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61BL3313Population and Community Ecology
Lecture 07 Life histories Spring 2013
Dr Ed Harris
2
Life-histories
-intro
-r and K selection
-energy allocation
-clutch size + spatial patterns
-predation
-bet hedging
3
Life-histories
What is a "life history"
-a mathematical summary of what a species "does for a living"
-offspring, survivorship, life expectancy, age specific fecundity
-an evolutionary description of lifetime development as an adaptation
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Life-histories: intro
How can we use simple population growth to explore life history?
Set t = generation time, G
5
Life-histories: intro
Because R = e^rt (remember)
natural log to both sides
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Life-histories: intro
-no necessary relationship between the 3 variables
-if we know 2 we can calculate the 3rd
Smith (1954) reviewed available data:
1 r is inversely corellated to G
2 G is strongly influenced by body size
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Life-histories: intro
G is strongly influenced by body size
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Life-histories: intro
G is strongly influenced by body size
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Life-histories: intro
3 r is inversely related to size (mass)
4 life span and growth rate are negatively associated
5 high individual growth rates are positively correlated with r
6 growth rate is inversely related to body mass
10
Life-histories: intro
Summary
-small size is associated with fast growth, low generation time and high r-values
-organisms with larger body size grow more slowly, small r-values and high generation time
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Life-histories: intro
large animal use RELATIVELY less energy; all slopes = ~0.75
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Life-histories: intro
Cole and Lewontin (1954)
Review available literature and crunch the numbers to investigate selection on r (remember no computers at the time!)
1 What are the advantages of “repeated breeding” or iteroparity, as opposed to “one-time breeding” or semelparity? This basic dichotomy in life histories had neither been widely discussed nor previously investigated. Cole appears to have invented these two terms.
2 What is the effect of the length of the pre-reproductive period on r?
3 How does litter size (B) or clutch size (defined as the number of offspring produced at one time) affect r?
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Life-histories: intro
This line of thought resulted in a breakthrough:
-most organisms differ GREATLY in their adult / juvenile survivorship
-Organisms with high juvenile mortality, small litter sizes, or long pre-reproductive periods (slow maturity) have a great deal to gain by repeated reproduction (iteroparity).
-Similarly, if organisms live in an unpredictable environment, such that reproduction can fail completely in some years, selection would strongly favor adult survivorship and repeated reproduction.
-This is sometimes called a “bet hedging” life history.
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Life-histories: intro
Let's look at a hypothetical life table (describes life history!)(remember lx = survivorship, mx = fecundity, G = gen time)
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Life-histories: intro
From life table:
-survivorship constant
-fertility differs in maturation time, or "front loading" of repro
-notice the effect front loading has on generation time and r!
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Life-histories: intro
Let's apply the idea to humans using the same idea, holding fertility constant and only altering age of reproduction
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Life-histories: intro
Let's apply the idea to humans using the same idea, holding fertility constant and only altering age of reproduction
-scenario 1: 1000 ->2500 in 10 years
-scenario 4: 1000 ->1600 in 10 years
why?
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Life-histories: r and K selection
An idea coming out of MacArthur and Wilson's TIB is that of two different life history strategies, r- versus K-selected
Pianka 1970
The basic idea:
-under unlimited resources (e.g., early in colonization), fast reproduction should be selected, even if inefficient (high juv. mort.)
-under crowding, slower more efficient reproduction should be selected
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Life-histories: r and K selection
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Life-histories: energy allocation
r- and K- selection approach recognizes tradeoffs between growth, survivorship and reproduction
another way to consider this is to explicitly examine the energetic resources devoted to reproductive effort through the lifetime
How to allocate energy?
many small eggs...
few large eggs...
eggs versus parental care...
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Life-histories: energy allocation
Frame this idea in terms of how many times reproduction occurs
semelparity - reproduce once
iteroparity - reproduce more than once
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Life-histories: energy allocation
In semelparity, reproduction is channeled into one major reproductive effort.
Most insects, many invertebrates, fish, and many plants (annuals, biennials, and some bamboos) have this life cycle.
A semelparous life history in a disturbed habitat offers no mystery.
More interesting are organisms which are long-lived, yet have semelparous reproduction.
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Life-histories: energy allocation
For example, mayflies often spend several years as larvae
Periodical cicadas live 13 or 17 years below ground as juveniles
Adult phases are only a few hours or days in mayflies and a few weeks in periodical cicadas.
why?
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Life-histories: energy allocation
Hawaiian silverswords (Argyroxiphium spp.) live 7 to 30 years before flowering once and dying
why?
25
Life-histories: energy allocation
Iteroparity is common among most vertebrates and perennial plants.
Iteroparous species, nevertheless, are extremely diverse in their life histories:
(i) short versus long pre-reproductive periods
(ii) annual versus periodical reproduction
(iii) small versus large amount of reproductive effort
(iv) many small offspring versus a few large offspring
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Life-histories: clutch size + spatial patterns
David Lack 1966
# offspring should be under natural selection
how many offspring can be fed?
Common in textbooks
Evidence is equivocal however...
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Life-histories: clutch size + spatial patterns
David Lack 1966
Pro:
birds with big clutch sizes tend to reproduce later the following season (i.e., tradeoff)
Con:Lessells 1991
birds with bigger broods had more offspring fledged
Thus, clutch size may be explained by variation in body condition?
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Life-histories: clutch size + spatial patterns
Also, clutch sizes tond to get bigger as you move away from the equator
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Life-histories: clutch size + spatial patterns
Also, clutch sizes tond to get bigger as you move away from the equator
Possible explanations?
-adaptation to food supply
-longer daylight foraging hours (in summer!)
-competition and predation more intense in tropics - tradeoff
-plant productivity per day higher in long days
30
Life-histories: predation
Reznick 1997, Reznick and Endler 1982
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Life-histories: predation
Reznick 1997, Reznick and Endler 1982
1 When a predator prefers mature fish, the guppies devote a high percentage of their body weight to reproduction, there are short inter-brood intervals, and they mature at a small size.
2 When a predator prefers immature stages, or no predators are present, the guppies devote a low percentage of body weight to reproduction, there are long inter-brood intervals, and they mature at a large size.
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Life-histories: bet hedging
Idea about environmental stochasticity
When environment quality is unpredictable:
-might select for reproduction at young ages
<or>
-might select for spreading reproduction across several seasons
Don't put all your eggs in one basket, LITERALLY
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