6 Chemicals

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MKH1313 – Industrial Hygiene

Dr. AA, 2010

Chemical Hazards

2

Chemicals

• Can be in solid, liquid or gaseous form

• Can be combined to form a compound

• Chemical are a fact of life – All living things are built upon chemicals

– In fact we depend on chemicals in our life

– Air, clothing food etc

• Health & safety Risk – The physical form of chemicals.

• One maybe harmless in solid form but toxic or flammable in vapour state etc

– The way chemicals are used - ROE

– Dose




Dr. AA, 2010

3

Chemical Hazards

• There is no such thing as ARMLESS

CHEMICALS

• There is a safe way of using and

handling chemicals

4

CHEMICAL HAZARD

Health Effects – Metil Isocyanate, Bhopal, India

– Hexane incident, Prai, Penang

Fire and Explosion – Flixborough Explosion, England, PEMEX tank Farm,

Mexico

– Bright Sparklers, Sg. Buloh

– Fire in Tg Langsat Tank Farm

Environmental Impact – Chernobyl, Ukraine

– Thinning of ozone layer due to CFC

– Pulau Pangkor toxic dumping




Dr. AA, 2010

Video: Dealing with Chemicals

Chemical Exposures – Routes of Entry

• Inhalation - Lungs

– Breathe 20,000 – 25,000 Times Per Day

– At Rest – Inhale 10,000 to 14,000 Liters of Air Per Day

• Absorption – Skin

• Ingestion – Digestive Tract

• Injection – Typically Through Sharps




Dr. AA, 2010

Types of Chemical Exposures

• Acute – Short Term

• Chronic – Over a Long Period of Time

• Chemical Exposures May or May Not Result in Adverse Impact, Dependingon the Amount of the Exposure (i.e.,the Dose)

• Environmental pollution – Spills and leaks, air contamination

• Fire and Explosion

Legislation

• CPL1997

• USECHH2000 – Risk Assessment: CHRA,

– Control Measure: Engineering control, LEV,PPE

– Chemical Management: Chemical register,disposal

– Chemical monitoring, Health Surveillance

• FMA Regulations – FMA Reg 11 – Lead

– FMA Reg 12 – Asbestos




Dr. AA, 2010

9

Content of USECHH 2000

•Part I – Preliminary

• Part II – Identification of Chemical Hazardous to Health

• Part III – Permissible Exposure Limit 000

• Part IV - Assessment of Risk to Health

• Part V - Action to Control Exposure)

• Part VI: Labelling and Relabelling

• Part VII - Information, Instruction and Training

• Part VIII - Monitoring of Exposure at the Place of Work

• Part IX - Health Surveillance

• Part X: Medical Removal Protection• Part XI: Warning Sign

• Part XII: Record Keeping

ClassificationPart A – Physicochemical Criteria

• Explosive

• Oxidising

• Extremely Flammable

• Highly Flammable

• Flammable

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Dr. AA, 2010

Classification of Chemical Hazardous to

Health Based on Health Effect

Very Toxic

Toxic

Corrosive

Harmful

Irritant

Carcinogenic

– Category 1,2,3

Mutagenic

– Category 1,2,3

Terratogenic

–Category 1,2

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Chemical Safety Data Sheet

• CSDS is a form with data regarding the

properties of a particular substance

• Also known as material safety data

sheet (MSDS)

• Must be supplied by the supplier of materials

• Can also be obtained from many

sources including over the internet

12




Dr. AA, 2010

13

OBJECTIVE OF CSDS

CSDS assists the user in• understanding recommended safety

measures and its rationale

• understanding the effect of noncompliance to recommended safetymeasures

• identifying the effect of over exposure

• formulation of strategies for safeutilisation of chemicals

Mandatory Information

(1) Identiti produk kimia dan butiran tentang pembekal ;

(2) Kandungan bahan yang jelas mengenalpasti

bahan kimia berbahaya;

(3) Pengenalpastian bahaya;

(4) Langkah-langkah pertolongan cemas;

(5) Langkah-langkah pemadaman kebakaran;(6) Langkah-langkah menghadapi pelepasan tidak

sengaja;

(7) Pengendalian dan penyimpanan

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Dr. AA, 2010

Mandatory Information

(8) Kawalan pendedahan dan perlindungan diri;

(9) Sifat fizik dan kimia;

(10) Kestabilan dan kereaktifan;

(11) Maklumat toksikologi;

(l2) Maklumat ekologi;

(13) Maklumat pelupusan;

(14) Maklumat pengangkutan; dan

(15) Tarikh penyediaan Risalah Data Keselamatan

Kimia

15

Asbestos




Dr. AA, 2010

•Asbestos – generic name for magnesiumsilicate that naturally exists.

• Two groups: Serpentine and amphibole

• Mineralogy

– Fibrous silicates.

– Thin crystalline fibres.

– Split longitudinally.

• Characteristics – Heat Resistant

– High stress and flexibility properties

– Good insulator

Asbestos

ASBESTOS

SERPENTINE

CHRYSOTILE (White Asbestos)

Mg3Si2O5(OH)4

AMPHIBOLE

CROCIDOLITE (Blue Asbestos)

AMOSITE (Brown Asbestos)

ACTINOLITE

ANTOPHYLLITE

TREMOLITE

A0or1B2C5T8O22(OH,F,Cl)2

A=K,Na; B=Fe,Mn,Mg,Ca; C=Al,Cr,Ti,Fe,Mg; T=Si,Al,Cr,Fe,Ti




Dr. AA, 2010

Type of Asbestos

Chrisotile

Chrosidolite

Amosite




Dr. AA, 2010

Chrysotile

(White Asbestos)

• Chrysotile fibers are curly

• Chrysotile is more flexible. uses as joint compound,

mud and texture coat, vinyl floor tiles, roofing tars,

fire proofing etc

• Chrysotile, has been used more than any other type

and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in

buildings in America

• Chrysotile, has been banned in dozens of countries

and is allowed in the USA and Europe in limitedcircumstances.

Amosite (Brown Asbestos)

• CAS No. 12172-73-5,

• is a trade name for the amphiboles

commonly from Africa

• One formula given for amosite is

Fe7Si8O22(OH)2.

• It is found most frequently as a fire

retardant in thermal insulation products

and ceiling tiles.




Dr. AA, 2010

Crosidolite (Blue Asbestos)

• CAS No. 12001-28-4

• found primarily in southern Africa and

Australia

• One formula given for crocidolite is

Na2Fe2+3Fe3+

2Si8O22(OH)2

• Commonly occurs as soft friable fibers

Examples of Application




Dr. AA, 2010






Dr. AA, 2010

27

Exposure

Inhalation

- Fibre: type, size, dosage

- duration of exposure

- biological reaction of respiratory

system

Ingestion - minor

Health Hazards

• Due to: – (i) fibrous nature

– (ii) durability in lung (durability blue > brown> white.)

• Health Effects

– Lung• Asbestosis

• Lung Cancer

• Mesothelioma

• pneumonia

– Other systems• Cancer - gaster, kidney




Dr. AA, 2010

Health Effect of Asbestos

Asbestosis

• Asbestosis is a breathing disordercaused by inhaling asbestos fibers – chronic inflammatory of parenchymal tissue

– scarring of lungs

– reduced lung function

–can cause death

– high concentration and time.

• Symptoms – Shortness of breath

– Respiratory failure (advanced case)




Dr. AA, 2010

Pleural Plaques

• This is the least harmful form of asbestos condition,

not fatal

• It is thickening of pleura

• Plaques are marks on the lining of the lung which are

visible on x-ray

• In many cases you will not be aware that you have

them union or seek advice from a solicitor

experienced in asbestos litigation

Mesothelioma• cancer that occurs in the thin layer of cells lining the

body’s internal organs, known as the mesothelium.

• There are three recognized types of mesothelioma. – Pleural mesothelioma is the most common form of the disease,

accounting for roughly 70% of cases, and occurs in the lining of the lung known as the pleura.

– Peritoneal mesothelioma occurs in the lining of the abdominalcavity, known as the peritoneum

– pericardial mesothelioma originates in the pericardium, which

lines the heart.• rare, most associated with asbestos

• invariably fatal

• associated with low exposures as well

• latency 15-50 years

• blue and brown most potent.

http://www.mesothelioma.com/pleural.htm

http://www.mesothelioma.com/peritoneal.htm

http://www.mesothelioma.com/pericardial.htm

http://www.mesothelioma.com/pericardial.htm

http://www.mesothelioma.com/peritoneal.htm

http://www.mesothelioma.com/pleural.htm




Dr. AA, 2010

Lung Cancer

•Lung Cancer ( Bronchial carcinoma ) – mainly associated with high exposures to asbestos

– all types of asbestos

– smoking greatly increases risk.

• Smoking and asbestos will increase thechances to get lung cancer 50 times or more

• The most common asbestos cancers are foundin present or ex-smokers who haveoccupational exposure to asbestos.

Legislation

• USECHH 2000- Allowable exposure limit, risk assessment, medical

surveillance, control measure

• FMD Asbestos Process Regulation,1986 – PEL 1 f/ml. of air

– Exhaust equipment.

– Protective equipment.( clothing/resp)

– Medical examinations. ( at least 2 yrs )

– Monitoring-personal ( < 3 mthly )

– Training.




Dr. AA, 2010

35

LEAD

Usage of Lead

• Lead is used in building construction,

lead-acid batteries, bullets, weights, and

is part of solder, pewter, fusible alloys

and radiation shields.

•Like mercury, another heavy metal, leadis a potent neurotoxin that accumulates in

soft tissues and bone over time.

• Lead poisoning was documented in

ancient Rome, Greece, and China.




Dr. AA, 2010

Characteristics

1. Inorganic Lead- used as metal, alloy

and chemical additives

2. Organic Lead- Used as additive to

petrol for internal combustion

engine

Exposure

• Inhalation – Particle size, dose, Duration and frequency of exposure – When lead is inhaled, about 30%-50% of the particles will reach the

lungs, depending on the size of the particle. – Large particles land in the upper respiratory tract where they get

trapped by the mucous lining and are moved out by thecilia. Unfortunately, the mucous is often swallowed, allowing theselarge particles to then go into the digestive system.

– Smaller particles can reach deeper in the lungs and from there beabsorbed into the bloodstream. The small particles created as a

fume will reach the blood if they are inhaled. Once lead is in theblood, some of it moves into soft tissues (organs such as the brainand kidneys).

• Ingestion – Lack of personal hygiene, careless with work procedure, Smoking

at work – an adult will absorb 10-15% of the lead in the digestive system,

while children and pregnant women can absorb up to 50%. Peoplewill absorb more lead if they are fasting or if their diet is lacking iniron or calcium.




Dr. AA, 2010

How Long Does Lead Stay in the

Body?

• Lead stays in the body for different periods of time, dependingon where it is.

• Half of the lead in the blood will be excreted in 25 days (this iscalled the "half-life").

• In soft tissues, it takes 40 days for half of the lead to beexcreted.

• In bones and teeth it takes much longer, up to 10 years orlonger.

• Since lead is stored in the body, a person can get poisoned from exposure to just small amounts of lead over a long periodof time (chronic exposure).

• You do not need to get exposed to just large doses of lead to

be poisoned (acute exposure).• It can take months or years for the body to get rid of lead. Aperson will continue to be exposed to lead internally even afterthe actual exposure to lead stops.

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Health Effect

• Lead is a poisonous metal that can damagenervous connections (especially in youngchildren) and cause blood and braindisorders.

• Common Effects – Anaemia –

Reproduction System – infertility, miscarriage – Kidney failure – Blood: Hypertension – Nervous System – behavioral abnormality,

numbness, slowness, intense irratibility – Bones




Dr. AA, 2010

Symptoms

• The symptoms of leadexposure aren’t always easyto spot. A person suffering from lead poisoning might just seem to have the flu orsimple fatigue.

• Early symptoms may include: – Loss of appetite

– Metallic taste in mouth

–Constipation

– Muscle and joint pain

– Stomach cramps

PEL

• If there is any chance you will be exposed to lead on the job,your employer is required to make an initial exposureassessment. Air samples representing an entire shift arecollected in each work area, and then analyzed to determine theconcentration of lead particles in the air.

• The Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for lead is set by theDepartment of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH). ThePEL for lead is 50 micrograms per cubic meter of air, over an

eight-hour period.

• Action level of 30 micrograms of lead per cubic meter of air (30ug/m3), averaged over an 8-hour workday has beenproposed. The action level triggers several requirements of thestandard such as exposure monitoring, medical surveillance,and training.




Dr. AA, 2010

Legislation

• Peraturan-Peraturan Kilang dan Jentera(Timah Hitam) 1984 – PEL, exposure monitoring, medical

surveillance, control measure

• Peraturan-Peraturan Keselamatan danKesihatan Pekerjaan (Penggunaan danStandard Pendedahan Bahan KimiaBerbahaya Kepada Kesihatan) 2000

– PEL, exposure monitoring, medicalsurveillance, control measure, riskassessment

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ORGANIC SOLVENT




Dr. AA, 2010

45

Organic Solvents

• Organic solvents are chemicals in liquid formwith capability to dissolve organic matters that are insoluble in water.

• Organic solvent has low boiling point, volatileand flammable at room temperature

• It is also typically fat soluble, usually clear andcolorless and many have a characteristic odor.

• Exposure

– Skin absorption

– Inhalation

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Health Effect

• Many solvents can lead to a sudden loss of consciousness if inhaled in large amounts – Other narcosis effect on brain include dizziness, nausea,

sleepiness

• Some solvents are toxic to bone marrow, kidney, liver,and nevous system

• Allergy to eye, nose, throat and lung• Dermatitis.

• Benzene can cause cancer (leukemia)• Methanol can cause internal damage to the eyes,

including permanent blindness.• Ethanol (grain alcohol) is a widely used and abused

psychoactive drug.• Diethyl ether, chloroform, and many other solvents (e.g.

from gasoline or glues) are used recreationally in gluesniffing, often with harmful long term health effects likeneurotoxicity or cancer.




Dr. AA, 2010

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Legislation

• Peraturan-Peraturan Keselamatandan Kesihatan Pekerjaan(Penggunaan dan StandardPendedahan Bahan Kimia BerbahayaKepada Kesihatan) 2000 – PEL, exposure monitoring, medical

surveillance, control measure, riskassessment

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PESTICIDE




Dr. AA, 2010

49

Pesticides

• Pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest.

• A pesticide may be a chemical substance,biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria),antimicrobial, disinfectant or device usedagainst any pest.

• Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds,molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes(roundworms) and microbes that competewith humans for food, destroy property,spread or are a vector for disease or cause anuisance.

Types of Pesticides

• There are multiple ways of classifying pesticides.

• Algicides or Algaecides for the control of algae

• Avicides for the control of birds

• Bactericides for the control of bacteria

• Fungicides for the control of fungi and oomycetes

• Herbicides for the control of weeds

• Insecticides for the control of insects - these can be Ovicides(substances that kill eggs), Larvicides (substances that killlarvae) or Adulticides (substances that kill adult insects)

• Miticides or Acaricides for the control of mites

• Molluscicides for the control of slugs and snails

• Nematicides for the control of nematodes

• Rodenticides for the control of rodents

• Virucides for the control of viruses (e.g. H5N1)




Dr. AA, 2010

PESTICIDES

COMMON CHEMICAL GROUPS

• Organo chlorines DDT, dieldrin, heptachlor

• Organo phosphate Malathion

• Carbamates propoxur, methiocarb

• Synth. pyrethroids permethrin, cypermethrin

• Bipyridilium Paraquat, diquat

• Phenoxyacetates 2,4-D & 2,4,5-T

• Triazine simazine

•Organic mercuric compound

Routes of exposure

• Oral

– uncommon

– mostly accidental

• Dermal

–Liquids, some powders & gases – leads to systemic poisoning

• Inhalation

– gases, vapours, droplets & dusts

– reaches tissues via bloodstream




Dr. AA, 2010

• Varies among the pesticides families :abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches,nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eyeproblems.

• Vast majority of acute poisoning – Organophosphate and Carbamates

• Diagnosis of acute poisoning : – Sign & Symptoms

–Temporal relationship to known exposure

– Evidence of poisoning in other workers / family

Acute Health Effects

Chronic Health Effects

• Respiratory problems, memory disorders, depression,neurological deficits,

• Dermatologic – 1/3 of pesticides reported diseases

– Skin irritant to skin sensitizer

• Cancer

– Human carcinogen- controversies – Epidermiology studies & animal experiment

• Reproductive – Not recognised as human teratogen

– miscarriages, and birth defects.

– Reported cases are available and animal studies




Dr. AA, 2010

HEALTH EFFECTS

Organochlorines eg DDT

• Exposure all three routes

• Slowly excreted

• Accumulate in body

• Affect nervous system

• Symptoms: – Excitement,anxiety,twitching,convulsion &

death.• Most now controlled or banned

HEALTH EFFECTSOrganophosphate eg Malathion

• Widely used- WW II

• Individually vary widely in toxicity

• Do not accumulate in body

• Affects nervous system ( cholinesterase )

• Symptoms :

– Weakness, vomiting, cold sweating,

abdominal cramps, twitching, convulsions

& death




Dr. AA, 2010

HEALTH EFFECTS

Carbamates

• Similar to organo-phosphates

• Effects wear off quicker

HEALTH EFFECTSPyrethrin & Synthetic Pyrethroids

• Increasingly popular

• Pyrethrum - partially refine extract of Chrysanthemum

• Seldom causes serious harm

•Symptoms: – Acute : Not known

– Chronic : Allergic contact dermatitisFacial pains, skin rash, reddening, somecause convulsions.




Dr. AA, 2010 3

HEALTH EFFECTS

Bipyrilidium Compound

• Important members, Paraquat, diquat • Paraquat medically most important • Contact to skin,eyes & respiratory tract

– Irritations of skin, crack & discoloration of fingernails,conjunctivitis, sorethroat

• Ingestion

– Early Oral & abdo pain, nausea, vomiting & diarrhea

– Later Liver injury, renal injury

–Late Pulmonary fibrosis

• Lethal if relatively small quantityswallowed - addition of emetic

Classification based on Toxicity

CLASS TOXICITY COLOR CODE

IA Very high toxicity andhazardous

BLACK

IB High Toxicity RED

II Moderate YELLOW

III Low Toxicity BLUE

IV Very Low Toxicity WHITE




Dr. AA, 2010 3

MINERAL DUSTS

MINERAL DUSTS

• Definition

– 25 listed in regulations.

– Includes silica, limestone, kaolin clay.

– Silica most significant.

• Silica (silicon dioxide)

– Quartz (majority of uses).

– Crystobalite.

– Trydimite.




Dr. AA, 2010 3

Dust Hazard

• Health Hazard – Irritant dust hazards: Even the larger dust particles that don’t get to the

lungs can cause problems. Dust in the nose and in the tubes leading toyour lungs can irritate them causing rhinitis or bronchitis.

– Irrespirable dust hazards : If too much dust enters the lungs. It canoverwhelm the lungs own defenses. Dust particles and dust containingmacrophages can collect in the lung tissues and damage them.

• Explosion Hazard

– Organic dust ( e.g : Flour, grain ,wood dust), coal dust ,metal dust andsulphur dust can be explosions hazards. If a dense cloud of any of thesedust form, or if layers of these dust accumulate, then one spark ( oreven a hot surface) can ignite it.

– These conditions can occur in handling and storage equipment, so it

important for all possible sources of ignition to be removed and kept away from these areas ( e.g. welding, slipping belts, sources of staticelectricity). Electricity equipment in these areas should be ‘Dust ignitionproof rated’

Method of Exposure

Inhalation

• Risks depend on: – type of mineral dust

– Size of mineral dust

– Duration of exposure

– Intensity of mineral dust in breathing zone




Dr. AA, 2010 3

Health Effect -Pneumoconiosis

• Pneumoconiosis is an occupational lung disease caused by the inhalation of dust

• Lung fibrosis caused by mineral dust inhalation.

• Fibrosis is the formation or development of excess fibrous connective tissue in an organ ortissue as a reparative or reactive process, as

opposed to a formation of fibrous tissue as anormal constituent of an organ or tissue.

• fibrosis can stiffen the lungs, restrict airflow, andultimately interfere with the lung's normal exchangeof oxygen and carbon dioxide.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_lung_disease

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhalation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhalation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_lung_disease




Dr. AA, 2010 3

Health Effect - Lung Cancer

• Lung cancer is a disease of uncontrolled cell growth intissues of the lung.

• This growth may lead to metastasis, which is invasion of adjacent tissue and infiltration beyond the lungs.

• The vast majority of primary lung cancers arecarcinomas of the lung, derived from epithelial cells.

• Lung cancer, the most common cause of cancer-relateddeath in men and the second most common in women(after breast cancer), is responsible for 1.3 milliondeaths worldwide annually.

• The most common symptoms are shortness of breath,

coughing (including coughing up blood), and weight loss.

Lung Cancer : Symptoms

• Symptoms that suggest lung cancer include:[

– dyspnea (shortness of breath)

– hemoptysis (coughing up blood)

– chronic coughing or change in regular coughing pattern

– wheezing

– chest pain or pain in the abdomen

– cachexia (weight loss), fatigue, and loss of appetite

– dysphonia (hoarse voice)

–clubbing of the fingernails (uncommon)

– dysphagia (difficulty swallowing).

• If the cancer grows in the airway, it may obstruct airflow, causingbreathing difficulties. This can lead to accumulation of secretionsbehind the blockage, predisposing the patient to pneumonia.

• Many lung cancers have a rich blood supply. The surface of the cancermay be fragile, leading to bleeding from the cancer into the airway. Thisblood may subsequently be coughed up.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_cancer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_cancer




Dr. AA, 2010 3

Health Effect -

Tuberculosis

• Tuberculosis or TB deadly infectious disease caused by

mycobacteria, mainly Mycobacterium tuberculosis

• usually attacks lungs (as pulmonary TB) but can also affect the

central nervous system, the lymphatic system, the circulatory

system, the genitourinary system, the gastrointestinal system,bones, joints, and even the skin.

• The classic symptoms of tuberculosis are a chronic cough with blood-tinged

sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Infection of other organs causes a

wide range of symptoms.

Pneumoconiosis and its agent

Agent Common Name

Silica Crystal Silicosis

Coal dust “Coal miners’ pneumokoniosis

Iron oxide Siderosis

Tin Oxide Stannosis

Talc Talcosis




Dr. AA, 2010 3

Silicosis

Silicosis is a disabling, nonreversible andsometimes fatal lung disease caused byoverexposure to respirable crystalline silica.

• There are three types of silicosis, dependingupon the airborne concentration of crystallinesilica to which a worker has been exposed:• Chronic silicosis usually occurs after 10 or more

years of overexposure.

• Accelerated silicosis results from higherexposures and develops over 5-10 years.

• Acute silicosis occurs where exposures are thehighest and can cause symptoms to developwithin a few weeks or up to 5 years.

S i l i c o s i s




Dr. AA, 2010 3

Symptoms of silicosis

• Silicosis may remain undetected for years in the earlystages; in fact, a chest X-ray may not reveal anabnormality until after 15 or 20 years of exposure. Thebody's ability to fight infections may be overwhelmed bysilica dust in the lungs, making workers moresusceptible to certain illnesses, such as tuberculosis.As a result, workers may exhibit one or more of the following symptoms:

• shortness of breath following physical exertion• severe cough• fatigue• loss of appetite• chest pains• fever

• A medical examination that includes acomplete work history and a chest X-rayand lung function test is the only sureway to determine if a person hassilicosis.

• Workers who believe they areoverexposed to silica dust should visit adoctor who knows about lung diseases.

• It is recommended that medicalexaminations occur before jobplacement or upon entering a trade, andat least every 3 years thereafter.

How Can Workers Determine If They HaveSilicosis?




Talcosis

• Talcosis is a pulmonary disorder characterized by"restrictive or obstructive disorders of breathing or thetwo in combination".

• It has been related to silicosis resulting from inhalationof talc and silicates, also tied to heroin use.

• Pure talc is a hydrated magnesium silicate, but commercial talcs have varying purities, with the most significant possible impurities consisting of quartz ortremolite (an amphibole asbestos).

• Talc has numerous applications in industry (e.g. rubber,paint, pharmaceutical and cosmetics industry), but it isalso widely used in health and personal care.

Legislation: FMA- Peraturan-PeraturanKilang dan Jentera (Habuk Galian) 1989

• Limits of exposure

• Exposure monitoring

• Medical surveillance

•Control Measure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talc

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin





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6 Chemicals