groups. The group also had a wider range in scores as evi-

denced by the fact that four of the highest means were

received by the male only children. The least favorable

self-perceptions and the widest range in perception were

recorded by the male only children. There is an indication

that self-perception by ordinal position is definitely af-

fected by sex differences. (See Table XIII.)

The self-perception mean for the 60 males was 2.43, and

the mean for the 120 females was 2.53. Fifteen of the 19

lowest means recorded by sex and ordinal position were re-

ceived by the males. The overall self-perception of the

females was more favorable than that of the males. (See

Table XIII.)

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Doren, Margaret Peterson, "Evaluation of Studies onBirth Order and Sibling Position," unpublished doc-toral dissertation, Department of Education, Univer-sity of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1972.

84

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSIONS

A review of literature revealed many indications that

order of birth does indeed affect personality. However,

past studies yielded information that was neither specific

nor conclusive regarding the self-perception of university

students, related to sex and ordinal position. A need for

further study was evident.

The study investigated the occurrence of 19 selected

self-perception characteristics in 180 selected university

students, and compared differences by sex and by ordinal

position. All self-perception information was gathered

through the use of a specially designed, group-administered,

self-rating instrument. (See Appendix.) Sixty male and

120 female graduate and undergraduate students enrolled in

various Home Economics and Education courses during the

summer of 1976, at North Texas State University in Denton

County, Texas, participated in the study. It is believed

that participants were honest in their self-ratings for the

reason that oral instructions were given prior to testing

to encourage anonymity.

85

86

Self-Perception by Sex

Sixty males participated in the study. Men held higher

self-perception scores than women in 8 of the 19 areas. The

males reported feeling more discreet, tactful, and adept at

disagreeing agreeably; more capable of handling conflicts;

taking responsibility; making decisions and solving problems;

and persevering in tasks despite difficulty. Males felt

more self-confident, self-disciplined and self-controlled,

and were found to be more apt to utilize self-evaluation

and changing undesirable traits than the females.

A total of 120 females participated in the study. Women

recorded more favorable self-perception than men in 11 of the

19 areas. The females felt friendlier, more cheerful, and

better friends to others than the males. The females also

were most able to laugh at themselves, and meet the troubles

and irritations of everyday life with a smile. Women per-

ceived themselves to be more cooperative, loyal, and trust-

worthy than the men. The women felt more capable of

accepting things that cannot be changed than the male par-

ticipants. When compared with the males, the females were

found to be more contented with assigned roles in life, and

to feel most able to work when working, play when playing,

and say "no" to harmful situations. Overall, the females

had a more positive self-perception than males.

87

Self-Perception by Ordinal Position

Of the 180 participants, 28 were only children, 52

were first-borns with later siblings, 48 were, intermediates,

and 52 were last-borns. Students who were intermediates

recorded higher more favorable self-perceptions than all

other groups.

The 28 only children received the most favorable scores

on 5 of the 19 items. The items were Communication, Perse-

verance, Timeliness, Philosophy of Life, and Confidence.

The only children felt less capable of laughing at themselves,

and meeting thel troubles and irritations of everyday life

with a smile than all other groups. However, the only

children felt more discreet, tactful, and capable of dis-

agreeing agreeably than other participants. Of all groups,

the only children reported feeling least loyal and trust-

worthy, and in conjunction with the last-borns, least able

to accept authority. An individual who can compromise, be

flexible, and accept things that cannot be changed, is more

likely to have less difficulty facing the realities of

everyday life. Facing reality was reported to be more

difficult for the only children than for any other group.

Making decisions and solving problems were most difficult

for the only children, yet the group felt more patient,

persevering, and knowledgeable concerning limitations, than

all other groups. The only children felt happier with

assigned roles in life, took more pleasure in the experiences

88

of each age level, knew how to work when working, play when

playing, and say "no" to harmful situations, more often than

other groups. It was also found that, among the only chil-

dren, feelings of self-assurance and self-confidence were

more prevalent, and feelings of self-acceptance were less

prevalent, than in other groups. Self-evaluating and

changing undesirable traits were least often practiced by

the only children.

Fifty-two first-borns with later siblings received the

most favorable scores in the two areas of Improvement and

Morality, and tied for the highest score in the two areas of

Loyalty and Trust and Accepting Authority. The first-borns

had the lowest scores in the six areas of Friendship, Com-

munication, Cooperation, Responsibility, Timeliness, and

Philosophy of Life, and tied for the lowest position in the

area of Handling Conflicts. Hurlock (1) has stated that

introversion has a high incidence of frequency in first-

borns. First-borns in this inquiry felt less gregarious

and extroverted than all groups, thus indicating a tendency

toward introversion and lending support to Hurlock's state-

ment. An independent, achievement-oriented individual might

have difficulty cooperating in a total group effort. Weiner

(2) reports that first-borns have a tendency toward inde-

pendence and high achievement. First-borns perceived them-

selves to be less cooperative than all other groups, therefore

supportive of Weiner's statement. The first-borns and the

89

intermediates tied for the highest position in the area of

Accepting Authority. Each group felt equally competent of

complying even when in disagreement and seeking the help of

those in authority when it was needed. The first-borns tied

with the last-borns for the lowest position in the area of

Handling Conflicts. Each group felt least capable of con-

trolling temperament, and releasing tensions constructively.

Of all groups, the first-borns felt least dependable, and

least able to accept responsibility. Though the first-borns

were found to feel least capable of timely behavior, and

least contentment with their roles in life than other groups,

they were found to be most likely to utilize self-evaluation

and change undesirable traits. First-borns in the study

were found to feel more self-assured and more independent

than later-borns, thus supporting Weiner's statement that

first-borns tend to be more independent than later-borns (2).

A total of 48 intermediates participated in the study.

The intermediates received the most favorable self-percep-

tion scores in the seven areas of Friendship, Friendliness

and Cheerfulness, Cooperation, Expressing Affection, Handling

Conflicts, Facing Reality, and Acceptance, and tied for the

most favorable position in the three areas of Sense of Humor,

Loyalty and Trust, and Accepting Authority. None of the

lowest and least favorable self-perceptions were attained by

the intermediates. It was found that the intermediates tried

most often to meet and understand the emotional needs of

90

others in human relationships, and were more sympathetic,

gregarious, and extroverted than all other groups. The

intermediates and the last-borns tied for the highest posi-

tion in the area of Sense of Humor. Each group felt equally

capable of laughing at themselves, and meeting the troubles

and irritations of everyday life with a smile. Of all

groups, the intermediates felt most capable of carrying their

share of the load in any group activity, and taking interest

in the total effort. The intermediates tied with the first-

borns for the highest positions in the areas of Loyalty and

Trust and Accepting Authority. Each group felt equally

loyal, trustworthy, competent of complying even when in

disagreement, and seeking the help of those in authority

when it was needed. Expressing Affection, Handling Conflicts,

and Facing Reality were most easily managed by the interme-

diate participants. The intermediates were also found to be

more self-accepting than other groups.

Fifty-two last-borns participated in the study. The

last-borns had the highest and most favorable self-perception

scores in the two areas of Responsibility and Decision-Making

and Problem-Solving, and tied for the highest score in the

area of Sense of Humor. The group had the lowest and least

desirable scores in the four areas of Expressing Affection,

Perseverance, Confidence, and Morality, and tied for the

lowest score in the two areas of Accepting Authority and

Handling Conflicts. The last-borns tied with the intermediates

91

for the highest position in the area of Sense of Humor.

Each group felt equally competent of laughing at themselves,

and of meeting the troubles and irritations of everyday life

with a smile. The last-borns tied with the only children

for the lowest position in the area of Accepting Authority.

Demonstrating affection in acts that are fitting in amount

and kind was reportedly most difficult for the last-born

participants. The last-borns tied with the first-borns for

the lowest position in the area of Handling Conflicts. Each

group felt equal difficulty in controlling temperament and

releasing tensions. The last-borns reported feeling more

responsible, more capable of making decisions and solving

problems, but less persevering than all other groups. Last-

borns were more inconsistent in self-discipline and less

self-confident than all groups.

Males by Ordinal Position

Among the males, the six who were only children felt

more skillful in communication, handling conflicts, persever-

ing in tasks despite setbacks, and more self-disciplined

than others, but were found to feel more negative self-

perceptions than all other groups, in 15 of the 19 areas.

The areas were Friendship, Friendliness and Cheerfulness,

Sense of Humor, Cooperation, Loyalty and Trust, Accepting Au-

thority, Expressing Affection, Facing Reality, Responsibility,

92

Decision-Making and Problem-Solving, Timeliness, Philosophy

of Life, Acceptance, Confidence, and Improvement.

The data disclosed that the 20 first-born males felt

friendlier, more cheerful, cooperative, willing to accept

authority, and capable of appropriately expressing affection

than other groups. Handling conflicts was found to be

equally difficult for the 20 first-borns and the 15 inter-

mediates, who tied for the lowest mean score on the item.

The 15 male intermediates recorded higher, more posi-

tive self-perceptions on more items than any other group of

male participants. The males who were intermediates felt

more sympathetic, more capable of meeting the emotional

needs of others in human relationships, more loyal, trust-

worthy, and capable of timely behavior than other groups.

They also felt more content with assigned roles in life,

more self-accepting, self-confident, and capable of changing

undesirable traits through self-evaluation. The male inter-

mediates and the male last-borns tied for the highest mean

score in the area of Decision-Making and Problem-Solving.

Both groups felt capable of making decisions with a minimum

of worry, conflict and advice-seeking. The male intermedi-

ates tied with the male first-born participants for the

lowest mean score in the area of Handling Conflicts. Perse-

vering in tasks despite setbacks was found to be more diffi-

cult for the male intermediates than for all other groups.

93

The 19 male participants who were last-borns reported

feeling more capable of laughing at themselves, meeting the

troubles and irritations of everyday life with a smile, and

accepting responsibility than all other groups. A tie for

the highest mean score in the area of Decision-Making and

Problem-Solving was tabulated between the male participants

who were last-borns and those who were intermediates. The

least favorable self-perceptions recorded in the areas of

Communication and Morality were felt by the male last-borns.

They indicated feeling less discreet, tactful, capable of

disagreeing agreeably, and self-disciplined than other

groups.

Females by Ordinal Position

Twenty-two females were only children. The women

reported more positive self-perceptions in more areas than

any other group. Of the 120 female participants, the only

children felt friendlier, more cheerful, sympathetic, tactful,

discreet, responsible, persevering, content with assigned

roles in life, self-accepting, and self-confident than all

female groups. The female only children also felt more

capable of expressing affection appropriately, laughing at

themselves, accepting things that cannot be changed, and

behaving in a timely manner than the other female partici-

pants. The group tied with the female intermediates for the

highest self-perception mean in the area of cooperation.

94

Participants in each group felt willing to carry their share

of the load in any group activity. Improvement was the area

where the female only children recorded the most unfavorable

self-perceptions and tied with the female intermediates.

Results indicated that both groups felt more unlikely to

utilize self-evaluation, and change undesirable traits,

than the participants in the other two female groups.

A total of 32 first-born females participated in the

study. The first-born women felt themselves to be more

self-disciplined, and more likely to utilize self-evaluation

than other female groups. The group felt less favorably

about themselves in more areas than any other group. The

areas were Friendship, Friendliness and Cheerfulness,, Com-

munication, Cooperation, Loyalty and Trust, Accepting

Authority, Facing Reality, Responsibility, Decision-Making

and Problem-Solving, Perseverance, Philosophy of Life, and

Acceptance.

Among the 120 female participants, the 33 intermediate

females reported feeling more capable of complying even when

in disagreement, seeking help of those in authority when

needed, controlling temper, and releasing tensions construc-

tively, than all groups. The female intermediates tied with

the female only children for the highest mean in the area of

cooperation. The female intermediates felt less self-

confident, less capable of saying "no" to harmful situations,

and postponing gratifications than the other women. In the

95

area of Improvement, the female intermediates tied with the

female only children, for the lowest mean score. Students

in each group felt that they utilized self-evaluation and

changed undesirable traits less frequently than students in

the first-born or last-born groups.

A total of 33 last-born females participated in the

study, and felt more loyal to friends, more trustworthy, and

more capable of making decisions with a minimum of worry,

conflict, and advice-seeking than the other groups of women.

However, reports indicated the group felt more inconsistent

in self-discipline, less capable of laughing at themselves,

and less capable of expressing affection and handling

conflicts, than all other female participants.

Self-Perception by Sex and Ordinal Position

Sixty male students participated in the study. Six

were only children, 20 were first-borns with later siblings,

15 were intermediates, and 19 were last-borns. The 120

female participants included 22 only children, 32 first-

borns, 33 intermediates, and 33 last-borns.

The results indicated that sex differences were present

in all ordinal positions. The three groups in which the sex

differences were most noticeable were in the only child,

first-born, and intermediate. Effects of ordinal position

tended to depend on the sex of the child.

96

The male only children had the most favorable self-

perception scores in the four areas of Communication,

Handling Conflicts, Perseverance, and Morality. The overall

scores were lower than all other groups in 14 of the 19

areas. The areas were Friendship, Friendliness and Cheer-

fulness, Sense of Humor, Cooperation, Loyalty and Trust,

Accepting Authority, Expressing Affection, Facing Reality,

Responsibility, Timeliness, Philosophy of Life, Acceptance,

Confidence, and Improvement.

The female only children recorded-the highest self-

perception scores in six areas, and tied for the highest

position in two other areas. The highest self-perceptions

were in Friendship, Friendliness and Cheerfulness, Sense

of Humor, Cooperation, Expressing Affection, Timeliness,

Philosophy of Life, and Confidence. None of the lowest

self-perception scores was attained by the female only

children.

None of the highest and most favorable self-perception

scores was attained by the male and female first-born par-

ticipants. The male first-borns did not attain any of the

lowest self-perception scores recorded. The female first-

borns had the least favorable self-perceptions in the three

areas of Communication, Decision-Making and Problem-Solving,

and Perseverance.

The male intermediates had the highest and most favorable

self-perceptions in the four areas of Loyalty and Trust,

97

Facing Reality, Acceptance, and Improvement, and tied for

the highest position in the two areas of Decision-Making and

Problem-Solving, and Timeliness. The female intermediates

had the highest self-perception scores in the area of

Accepting Authority and tied for the highest position in the

area of Cooperation. None of the lowest self-perceptions

was attained by the male nor the female intermediates.

The male last-born participants tied for the highest

position in the areas of Decision-Making and Problem-Solving

and had the highest and most favorable self-perception score

in the area of Responsibility. The group had the lowest

self-perception score in the area of Morality. The female

last-borns did not attain a highest self-perception score

but had the least favorable score of all groups in the area

of Handling Conflicts.

Recommendations

The applicability of conclusive information found

within the research may be limited, because of the select

group involved, and the small number of cases in some

ordinal position categories. It is recommended that further,

extensive research be conducted, utilizing a larger group,

more varied in both age range and ethnic background. Fac-

tors as socioeconomic background and educational level would

also be useful in further analyzing self-perception by birth

order and sex.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Hurlock, Elizabeth, Child Development, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1972.

2. Weiner, Irving B. and David Elkind, Child Development:A Core Approach, New York, John Wiley and Sons,, Inc..,1972.

98

APPENDIX

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"SELF PERCEPTION" ANSWER SHEET

Age

For each of the items below, select the answer that corre-sponds with the correct information and circle the appropri-ate number.

Example: 1. 1 2 3 4 5

3 4 5

3 4 5

3 4

3 4 5

3 4

20. 1 2

21. 1 2

22. 1 2

23. 1 2

24. 1 2

25. 1 2

26. 1 2

27. 1 2

1. 1

2. 1

3. 1

4. 1

5. 1

6. 1

7. 1

8. 1

9. 1

10. 1

11. 1

12. 1

13. 1

14. 1

15. 1

16. 1

17. 1

18. 1

19. 1

104

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Bossard, James H. S. and Eleanor Stoker Boll, The Sociologyof Child Development, 3rd ed., New York, Harper andRow, 1966.

Felker, Donald W., Building Positive Self-Concepts, Minnea-polis, Minnesota, Burgess Publishing Company, 1974.

Good, Carter V. and Douglas Scates, Methods of Research,New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954.

Hurlock, Elizabeth, Child Development, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1972.

_ , Child Growth and Development, New

York, McGraw-Hill, 1970.

Landis, Judson T. and Mary G. Landis, Building Your Life,New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.

, Youth and Marriage,Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1957.

Langdon, Frace and Irving W. Stout, These Well-AdjustedChildren, New York, John Day Company, 1951.

Lawton, George, Agingj Successfully, New York, ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1946.

Sears, R. R., Eleanor E. Maccoby, and Harry Levin, Patternsof Child Rearinq, New York, Row, Peterson and Company,1957.

Weiner, Irving B. and David Elkind, Child Development: ACore Approach, New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,1972.

Wylie, Ruth C., The Self-Concept, I (revised), Lincoln,Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1974.

105

106

Articles

Bain, Read, "Making Normal People," Marriage and FamilyLiving, XVI (February, 1954), 27-31.

Barrett-Lennard, G. T., "The Mature Person," Mental Hygiene,XLVI (January, 1962), 98-102.

Bigner, Jerry J., "Sibling Position and Definition of Self,"Journal of Social Psychology, 84 (August, 1971), 307-308.

Bragg, Barry W. and Vernon L. Allen, "Ordinal Position andConformity: A Role Theory Analysis," Sociometry,XXXIII (December, 1970), 371-381.

Germer, Sondra, "Self-Concept and Communication," TheFamily Coordinator, XXIII (October, 1974), 421-422.

Koenig, Frederick, "Definition of Self and Ordinal Positionof of Birth," Journal of Social Psychology, 78 (November,

1969), 287-288.

Ryder, Verdene, "Family Life Education: Helping Studentsto Know Themselves," Journal of Home Economics, 67(January, 1975) , 8-14.

Schwendiman, Gary, Knud S. Larsen, and Chris Parks, "BirthOrder, Aggression Training and Authoritarianism,"The Psychological Record, XX (Winter, 1970), 69-71.

Sonstegard, Manford, "Life Style Identification and Assess-ment," Individual Psychologist, X (November, 1973),, 1-4.

Toman, Walter, "Birth Order Rules All," Psychology Today, 4(December, 1970), 45-49, 68-69.

Yando, Regina, Edward Zigler, and Susan Litzinger, "AFurther Investigation of the Effects of Birth Order andNumber of Siblings in Determining Children's Respon-siveness to Social Reinforcement," The Journal ofPsychology, 89 (January, 1975), 95-111.

Publications of Learned Organizations

Altus, William D., "Sex Role Dissatisfaction, Birth Order, andParental Favoritism," Proceedings of the Annual Conven-tion of the American Psychological Association, VI(Part I), 1971, 161-162.

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Unpublished Materials

Doren, Margaret Peterson, "Evaluation of Studies on BirthOrder and Sibling Position," unpublished doctoraldissertation, Department of Education, Universityof Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1972.