4.Drama- about

Theater iswhatwewatchonstage.Dramaisthescriptweread,thatwhichtheactorsperform,thetextthattheplaywright creates.

Dramaisliteraturethatactorsperform,butithasmanysimilaritiestopoetryandprose.TheplaysofMolièreandShakespeare,forexample,arewritteninverse.TheSpanishplaywrightAntonioBueroVallejohasdeepsymbolismthatcoldbefoundinmanypoemsandnovels.Theuseoflanguageandliterarydevices isfundamentaltoallthreeliterarygenres.

Eventhoughtheaterisamimesis,animitationofreallife,actorsperform(enact)onstageandinterpretthedrama.Theseinterpretationsmayvaryaccordingtotheactoranddirectoroftheplay,butthestagedirections(instructionsinthetextofaplaytoguideactorsintheirperformanceanddirectorsintheiroverseeing)aremoreexplicitinwhattheywanttohappenonstage.

4.1.Drama- plot

Thegeneralstructureoftheplot isthesameaswithshortstoryandthenovel:exposition,development, crisisanddenouement, aswehaveseenbefore.

Theexposition,whenthingsareestablishedinthebeginning,iscrucialtotheentireplay.Herewediscoverthebackgroundinformation:• Setting(placeandtime)• Eventsthathavealready

occurredimportanttotheplot

• Informationaboutthecharacters

Thiscanbedonethoughanarratorthattellsusinformationthathappenedbeforetheplays,thoughthedialogueofthecharacters,viaflashbacks,thoughtsorothermeansofstagedirection.

Thedevelopment(risingaction)oftheplot,isthelongestpartoftheplotandthemostimportantbecausetheysetuptheseriesofeventsthatleadtotheclimax.

Theseeventsarenotsupposedtobepredictableandcomplicationsarisethatmaketheplayinteresting.Sometimesnewinformation ispresentedorthereisaplanthatfails,buttheseelementsshouldcreateacrisis thatwillpushthedevelopment toapointofconfrontation.

Thispointofconfrontationistheclimax,whenthecrisisreachesitshighpoint.Thisiswherethingsarerevealed,understood,oractionsaretakenthatchangethecourseofevents.Thisculminationofeventschangesthemaincharacter’sfate.Ifit’satragedy,whatwasgoingwellturnsfortheworse;itit’sacomedy,thingsusuallyturnforthebetter.

Aftertheclimax,thereistheresolution,forgoodorbad,dependingonwhattypeofplayitis.Themid-stageofthisprocessisoftencalledthefallingaction,whenthetensionsbetween theprotagonistandtheantagonistsettle,withonewinningovertheother.

Andthefinalstageisthedenouement(untying)ofevents,wheretheconflictsfindtheirresolution.Here,readerscanexperienceasenseofcatharsis,orreleaseofemotionsandtension.

Asmentioned,inthecrisisthereisaturnofevents:intheresolutioninacomedytheprotagonisthasahappyendingandtheantagonistmaybecome“good”;inatragedy,theprotagonist(s)maydieorsufferloss.

Toseeexamples ofthis,thinkaboutthecomedy AMidsummerNight’sDreaminwhichtheloversareunitedintheendandtheenemiesreconcile.Nowthinkaboutatragedy,RomeoandJuliet,inwhichthetwoprotagonistsdieattheendoftheplay.

4.2.Drama- characters

Inregardstothecharactersofdrama,asinthenovelandtheshortstory,wehavetheprotagonist andtheantagonist.Thatpersonmightbeindividualist orrepresentative ofalargergrouporactions.

Traditional charactersaresupposedtoactwithintherestrictionsoftheirsocialclass(decorum).

Wealsohavefoilcharacters,whichserveasacontrasttomaketheprotagonist’scharacteristicsstandout.

Wealsohavethestockcharactersforthebackground,thosethatfulfillastereotypicalorarchetypicalroleandthatareknownfortheirflatnessandlackofdevelopment.

Wealsohaveanarrator,whichcanbeembeddedinthebackgroundtoserveasacommunicatorbetweentheactionandtheaudience.Inolderplays,particularlytheGreektradition,thismightserveasthechorus.

4.3.Drama- theme

Inregardstothethemeofplay,thereareuniversalobjects,regardlessofthetimeandspaceofthedrama(setting),withwhichweasspectators/readerscanidentify.Werecognizecharacters likeourselves,andtheiroutcomecouldbeawarningorapredictionofourownfutureactions.

4.4.1.Drama– typesofplays:comedy

Thetraditionofcomedy istoentertaintheaudienceandseeahappyending.Thereislowcomedy,whichhighlydependsonactionandishumorousandfarcical withsometimesvulgarhumor,andhighcomedy,whichhasamoresophisticatedplotandlanguage,withadialoguethatinvolveswitand“polite”interactions.

Thereareseveraltypesofcomedies.Theromanticcomedy involvesloveandahappyending.ThisiscommoninShakespeareandintheElizabethantradition,likeintheaforementionedAMidsummerNight’sDream.

Thereisthecomedyofmanners,whichdealswithupper-classsociety,like,forexampledandies,jealousy,frivolity,etc.AnexampleofthisisTheConsciousLovers,byRichardSteele,characterizedbyexaggerationandmelodramaticeffect.

Thereisalsothetragicomedy,acrossbetween tragedyandcomedythatcontainselementsofboth.Itcanbetragedywithsomecomicrelief,forexample,oratragedywithahappyending.AnexampleofthisisAntonChekov’sTheCherryOrchard.

Thesentimentalcomedyhasbothsentimentaltragedyandcomedy,andischaracterizedbyinteractionsofextremeemotionalexpressionandpity.AnexampleofthisisBenJohnson’sEveryManinHisHumor,aplayofsuspicionsandsuppositions.

4.4.2.Drama– typesofplays:satire

Satireisanacross-the-boardmodethatcanbeseenindrama,poetry,fictionandnon-fiction.Itisaliterarymodethatuseshumor,ridiculeandironytoexpose,criticizeordenounceevil,stupidityandvicesofpeople,institutionsorbeliefs,usuallyinpoliticsorothercontemporaryissues.Intheliterarygenreofdrama,thiswouldcorrespondtohighcomedy.

Satire usesirony,parody,hyperbole,understatement,sarcasm,wit,inversionandotherliterarytechniques.Let’srunthroughthesecharacteristics(somewehavealreadyseen):• Irony – usingopposite

languagetocreateeffect(ex- WWIwasthe“wartoendallwars”)

• Parody – anexaggeratedimitationofawriter,artistorgenreforcomicoutcome(ex– DonQuixoteisaparodyofthechivalricnovels)

• Hyperbole –exaggeration(ex– “Ihaveamillionthingstodotoday”)

• Understatement –presenting somethingassmallerorlessimportantthanitis(ex– describingagunshotwoundasa“scratch”.

• Sarcasm – mockingwithirony(ex– "Whereistheflood?”Ifsomeonewearspantsthataretooshort.)

• Wit – mentalsharpnessandinventiveness

• Inversion (anastrophe)– thenormalorderofwordsisreversed toattainadesiredmeteroreffect(ex– “Toclass,Iwillgo”).

AnexampleofamodernsatirethatiseasilyunderstoodisBertV.Royal’sDogSeesGod:ConfessionsofaTeenageBlockhead.Thenamealonesaysalot,butit’sasatireofthefamousPeanutscharactersbyCharlesM.Schulz,showingthecharactershowtheyarewhentheygrowup.Youcanimaginehowsomeofthesecharacteristicsofsatirecomealiveinthisplay.

4.4.3.Drama– typesofplays:tragedy

Atragedy ischaracterizedbyaseriesoftragiceventsandanunhappyending,andtheprotagonistusuallysuffersordiesasaresult.Soundsdepressing,butithasanulteriorfunction.Atragedy,asAristotledefinedit,shouldprovokeanemotionalresponseintheaudience(reader),oneofcompassion,forexample,tocreateacatharsis.

Inatragedythetragichero istraditionallyanobleanduprightfigurethathasatragicflaw(alsocalledhamartia)whichisoftenhubris(personalpride)oralackofjudgment,whichleadstoaculminatingcatastrophe.

Althoughtheendingistragicandseeminglydepressing,theprotagonistisredeemedinsomeway,andtheaudiencelearnsfromhis/herfaults,thusrestoringordertoanyuniversalconceptof“good”or“truth”.

ThetragediesstemfromtheGreektradition,mostknownwithAeschylus,SophoclesandEuripides.PerhapsthemostknowninOedipusRex bySophocles.

Ofcourse,tragedieshavebeenwritteneversince.WilliamShakespearewellknownforsomeofhistragedies,especiallyRomeoandJuliet,HamletandMacbeth.PerhapsthemostpopularmoderntragedyisDeathofaSalesman byArthurMiller.

4.4.4.Drama– typesofplays:historicaldrama

Thehistoricaldramaisadramaaboutafamoushistoricalfigureorevent.Shakespearewrotemanyofthese,likeKingLearandHenryV.

SinceShakespeareantimestherehavebeenmanyhistoricaldramas,butmany,ifnotmost,arenationalisticandbiased.

4.4.5.Drama– typesofplays:moderndrama

Withmoderndramaweseeawholenewtypeofplaythatinvolvescientific,social,psychologicalandartisticelementspreviouslyundeveloped inWesternthought.Thistypeofdramaemergedtowardtheendofthe19th centuryandevolvedwellintothe20thcentury.

SomemodernplaywrightsthatpertaintothistypeofgenreareTennesseeWilliams,HenrikIbsen,GeorgeBernardShaw,WilliamButlerYeats,SamuelBeckett,OscarWilde,Jean-PaulSartre,EugèneIonesco,FernandoArrabalyFedericoGarcíaLorca,tonameafew.

Moderndramastretchedthelimitsofthoughtandexpressiontotrytodefinereality,orgiveitnewmeaning.AnemphasisonRealism,likewithIbsen,strovetoseektruthordenouncerealities.Naturalism,whichstemmedfromrealism,showsframesoflifethoroughpredominatelya“scientific”observationofthevicesofthelowerclass.

Herearesomeexamplesofmoremodernpopularworks

thatIsuggestyourread(partialinternational

selection):

TennesseeWilliamsAStreetcarNamedDesire

Henrik IbsenADoll’sHouse

GeorgeBernardShawManandSuperman

SamuelBeckettWaitingforGodot

OscarWildeTheImportanceofBeing

Earnest

Jean-PaulSartreNoExit

Eugène IonescoTheRhinoceros

FedericoGarcía LorcaBloodWedding

ArthurMillerDeathofaSalesman

Withtheavant-gardemovementandfin-de-sièclerestructuringofWesternthought,thereismuchmoreabstractionandexpressionistthought(thinkofcomparingittohowpaintingdevelopedatthesametime).

Historically,thinkabouthowFreud,Darwin,Einstein,MarxandNietzschetoredownthepillarsoftraditionalWesternthoughtandleftusblazingthroughtherubbleofpost-industrialurbanism.Howwouldyoureact?

4.4.6. Avant-garde connections

Sigmund Freud – 1900

Charles Darwin – 1859

Albert Einstein – 1920

Karl Marx – 1867

Nietzsche - 1886

PSYCHOLOGICAL experiments – T.S. Elliot

EXISTENTAL thought – Albert Camus, Samuel Beckett

SOCIALIST literature – John Steinbeck and George Orwell

SOLIPSISM – César Vallejo, Samuel Beckett

EXPERIMENTAL – André Breton, David Foster Wallace

SYMBOLIC thought – Charles Baudelaire and William Butler Yeats