Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
6.5• Explain how mitochondria
and chloroplast are created• Where are mitochondrial
DNA and ribosomes located?
• Where are the mitochonrial enzymes that make ATP located?
• What are the 3 types of plastids found in Chloroplast?
• Self replicating using its own DNA and ribosomes. Free ribosomes make cell membrane and DNA and ribosomes found in the matrix make mitochondria.
• The inner membrane of the mitochondria.
• Amyloplast-colorless and store starch / Chromoplast give orange and yellow colors / chloroplast – green colors
6.6• Explain how motor proteins
functions in the cell.• What is motility?• What type of fibers make up
the cytoskeleton?• What is the function of dynein?
• Motor protein attach to receptors on microtubules then use atp to walk along microtubule.
• Movement• Microtubules-found in
centrioles,flagella & cilia are the largest/Microfilaments- found in actin and add to myosin for muscle movement & microvilli & cytoplasmic are the smallest streaming/Intermediate filaments add to keratin formation and dead skin outside the body
• Dynein powered by atp walk up and down doublet microtubules for movement
6.7• What is the middle lamella?• What is the ECM
extracellular matrix?• What part of the animal cell
allows exchange of ions sugars and amino acids between cells?
• The liquid between and around cell walls of plants that contains pectin a cementing agent.
• The extracelluar fluid outside the cell composed mostly of glycoproteins or collagen help form strong fibers and cohesion outside the cell.
• The gap junction a protein channel similar to plasmodesmata protein channels found in plant cells
7.1• What makes a cell
membrane amphiphatic?
• How can cholesterol increase fluidity at lower temperatures?
• The cell membrane has a hydraphilic head and a hyrdaphobic lipid tail.
• It hinders or stops solidification by disrupting the packaging or structure of the phospholiopid. Prevents packaging.
7.2• What is the
function of the aquaporin?
• A transport protein that facilitates the movement of water across the cell membrane.
7.3• Explain how a concentration
gradient aids in the movement of substances across the cell membrane.
• What is osmosis and how is it affected by a solute?
• A concentration gradient is a measure of concentration of a solute. Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This process is passive and does not require energy.
• Osmosis is the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane. A solute decreases the amount of free water, by binding to the water molecule. The water concentration goes towards the solute through a selective membrane, that blocks the solute.
7.4• What is the difference
between active and facilitated transport in the sodium-potassium pump of animal cells?
• Describe how the electrochemical gradient helps in the movement of Na+ across the cell membrane
• Na+ binds to the active site, atp phosphorylates the enzyme providing the energy to change to shape of the enzyme and expel Na+ . In faciliated diffusion, with the help transport proteins- either a channel or carrier protein allows the move of sodium across the membrane.
• The channel protein allows the movement of Na+ across the membrane, the electrical gradient occurs as the negative side of the membrane attracts the positive Na+ which travels down the electrochemical gradient.
7.4• Explain how a electrogenic
pump and a proton pump operate in a cotransport system.
• The proton pump, with the aid of the atp drives H+ outside the cell membrane, making it more positive and the inside more negative. The electrogenic pump, uses the positive H+ which can attach to molecules such as surcrose, to move towards the inside membrane which is now negative and attracts the positive hydrogen ion and sucrose. The work together and cotransport system.
7.5• How do ligands
assist with endocytosis?
• A ligand is a molecule that binds to the receptor site of a molecule. This ligand which is also attached to a molecule like LDL low density lipoprotein signal the cell membrane to fold around the molecule and form a vesicle that can now digest the molecule.
8.1• What is the difference
between anabolism and catabolism?
• What are the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics?
• Anabolism is an energy consuming process that builds molecules such as proteins from amino acids. Catabolism is and exothermic reaction that breaks down molecules like the hydrolysis of a protein.
• The 1st law states that energy can be transferred or transformed but cannot be created or destroyed. The 2nd law states that all energy transfers increase entropy the disorder of the universe.
8.2• Explain the following
equation.• ΔG=ΔH - TΔS
• ΔG Represents a change in Gibbs free energy the surrounding energy available, a – ΔG allows all reactions to occur, + ΔG does not allow the reaction to occur without energy. ΔH a change in all energy or enthalpy. T is temperature measured in Kelvin and ΔS the change in the systems entropy- disorderliness.
• All to explain with chemical reactions happen in the body, and spontaneous reactions for evolution.
8.2-8.3• Give an example of
a –ΔG exergonic reaction using phosphorylation that involves ATP or Glutamic Acid
• This is usually part of energy coupling where ATP is hyrolyzed and the phosphorus that is removed is then used to provide energy for a 2nd reactions. The 2nd reactions can be the phosphorylation of glutamic acid which is then converted into glutamine.
8.4• Explain how activation
energy affects a – ΔG exergonic chemical reaction.
• Using the reaction of hydrogen peroxide with liver or potato explain what the substrate, active site and enzyme are.
• ΔG is not affected by lowering the activation energy. Activation energy, is the energy need for a chemical reaction to occur.
• The hydrogen peroxide is the substrate, the liver or potate is the enzyme, and the area of the enzyme where substrate reacts is the active site.
8.4*• Describe the functions of
pepsin and trypsin, and how they are affected by pH.
• How do cofactors work, and give and example?
• Pepsin is the acid resistant enzyme in the stomach that helps break down food in the stomach. Trypsin is a base resistant enzyme that breaks down food in the intestines.
• Cofactors are bound to enzymes or substrate and are inorganic examples include iron, zinc, and copper, trace elements.
• The coenzymes are the vitamins we need.
8.4• Explain the
difference between competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors.
• Competitive inhibitors mimic the substrate and compete for the active site. Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to the enzyme in a way to alter active site.
• Examples would be toxin and poison like sarin which affects acetylcholinesterase. No Ach no neurotrasmitter.
8.5• Explain feedback
inhibition.• In feedback
inhibition a pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of the end product or change in end product that alters the active site of the initial enzyme
9.1• Draw the equation for cellular respiration. Identify which molecules are being oxidized and which molecules are reduced.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
becomes oxidized
becomes reduced
9.2• What is
glycolysis, and where does it happen?
• Occurs in the cytosol of the cell, and it is the catabolic break down of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate.
9.2• What is the difference
between oxidative phosphorylation and substrate level phosphorylation?
• Oxidative phosphorylation occuring in the cytosol of the cell. With chemiosmosis uses the hydrogen from NADH and FADH2 to combine with oxygen to drive the synthesis of ATP
• Substrate level phosphorylation which occurs in the cytoplasm and makes ATP by direct enzymatic transfer of a phosphate from a sustrate.
9.4• One type of
cytochrome is the ubiquinone. Explain how the ubiquinone helps in electron transport.
• This non protein enzyme carrier attracts hydrogen ions or electrons because of its high electronegativity, distributes electrons along the transport chain.
9.4• How does ATP synthase
generate ATP?• ATP synthase uses the
energy of an existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis.
• The ion gradient is made by the electron transport chain.
• Hydrogens attraction to oxygen generates water as hydrogen diffuses to oxygen in a process called chemiosmosis.
9.5• Compare alcohol
fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.
• Both processes use pyruvate generated from gylcolysis. In the absence of oxygen they generate ATP by substrate level phosphorylation.
• Alcohol fermentation produces CO2 and makes ethanol.
• Lactic acid fermentation converts pyruvate directly into lactate.
10.1• What is the chemical
equation for photosynthesis?
• What are the two stages of photosynthesis, and how do they benefit each other?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
becomes oxidized
becomes reduced
10.2• How do
chlorophyll a and chlorohyll b benefit plants?
• Chlorophyll a and b differ only in one molecule on the porophyrin ring, but both molecules allow the plant to absorb more light along the spectrum
10.2• Compare the cyclical
and non cyclical aspects of photosystem II and photosystem I
• The non cyclical part of photo II transfers electrons to the cytochrome complex. The cyclical part of photo I re-uses Fd ferrodoxin to produces ATP which can then be used to control photosysnthesis.
10.3• What is the
relationship between G3P glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate and rubisco
10.4• C3 plants use the Calvin
the produce sugar, but also suffer from photorespiration. C4 plants and CAM plants do not suffer from photorespiration. Explain how the bundle sheath cells and mesophyll cells benefit CAM and C4 plants.
• In C4 plants, the mesophyll cells the enzyme PEP-phosphophenolpyruvate carboxylase adds CO2 where it then enter the bundle sheath cell through the plasmodesmata. CO2 then enters the calvin cycle to make sugar which can now go to vascular tissue. The CAM plant uses the same tissue, but PEP and CO2 combine at night, and during the day sugar is made. PEP has a very high affinity to CO2 to increase CO2 efficiency use especially when rubisco is decreased because of heat.
11.1• Explain how yeast an
organism that reproduces by binary fission can mate?
• What is a plasmodesmata?• What is paracrine signaling?
• Yeast uses chemical signaling or signal transduction pathways to identify cells of opposite mating type alpha & a. The cells combine or fuse and form new cells.
• The plasmodesmata found in plants is a cell junction that allows cytoplasm to exchange between plant cells. Animal cells have gap junctions.
• Parcrine signaling acts on target cells by discharging molecules. These are usually growth factors. The signals are dumped into the cytoplasm, then taken in by the process of endocytosis.
11.1• What are the three steps
of cell signaling?• Explain how Sutherland’s
experiment with epinephrine works with the three steps of cell signaling. RTR
• RTR• 1) Signal goes specifically
to extracellular receptors in liver cells. R
• 2) This activates the enzyme gylcogen phosphorylase. Glucose is now available and phosphorus has been liberated. T
• 3) The glucose is used to cause changes. R
11.2• Explain how a ligand
molecule testosterone can affect an intracellular receptor, causing a change in the cell.
• The hormone or ligand molecule testosterone passes through the cell membrane and attaches to a receptor complex. This complex enters the nucleus through the pores. This complex activates a gene by turning it on, probably using a form of phosphorylation. This leads to transcription making an mRNA and translation, the formation of a protein.
*11.2-11.3 *• When your blood Ca+
drop thyroid gland produces PTH parathyroid hormone which causes an increase in cellular Ca+. How would a G linked receptor respond to this condition using kinase and secondary messengers
• The G linked receptor would respond to PTH by activating the GDP G protein to the GTP form activating and andenyl cyclase which activates a Cyclic AMP to make AMP a secondary messenger which allows for the formation of kinase, and phosphorylation. This phosphorus can be used to activate a protein membrane which would allow Ca+ to enter the cell
11.3• Explain how the
bacteria Vibrio cholerae which causes cholera affects G proteins and cyclic AMP
• The bacteria produces an enzyme that affects the G protein so the GTP cannot be hydrolyzed into GDP so andenylyl cyclase continues to make cAMP so the cell continues to secrete salt and water into the intestines.
11.4• Explain how a signal can
be amplified with a cascading affect.
• Each subsequent or cascading reaction may produce cAMP which active kinases, which allow phosphorylation of proteins. Enzymes have the ability of lowering activation energy thereby speed up the chemical reaction, amplifying the intitial response.
12.1• What are chromatin
and somatic cells?• Eukaryotic cells are
made up of chromatin a complex of DNA. It’s a copy of a chromosome.
• Somatic cells are all body cells except reproductive cells.
12.2• What are all the
phases of cell division?
• Interphase- G1,S, G2, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis.
12.2• What is the
difference between a cell plate and a clevage furrow?
• Cell plate forms in plants during cytokinesis, and the plate is generated by the golgi apparatus. The clevage furrow forms in animal cells during cytokinesis from the old metaphase plates with the aid microfilaments.
12.3• How are Cdks cyclin-
dependent kinase affected by or affect the cell cycle?
• What is the difference between a benign and malignant tumor?
• Cancer that spreads from it original location has metastasized.
• During mitosis as the cell grows, cyclin attached to kinase as well as MPF maturation promoting factor increase, then decrease during interphase.
• If the abnormal cell remains at the original site, the lump is benign. If the lump becomes invasive to impair the function of one or more organs, the patient has cancer.
13.1• What is the difference
between sexual and asexual reproduction?
• In asexual reproduction a single individual is the sole parent, and passes copies of all its genes to its offspring.
• In sexual reproduction two parents give rise to offspring the have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents.
13.2• What is alternation
of generations?• What is a
sporophyte?• What is a
gametophyte?
• A cell cycle that includes both haploid and diploid multicellular stages.
• It is a multicellular diploid stage. (The plant)
• A haploid spore divides mitotically and becomes a multicelluar gametophyte.
13.3• What is the longest
phase of meiosis?• During what phase
does crossing over occur?
• How is crossing over related to a chiasmata?
• What benefit is provided by crossing over?
• Prophase I• Prophase I• A chiasmata is a
region where crossing over occurs and exchange of genetic information. 2n n=number of chromosomes 23.
• Crossing over provides genetic variation.
13.3• Draw the
complete phases of meiosis.
14.1• Define the following
terms; hybridization/P generation/F1 generation/F2 generation.
• The mating or crossing of two true breeding parents. The true breeding parents/The hybrid offspring of two true breeding parents/ The offspring resulting from the crossing or self pollination of F1 offspring.
14.2• Cross two plant
heterozygous for stem length-(long/short) and flower color-(Red/Orange) (AaTt). You have 400 babies, how many will have short stems with red flowers.
• ¼ * ¾ = 3/16
14.3• What is the
difference between codominance and incomplete dominance?
• The two alleles both affect the phenotype in separate distinguishing ways.
• Either allele is not completely dominant over the other. The expressed phenotype is between both parents.
14.3• What type of genetic
disorder is Tay Sachs disease? (who is affected genetically)
• Tay-Sachs disease affects children that are homozygous recessive for the disease, and can moderately affect children that are heterozygous.-Incomplete dominance.
14.3• Define the following
terms; pleiotropy/epistasis/polygenic inheritance/
• One allele is responsible for multiple symptoms or phenotypes/a gene at one location alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus./An additive affect of two or more genes on a phenotypic characteristic./
14.3-14.4• What is the multifactorial
affect on genetics?• What does the answer
mean by phenotype?• Name 2 recessively
inherited disorders.
• Many factors both genetic and environmental influence phenotype.
• The amino acids and proteins produced by the genes.
• Cystic Fibrosis a pleiotropic affect that causes mucus build up in lungs and sickle cell disease- a sickle shaped blood cells.
14.4• Name 2
Dominantly inherited disorders?
• What are 2 forms of fetal testing?
• Achondroplasia/Dwarfism. Huntington’s DZ-deteriorates the nervous system from ages 35-40.
• Amniocentesis and Chorionic Villi Sampling.
15.1• What is the wild
type? What symbol is used?
• The normal phenotype for a character such as red eyes in drosophila-fruit fly/ +
16.1• What is a
bacteriophage?• These viruses are
called bacteria-eaters, they infect and destroy bacteria. T2 attacks E.coli
16.1• Explain Erwin
Chargaff’s, Chargaff’s Rule.
• After isolating DNA, Chargaff found that when he isolated and found 30.3% Adenine he also had 30.3% Thymine, and when he had 19.5% Guanine, he also had 19.9% Cytosine. A-T and G-C
16.2• What is the
difference between a primer and a helicase?
• What is the function of DNA polymerase III and I?
• An initial nucleotide chain that consists of Either DNA or RNA that initiates the replication of DNA-Primase joins RNA nucleotides. Helicase unwinds parental double helix DNA at replication forks.
• HOP 321
16.3• What does a
thymine dimer do to DNA?
• What happens next?
• The DNA dimer distort the DNA molecule.
• The nuclease enzyme then cuts the damaged DNA, its then synthesised by a DNA polymerase, then sealed with a DNA ligase.
17.1• What is
transcription and translation?
• Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from DNA instructions. Translation is the synthesis of a polypeptide.
17.3• What is the
difference between a 5’ cap and a poly A tail?
• The 5’ cap is a modified guanine on the mRNA and the poly A tail a long adenine tail AAAA allow the recognition of the mRNA, export of the mRNA out of the nucleus and help prevent degradation of the mRNA.
17.7-328• Substitutions can sometimes
produce silent mutations. What is a silent mutations?
• What is the difference between missense and nonsense?
• Why are frame shift mutations so bad?
• The redundancy of genetic code that has no affect on the encoded protein. GGC or GGU both make glycine.
• A missense mutation creates an amino acid that is different but still makes sense. A nonsense causes translation to be terminated creating a shorter polypeptide.
• It can affect all the downstream nucleotiedes as well, changing all the codons.
18.1-337• What is the difference
between the lytic phase and the lysogenic cycle?
• What is an obligate, and what does it mean to be virulent?
• The lytic phase terminates the cell, the cell or bacterium lyses or breaks up the cell to release more viruses. The lysogenic cycle replicates the genome without destroying the cell then using the bacteria or cell to store the virus or use the host’s DNA to assemble the virus or parts of the virus.
• Viruses are obligates, they can only live within the DNA of a host. A virulent virus is resistant to change or attack.
18.1-338• Why are
restriction endonucleases or restriction enzyme so beneficial?
• What is a temperate phage or lambda λ ?
• The enzyme recognizes the foreign DNA and cuts or lyses it for removal.
• Temperate phages use both use both the lysogenic and lytic cycles.
18.1-344 +• How is the HIV
human immunodeficiency virus both a retrovirus and a provirus?
• The HIV virus uses reverse transcriptase to change RNA into DNA. As a provirus it becomes part of the host permanent DNA remaining and duplicating in the immune system. The T cells which have receptors for recognizing invaders are altered so they do not function.
18.2-346• *What is the
difference between a nucleotide and a nucleoside?
• A nucleoside is used to fight viruses like a vaccine it is a part of the nucleotide without the nitrogenous base (ATGC). It interferes with the viral synthesis process. Like AZT the AIDS drug.
18.3-348• What is the
nucleoid?• *How did Ca+ affect
the bacteria ability to take in DNA?
• A dense region of DNA without a membrane found in bacteria.
• The calcium stimulated the cell to take up small pieces of DNA, the process is used to modify bacteria today.
18.3-349• Prisoners are sometimes
given conjugal rights. What is bacterial conjugation?
• So what is an episome?• What is an R plasmid?
• Some Bacteria exchange DNA using a sex pili to connect and sends DNA (the male) to a receptive bacteria (the female). f factor or F plasmid.
• An organism that has the ability to use a plasmid to copy itself or integrate its plasmid into its DNA. Like temperate viruses and phage λ.
• Resistant to change. Super bugs.
18.3-351• *What are
transposable elements or jumping genes?
• Barbara McClintock
• When the DNA is folding the pieces of the DNA are brought together with DNA bending proteins and old DNA is cut and the new piece is pasted.
18.3-353• Explain the
relationship between promotor, operator, repressor and operon.
• The promoter is the sight where RNA polymerase can bind to DNA to begin transcription. The operator controls the access to the RNA polymerase. The operon is the operator and promoter make up the operon. The repressor controls the operon by switching it off or on by allowing or blocking enzyme activity.
18.3-354• How does
tryptophan function with corepressors?
• As trytophan accumulates, the trp repressor receptors increase and shut down the operon, which then shuts down the production of tryptophan, this allows for quick repsonse.
18.4-354• How is an inducible
operon related to LACTOSE ?
• How is this compared to a repressible operon?
• An inducible operon inactivates the repressor, so lactose is broken down. A regulatory protein keeps the operon on when lactose is present.
• If lactose is absent, it cannot allosterically change the repressor, so the repressor shuts down the operon.
18.4-356How is positive
gene regulation related to cAMP cyclic AMP-adenisine mono phosphate and CAP catabolic activator protein?
• When glucose is low, the regulatory protein CAP binds with cAMP it has energy and can now activate transcription for the breakdown of lactose.
19.1-363• What is a histone? What
is histone acetylation? • What is deacetylation?
• A histone is a positive proteins with the amino acids lysine and argenine that bind to the negative DNA which allows the DNA to bend and coil. The positive lysine and argenine have acetyl groups attached to them. The acetyl group allows the DNA to uncoil and allow access for transcription.
• Deacetylation removes these groups and folds the DNA around the histone tightly.
19.1-364• What is methylation?• What is the
importance of methylation in embryo expression?
• When methyl groups attach to DNA, which inactivates the DNA.
• Vertebrate Embryo’s start with many similarities, but the methylated genes prevent incorrect genes from getting expressed, like webbed hands or gill slits. (Apotosis)
19.1-369• What is RNA
global control, and how is it related to mRNA and stored mRNA?
• This usually involves the activation or deactivation protein factors that initiate translation. mRNA’s are stored are sometimes stored to be activated at a later time.
19.1-369• Explain how
proteasomes interact with ubiquitin.
• Ubiquitin is a tag placed on proteins for destruction. Proteasomes are large protein complexes that recognize the ubiquitin and destroy the protein.
19.2-371• What is the
difference between oncogenes and proto-oncogenes?
• Oncogenes are cancer causing genes, while proto-oncogenes are normal genes. Cancer normally comes from DNA movement, amplification of proto-oncogene activity, and point mutations.
19.2-371• Explain the function of
the ras gene and the p53-cancer suppressor gene.
• The ras protein produced from the ras gene is a G protein relay signal for a protein kinase cascade which promotes cell growth. The p53 gene named from its size, has been called the guardian angel because it promotes repair to damaged genes or suicide (apotosis) to genes that cannot be repaired.
• These two genes play important roles in 80% of cancers.
19.3-374• What is the
importance of BRCA1 and BRCA2?
• These genes are considered to be tumor suppressor genes because their wild types protect against cancer and the recessive type is mutant and promotes cancer.
• Inheriting only BRCA1 increases the chances of breast cancer. 60% before age 50. BRCA1 and BRCA2 which is homozygous decreases that chances to 2%.
19.4-375• Explain B.
McClintock’s results by explain what transposons and retrotransposons are.
• Transposon are exchanged nucleotides-genes within a genome which are assisted by DNA bending proteins and histones. Retrotransposons allow genes to move with the help of RNA intermediates.
19.4-375• What portion on
DNA is composed of exons that code for protein, rRNA, or tRNA in humans?
• 1.5%
20.1-386• Explain how
restriction enzymes are used with sticky ends and DNA Ligase.
• The restriction enzyme makes staggered cuts on the sugar phosphate back bone at the restriction site. AT or GC. Because the cuts are staggered one end hangs and creates a sticky end. DNA ligase forms a covalent bond that closes the sugar phosphate back bone.
20.1-388• What is nucleic acid
hybridization?
• How is DNA denatured?
• The DNA has the ability to base pair with complementary nucleic acids on another nucleic acid molecule.
• The separation of the two strands of DNA, usually with chemical heat.
20.1-390• What is cDNA? How is
cDNA used?• cDNA is the
complimentary DNA, and it is made starting with mRNA and a retrovirus which helps determine the DNA code from the mRNA. This DNA is attached to its compliment. AT or GC This called the complimentary DNA. It is then used with a restriction enzyme to insert this DNA in an organism, which now grow with the new code. That DNA is part of the cDNA library.
20.1-390• Why do scientist
prefer YAC to bacteria?
• What does annealate
• YAC which is a yeast artificial chromosome, is a eukaryote, like humans, has the ability to carry more chromosomes because it is larger than bacteria.
• Annealing is forming hydrogen bonds with DNA or RNA
20.1 -391• What is a PCR’s function? • The polymerase chain
reaction allows the targeting of any specific segment of DNA to be copied after the DNA has been denatured. The targeted DNA is annealed by cooling which allows hydrogen bonds to form in a 35 direction on the desired DNA strand this is then repeated many times to create large quantities of DNA
20.2-396• What are RFLP’s
used for?
• What is YAC and BAC?
• Restriction fragment length polymorphisms are genetic markers that are used in Southern Blotting to identify fragments of DNA that vary in size and sequence.
• YAC is yeast artificial chromosomes and BAC is bacterial artificial chromosomes.
20.3-400• Describe a DNA
microarray essay.• It consists of tiny
amounts of large numbers of single stranded DNA fragments which represent different genes fixed in a glass slide.
• Computer application?
20.5-406• What is a
transgenic animal?
• The introduction of genes from one animal to the genome of another animal. Human protein in cow milk.
21.2-415-418• What is totipotence?
• How does totipotence give rise to pluripotent?
• Any cell with the potential to give rise to all the specialized cells of an organism.-embryonic stem cells.
• Pluripotent cells can give rise to multiple but not all cell types.-adult stem cells.
21.2-420• What gene was
found to control muscles?
• What does it do?
• It was found that MyoD protein stimulates the myoD gene and activates genes encoding other muscle specific transcription factors, which activated genes for muscle proteins. MyoD also stops cell division.
21.2-420• What are
cytoplasmic determinants?
• What is the maternal affect gene?
• Maternal substances in the egg that influence the course of early development.
• When the maternal affect gene is mutant in the mother, it results in mutant in the offspring.
21.2-424• What are
morphogenes?• Are genes that
establish an embryo’s axis of development.
21.2-427• What is apoptisis?
• How is apoptisis related to Ced-9 found in mitochondrial membranes?
• It is programmed cell death.
• The product of gene Ced-9 acts as a master gene that regulates apoptosis, acting as a brake. It controls Ced-3, and Ced-4 found in cells.
21.4-431• What is a
homeobox?
• What is a chimera?
• They are part of homeotic genes or HOX genes, and they control the development of body segments. ( Head,Thorax, Abdoman)
• A mixture of genetically different cells
22.1-438• Give an example
of natural selection.
• Finches, Mustard Weed, Resistant bacteria, guppies, lady bird beetles, Galapagos Tortoises, Darwin beetle.
22.3-448• Give an example
of a vestigial organ or structure.
• Pharyngeal puches/ forelimbs/ post anal tail
22.1-443 • What is descent
with modification? • The view that the
unity of life with all organisms is related to the descent from an ancestor that existed in the past.
22.3-450• What are
eutherians? How do they compare the marsupials?
• Eutherians are mammals that complete their embryonic development in the uterus. –squirrels Marsupials are mammals that complete embryonic development in external pouches.-Sugar gliders.
23.1-455• What is a
population?
• What is a gene pool?
• Groups of individuals that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
• The genes in a population at any one time. bb –brown fur
23.1-457• What is the Hardy
Weinberg equilibrium equation?
• What does each variable measure?
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the dominant homozygous and recessive homozygous genotypes respectively. 2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous genotype
23.1-458• If 1/10,000 people
in a population have PKU phenylketonuria, how many do not have PKU?
• 1/10,000= .0001• q2 = .0001
• q= √.0001 =.01 chance or p-.01=1 p=.99 chance of p occurring.
• What is 2pq hetero?
23.3-460-462• How can genetic drift
lead to the bottle neck effect and the flounder effect? 1st define genetic drift.
• An unpredictable fluctuation in an allele frequency. One gene is lost or makes a greater influence. Through chance events, one allele in a population is isolated, bottle necked from the other population from possible environmental disaster. If this population continues to grow and the new allele is the most frequent it is called the founder effect.
23.3-462• How can gene
flow change the flounder effect?
• Genes can flow from this newly found location to a new location and create a dominant identity at this new location.
23.3-462• Why is natural
selection the primary source for adaptive evolution?
• Natural selection allows for a change in a population that is prolific-produces viable offspring that adapt to changes in the environment through genetic mutations. Favorable genotypes in a population.
23.3-464• What affect does a cline
play on evolution?• Observable evidence has
show that depending upon the clinal variation- altitude, plants and animal tend to have variations in size according to their altitudes.
• Smaller plants at higher altitudes and larger ones at lower altitudes. Big bears during ice age like periods and smaller during warmer seasons.
23.3-464• Does natural
selection act on genotype or phenotype?
• Phenotype. Outside forces act on physical qualities, only the correct genetic make can produce the needed qualities.
23.3-464• Explain how
directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selection affects a population.
• Directional selection shifts the overall makeup of a population by favoring variants at one extreme.
• Disruptive selection favors variants at both ends.
• Stabilizing selection removes extreme variants in favor of the intermediate.
29.1 -576• What 4 traits make
land plants unique?• Apical meristem,• alternation of
genertations, • walled spore
produced in sporangia,
• multicellular gemetangia,
• multicellular dependent embryos.
29.1 p579• Give 2 examples of
bryophytes, and two examples of vascular plants.
• How are charophyceans involved in the evolution of these plants?
• Liverworts, Hornworts, Mosses
• Gymnosperm, angiosperm, lycophytes.
• Charophyceans evolved from algae, and are the closest know relatives to the land plants
30.3-599• Describe double
fertilization.• Give 7 examples of
fruit.
• One sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a diploid zygote. The other sperm fuses with the two nuclei in the female gametophyte. It is unique to angiosperm.
• Tomato, orange, rice, corn, wheat, apple, pear, guava, peach
35.2 p720• Why is meristem
considered so important to plant life?
• It allows for intermediate growth sometimes called perpetual. It leads to apical meristem and lateral meristem.
Ch.36 p.739• Like humans, K+ pumps
cause changes in the cell which allows our nerves to send signals for our actions. What is membrane potential in plants?
• Explain the changes that occur in plant cell because of K+ pumps.
• The inside of the cell is negative (or negative voltage) because proton pumps pump H+ out of the cell. This increases the potential for positive ions such as K+ to move into the cells of roots. This also allows for cotransport, which is H+ plus NO3- to move into the cell, also the cotransport of sucrose.
Ch 36 p740• What causes water
potential ψ ?• An increase in solute
creates a negative value in water potential which is measured in mega pascals.
• Plants loose a great deal of water with transpiration. A plant can loose it weight in water in one day, creating a very negative ψ water potential value in the roots.
