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CHAPTER - 3

Safety Psychology

1 Need of Safety Psychology

2 Psychology and its branches3 Industrial Psychology4 Safety Psychology

4.1 Meaning and Aim4.2 Present Psychological Safety

Problems.4.2.1 Employer’s Problems4.2.2 Employee’s Problems

5 Accident Causative Factors6 General Psychological Factors

6.1 Attitudes6.2 Aptitudes6.3 Frustration6.4 Conflict

6.5 Morale6.6 Fatigue, Boredom & Monotony6.7 The Problem Employee

7 Individual Differences7.1 Classification of Differences7.2 Criteria of Job Performance7.3 Differences affecting Safety

Performance.7.4 Accident Proneness

8 Motivation for Safety8.1 Need of Motivation8.2 Nature of Motivation8.3 Theories of Motivation

8.3.1 Hawthorne Studies8.3.2

Maslow’s Theory of HumanNeeds

8.3.3

ERG Theory8.3.4

Herzberg’s Theory8.3.5

Peterson’s Behaviour Theory8.3.6

Vroom’s Valance Theory8.3.7

Magregor’s X & Y Theory8.3.8

Goal Setting Theory8.3.9

Equity Theory

8.4 Methods of Motivation8.5 Methods of Job Climate

Improvement8.6

Motivation for Safe Attitudes8.7

Role of Safety Management in Motivation

8.8

Behaviour Based Safety (BBS)8.9 Motivating Thoughts

1 NEED OF SAFETYPSYCHOLOGY

Safety is mostly concerned with control ofaccidents (control includes prevention). Theaccidents are due to unsafe conditions or unsafeactions or their combination. As per H.W.Heinrich’s theory, majority (88%) of theaccidents are due to unsafe actions of theworkpeople. In modern plants, where theworking conditions are good and wellmaintained, some accidents take place due tounsafe action i.e. human behaviour of theworkers. Therefore it is an important task tostudy this unsafe action or human behaviour, tofind out its causes, effects and remedial

measures and to remove them. It is important tostudy first the human machine and itsbehaviour before studying any machine madeby him. Psychology and psychologist do this

task. This shows the need of psychological studyin the field of safety also.

At present knowingly or unknowinglypsychological principles are applied in accident

control theories, but, well study of psychologyor human mind brings perfection in them. Allsafety officers, engineers, supervisors andinspectors should have good knowledge ofpsychology to understand and rectify thehuman behaviour, which is one of the causes ofhazard occurrence and accidents. Need ofapplied psychology for safety in industryshould be properly recognised.

Psychological safety measures put stress oninformation, instruction, training and supervision for safe performance, which is also a statutoryneed (Sec. 7A) under our Factories Act, 1948.

Human Resource (Psychology) Departmentof industry should organise safety-trainingprogrammes for all types of workers.

THEME

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2 PSYCHOLOGY AND ITSBRANCHES

Psychology is a study of human behaviourand includes all behavioural aspects viz. mind,body intelligence, attitude, aptitude, moralability, performance, proficiency, skill, learning,training, motivation, aspiration, satisfaction,

liking-disliking, action-inaction, fatigue,boredom, mental blocking, accident-proneness,effect of working environment, labour policy,management, age and sex, individualdifferences, conflicts, personality and interest,human error and accidents, worry, unrest,synchronisation of mental and muscularfaculties, mental and physical reactions, sense ofduty or responsibility, motive or lack of motive,humanitarian impulses, disposition etc.

Psychology is defined as study of human(also animal) behaviour with the aid of scientific

methodology. It is an art and science of mind. Itcollects facts of human behaviour by usingscientific methods viz. experiment, observation,time-motion study, field study, case study etc.

Psychology is a branch of philosophy and isestablished as an independent science. Likeother sciences, it also aims to reduce allphenomena (mostly human) to cause and effect.It accepts causation in behaviour as a fact. It

demands analysis of events, situation and pastexperiences to correct the behaviour.

It has two aspects, scientific and applied. Inits scientific aspect it considers research anddiscovery of information related to humanbehaviour. When such information is applied topractical problems of human life, it is said anapplied or professional aspect of psychology.

Branches of psychology are given in Table3.1.

Table 3.1: Branches of Psychology

Branch Known as Area of study

1 Engineering psychologyorHuman factor psychologyorHuman Engineering

Human behaviour as a function of self or personal factorslike physical traits, mental traits, ability of work, attitude,aptitude, morale, frustration etc.Human behaviour as a function of work situation orenvironmental factors like temperature, ventilation, light,noise, vibration, ergonomics, job situation, fencing,guarding, house-keeping, training etc.

2 Clinical or counselling psychology Abnormal aspects of behaviour

3 Educational psychology Process of learning and education

4 Development psychology Development in behaviour with growing age

5 Social psychology Influences of society (other people or groups) on anindividual’s behaviour

6 Experimental psychology Experimental method to study behaviour and to discoverprinciples that govern behaviour

7 Personality psychology Human personality

8 Industrial psychologyorApplied psychology

Application of principles of psychology in trade, businessand industry

3 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Industrial psychology is concerned with thestudy of human behaviour in those aspects oflife that are related to the production,distribution and use of the goods and services of

our civilisation.Application of the psychology to trade,

business or industrial field is called industrial

psychology, and generally covers the followingareas given in Table 3.2.Table 3.2 : Sub - branches and Areas

of Industrial Psychology

Sub-branch Area of Application

1 Personalpsychology

Selection, training andsupervision of people inindustrial/ business setting. Italso studies communication.

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2 Managerialpsychology

Problems of management inindustry

3 EngineeringpsychologyorHumanEngineeringorHuman factor

EngineeringorErgonomics

Effect of working condition,situation or environment andincludes factors like overcrowding, light, ventilation,temperature, sittingarrangement, design ofmachine, tools, controls,

gauges, switches, equipment,work method, job situation soas to be safe and convenient tothe workers

4 Consumerpsychology

Relationship betweenmanufacturer and consumersof their products or services

5 Organisational psychology

Total (overall) functioning ofan organisation, factory,office, management etc.including topics likemotivation, leadership,communication patterns,work-group dynamics,

organisational structure,process etc.

Subjects of Industrial Psychology:

Ordway Teed says, “Every majormanagement problem is in part psychological.”

Herbert Moore describes in his book sixindustrial problems for psychologists to solve:

1.

Employing the worker.2. Educating and training the worker.

3.

Caring for the health and safety of theworker.

4. Helping to provide for the economic securityo f the worker.

5. Establishing workable employer-employeerelationship and

6. Co-operating with the advertising and salesforces.

For proper selection of a right man for theright job, various tests are suggested such asservice commission’s tests, intelligence tests,general ability tests, special ability tests

(mechanical and electrical), personality tests,aptitude and attitude tests, achievement testsetc. Various incentives are also suggested tomotivate workers.

Main Subjects of Industrial Psychology:

Appraising and training the worker,accident-proneness, causes and prevention ofaccidents, employee fatigue and boredom, theproblem employee, the psychological factors inlabour turnover, consumer contracts and sellingare the main subjects of industrial psychology.

4 SAFETY PSYCHOLOGY

Safety psychology is a part of industrialpsychology and can be defined as follows:

4.1 Meaning and Aim:

Safety psychology is a study of humanfactors and behaviour contributing to thecausation of hazard, accident or unsafeenvironment or situation and the application of

remedial measures to prevent and control themby improving human behaviour for safe jobperformance and relations with others tomaintain the safety.

Thus safety psychology studies a person why he commits accidents, under whatcircumstances and what are other contributingfactors affecting his behaviour or making himaccident prone and how such behaviour can becorrected to rectify his unsafe actions to achievethe goal of overall safety which includes thetechniques of accident prevention.

The human being is at the centre of such studyand therefore it is called the human engineering . Theconcept of safety as human engineering is itspsychological part. It aims at the rectification ofhuman errors, human factors and unsafe actionsas the causes of accidents or unsafeenvironment. H.W. Heinrich says in his oldbook on Industrial Accident Prevention thatpsychology lies at the root of sequence ofaccident causes. For details see next chapter.

4.2 Present Psychological SafetyProblems:

Field of safety psychology is applicable toemployer and employee both. Accidents are theresults of faults of employer or employee. Themain responsibility to provide and maintain

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safe working conditions, safe environment andprotective equipment lies upon the employer,however, the practical field of effort forprevention through psychology and use ofprotective equipment, is applied largely to theemployees. The employees being more innumber render more chances of human faults.Therefore it is their great, individual and groupor collective responsibility to minimise their

human faults to prevent accidents and tomaintain safety.

Present psychological safety problems canbe divided in two parts: Employer’s problemsand Employee’s problems. Ultimately theycreate problems for society and nation also.

4.2.1 Employer’s Problems:

Employers’ expectation or fear from theemployees not only in the way of productiontargets, but, in the form of attitudes, loyaltiesand co-operative efforts, is as important to the

psychologist as the employers want to knowabout the resources, desires, motivation andcapacities of their employees.

Workers’ disobedience, indiscipline,sabotage, mischief, non-using of safetyequipment or appliances or damaging them, notparticipating in safe close down of the plant forthe purpose of safety and not even allowingothers to carry out such safety duty andpractising strike or go slow to the extent ofendangering safety of self, others andsurrounding public are the presentpsychological problems creating worries for

employers. They expect help from theGovernment which ought to be given, but, itmust be noted that the only effective key tocorrect or improve human behaviour lies in theself discipline or self-efforts and outsiders cancontribute little if the wrong doer is firmlydetermined not to improve himself. TheGovernment may help in the field of law andorder but it can hardly improve the humanbehaviour, which needs special efforts.

There are some statutory provisions in theFactories Act 1948 to punish workers for theiroffences regarding safety, but the Governments

are reluctant to operate them against theworkers. Even if they are operated, no workerwill give evidence against a worker and otherwitness if come forward, they may be attacked

by the mob-mentality. Thus in the atmosphereof deliberate indiscipline or mischief in the fieldof safety, really, it is a challenging problem forpsychologists to solve in the interest of safety.Trade unions should also contribute to solvethis problem.

The workers must understand that safety ofthem and others lie in their hands. Safety is asubject of construction and not destruction. If

safety is not maintained, nobody will be happyand they themselves may lose their limbs orlives. Compensation cannot bring the life back.Safety of anybody’s life is of prime importance.No human behaviour is morally or legallypermitted to endanger or take away anybody’slife or to cause damage to plant, machinery,production or environment, as they allultimately result in the national loss. Let usalways maintain safety and solve our problemsin safe atmosphere only. Let us perform thissafety-duty first, enjoy the right and let othersalso should enjoy their rights. This is the only

good motivating force to mould the humanbehaviour to maintain safety. Employers’regular efforts to give such type of HRDtraining to their employees can be useful.

Apart from employer’s duty towardsworkers, new legislation during last ten yearshas imposed duty towards the public also.Under the Factories Act, Environment(Protection) Act, Public Liability Insurance Actand Chemical Accidents (EPPR) Rules, thegeneral public is to be informed about thehazards and their role in control measures andany citizen or member of a Crisis Group can

demand such information from employers. Thissituation has created worries for the employersand they seem to be reluctant in providing suchinformation to public. In case of a majoraccident affecting public, the Police and otherauthorities may prosecute them. A solution tothis problem is the willing compliance of lawonly.

4.2.2 Employee’s Problems:

Employees’ expectation from the employernot only in the form of pay, but in the form of

security, opportunity for advancement andprotection, is as important to the psychologist aswhat they want for themselves in the form of

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self-expression, recognition and acceptableworking conditions and environment.

It is the fact with many small and medium-scale factories that workers’ expectation, asstated above, is rarely fulfilled. The exploitationof poor, uneducated, unorganised and mostlycontract workers are still continued and theyhave to work long working hours under badand unsafe working conditions and

environment. Most of the educated workers donot get satisfactory wages and are de-motivated.Trade unionism may change their attitudes.Even statutory requirements for health, safetyand welfare are not provided for. They have norecognition, self-expression, protection, securityor opportunity. They work only because of theirlivelihood, economic need or helplessness.

The need and work of a Safety Officer arestill not recognised wholeheartedly by themajority of the employers. This situationdiscourages and de-motivates the SafetyOfficers. Due importance must be given to all

safety employees and their work.In spite of factory and safety legislation and

inspectorate, the working conditions forworkers are found generally not good. With fewexceptions in some good factories, most of theplaces need improvement for safe environment.The machines are not guarded, floor openingsnot covered, safe means of access not provided,safety devices neither provided nor working,occupational diseases go undetected andunreported, dusting, fuming, gassing andpollution constantly pollute the atmosphere,pressure vessels, lifting machines and other

dangerous machines and processes are not fullysafe and they cause many accidents. The same isthe case with many chemical vessels, theirfitting and maintenance. Workers also do notcomplain much, as they see such situations sincelong, as regular affairs, routine matters or haveless hope for improvement.

Who is to blame for this? After all humanbeings are involved and they blame each other.Employers say they provided the safetyarrangements but the workers do not maintainthem. Some say they have no money to investfor costly safety equipment and the Government

should give subsidy to them. Workers sayopposite, that the safety devices are notprovided or not working since long and nobodyhears their complaints. Factory inspectors

prosecute for many violations but mostly forother than safety. Only in case of accidents orspecial cases they prosecute for safety. Theirfinding is such that many employers do notprovide or maintain safety devices for manyreasons, and strict and repeated follow-up is notpossible due to shortage of staff, time andmanifold work. People blame the inspectorsalso. This is the real picture posing

psychological problems at many fronts. Thenature or extent of problems may vary with theplace and person, but the general pictureremains the same.

Blaming each other will not solve theproblem. All are right or wrong to some extent.It is doubtlessly, the primary duty of allemployers to provide and maintain the safetyrequirements. There should be no defence forthis. Safety expenditure must be planned fromthe beginning and should be provided everyyear. Safety committees should be formed withthe inclusion of workers’ representatives to

review safety conditions. The unsafe conditionsand actions must be removed by joint efforts.The workers, supervisors and all work-peopleshould strive for safety. Preventive andcorrective maintenance should be carried outregularly. Such should be the attitudes. TheFactory Inspectorate should be strict for safetycompliance and should give all guidance forsafety knowledge. Trade unions should alsocontribute much including safety awareness andtraining. The human behaviour for safety mustbe motivated and improved.

5 ACCIDENT CAUSATIVEFACTORS

Main Division of Factors affecting Work:

Main factors affecting work performance orinfluencing actions of people are broadlydivided as (1) Environmental factors and (2)Human factors.

The environmental factors are due to (1)Physical work and (2) Physical, chemical,biological and ergonomic environment. Thephysical environmental factors are heat load

due to heat, humidity, thermal radiation, airchanges, velocity, ventilation, illumination,noise, vibration, etc. The chemical factors are

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corrosive, toxic, flammable, or explosivesubstances, dust, fumes, gas etc. The biologicalfactors are bacteria, virus and micro-organisms.The ergonomic factors are layout and design ofmachinery, equipment, tools, controls,workplaces and housekeeping.

The human factors are due to two aspects(1) Physiological and (2) Psychological.

The physiological factors are physiologicalfitness of an individual worker estimated fromhis maximum oxygen uptake capacity, Sex,Body build, Age, Muscular work, Posture,Clothing, Nutrition, Training, skill, andOccupational workload.

The Psychological factors are Attitude,Aptitude, Frustration, Morale, Motivation,Individual differences etc.

Industrial accidents are either due to

unsafe conditions (situation or environmentalfactors) which include mechanical causes (unguarded machinery, defective equipment,dangerous situation etc.), chemical causes (toxicexposure, dust, fume, fire, explosion and varietyof ill-effects due to hazardous nature ofchemicals, their storage, processes andequipment), and physical causes (physicalworkload, working hours, heat, light, noise,vibration and working conditions) physiologicalcauses (Age, sex, body-build, posture, physicalfitness, health, physical fatigue, nervous strain,sickness etc.) or due to unsafe actions which

include psychological causes (motivation, skill,training, carelessness, recklessness, habit, worry,emotional upsets, irresponsibility, poor attitudesetc.).

Generally engineers, industrial hygienistand safety officer try to remove unsafeconditions and a physiologist and psychologistdeal with unsafe actions. The details ofphysiological factors are discussed in Chapter-24.

The psychological factors being the mainsubject of this chapter are discussed below:

6 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICALFACTORS

The psychological factors (a part of humanfactors) affecting human behaviour orinfluencing actions of people for workperformance are many. The human attitudesand aptitudes, frustration and conflict, morale,individual differences, acclimatisation, skill andtraining, need and job satisfaction, motivationand aspiration, participation, incentives and jobevaluation, fatigue, boredom and monotony,

accident proneness, group dynamics, labourpolicy and turnover, personal selection andclassification, problem worker etc. are the mainpsychological or personal factors affectinghuman behaviour. Some psychological tests arealso carried out to measure some of thesefactors.

H.W. Heinrich’s study of accident analysisemphasised that 88% of the accidents were dueto unsafe act of the people,, and above factorswere the main sub-causes or reasons for suchunsafe acts, and therefore the study andapplication of remedial measures from this

psychological point of view can prevent 88% ofthe accidents which is the great service ofpsychology to the industrial safety. No officerworking for safety should ignore this fact. Heshould pay proper attention to correct thehuman behaviour of self and the workers due tothese factors by giving constant training tothem. These factors are explained below:

6.1 Attitudes:

Norman Maier states that an attitude is akind of mental set, posture or bent. It represents

a predisposition toward opinions. Suppose aworker is asked what he thinks about a guardon his machine or temperature, or lighting in hisworkroom, his reply is nothing but his opinion.The attitude is more general and influences hisopinion. Knowledge of attitudes of workershelps the management to predict their opinions.

An attitude is a frame of reference, whichaffects our opinion of the objective fact. Achange in attitudes may radically changeopinions. Attitudes determine opinions andprejudices. Conservation and radicalism are twoextreme kinds of attitudes. People with these

differing attitudes have divergent opinionsabout the same facts. Disagreements about factsare also possible. Our various prejudices offer

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many illustrations of attitudes that determinethe meanings, which facts may assume.

Attitudes reconcile contradictions. With theproper attitude as a background, intelligentpeople can reconcile others’ contradiction. Aclever and experienced Safety Officer orsupervisor will reconcile contradictory opinionsof workers and management about the efficacyof a particular safety device or a protective

equipment, if he has knowledge of theirattitudes. Such knowledge of attitudes helpshim to find out the real cause of an accident.

Our loyalties and our prejudices arefrequently in-group and out-group attitudes,respectively, and they provide sources of errorin arriving at objectively sound conclusion. Anattitude ‘we are right and others wrong’ hascaused many accidents, and pose hindrances insolving problems.

Attitudes are usually associated with likesand dislikes and consequently have anemotional content. Our moods are temporary

predisposition toward having certain emotionalreactions. Our moods influence our attitudes. Inone mood, a supervisor will fly into a rage at aworker’s mistake, while in a different mood hemay pass it off a something that could happento anyone. Mood and attitude are difficult todifferentiate. A mood is temporary and dependsupon one’s physiological condition such as poorhealth, loss of sleep, hunger etc. Emotionalupsets influence one’s physiological conditionand produce moods, which predispose him tomake unpleasant reactions.

The reason and argument may or may not

influence attitude. Generally, a man defends hisopinion and shows no readiness to change iteven though his all points are answered. Peopleprefer their wishes and desires and are notready to be convinced by logic.

Personality differences determine the typeof attitude. Some people are inclined towardradicalism, others toward conservatism, andstill others avoid extremes. Likewise, differencesin social dependability, decisiveness,emotionality, sex, intelligence and experienceetc. influence attitudes on specific topics.

Various methods are used for measuring

attitudes, and experimental findings arerecorded.Industry cannot afford to make radical

changes, which will backfire. Use of attitude

scales (devised by Thurston), opinion polls,suggestion boxes, interview method, safetycommittee etc. are industrial practices to knowemployee attitudes, grievances, suggestions,personnel counsellors etc. and thus to make itpossible to prevent open violence or mass workstoppages.

6.2 Aptitudes:

Aptitude means inclination or fitness.Aptitudes are human characteristics or abilitiesrelated to the capacity to develop proficiency onspecific jobs. These aptitudes can be groupedinto five classes:

1. Mental abilities.2. Mechanical and related abilities.3. Psychomotor abilities.4.

Visual skills and5. Other specialised aptitudes.

Various aptitudes tests are used inpersonnel selection and placement.

Mental ability means intelligence. The fieldof mental ability tests has been explored likeother areas of testing. Some mental abilities areverbal comprehension, word fluency, memory,inductive reasoning, number facility, spatialvisualisation and speed of perception.Thurston’s studies suggest that primary mentalability can be measured by a test specificallydesigned for that ability.

Mechanical ability includes certainmechanical aspects, such as mechanical

comprehension and the understanding ofmechanical principles and these are motor orphysical skills such as muscular co-ordinationand dexterity. Thurston has said it ‘a complex ofintellectual abilities.’ Mechanical ability tests areused to select employees for jobs that require amechanical ‘knack’ such as in the maintenanceor setting up production machinery or in therepair of household appliances.

Psychomotor tests are used to measuremuscular abilities or combinations of sensoryand muscular abilities. The term ‘psychomotor’includes dexterity, manipulative ability, motor

ability and eye-hand co-ordination and otheraspects of muscular performance. Variouspsychomotor ability factors have been identifiedsuch as control precision, multi-limb co-

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ordination, response orientation, reaction time,speed of arm movement, rate control, manualdexterity, finger dexterity, arm-hand steadiness,wrist-finger speed, aiming etc.

Every industrial job requires some degreeof vision and many jobs require a high degree ofskill in some particular visual function. Colourdiscrimination is also an important factor.Various vision tests are available.

Specialised aptitudes or attributes include thetests of clerical aptitude, reading speed,comprehension, vocabulary, perceptual speed etc.

6.3 Frustration:

Frustration means defeat ordisappointment toward success. Anyinterference with the achievement of goal causesfrustration. Characteristics of frustratedbehaviour are suggestion, regression, fixation orresignation and it depends upon individual’stolerance, work pressure, situation etc. If a

worker meets with an accident on a power pressmachine, he becomes nervous to operate it andthis may result in repeating the accident. Byproviding the effective guard and explaininghim about its proper use, his frustration can begradually removed.

Frustration brings morale degradation,which in turn, increases accident rate.

A frustrated person responds in two ways:(a) Adaptive response i.e. reduction of need is

acceptable and attainable substitute goal.(b) Maladaptive response i.e. the person may

continue trying to reach the unattainable

goal or he may give up trying to reach anygoal whatsoever. Such maladaptiveresponse may result in aggression asproposed by Dullard in 1939. But recentrevisions in this theory suggest thatfrustration does not necessarily result inaggression but may result in withdrawalresponse, attack response, limitationresponse and substitution response.

As propounded by Scott (1966) in hisactivation theory, human organism needsstimulation and variety in work. Environment

without this motivation will suffer andfrustration may result. Change or variety in joband stimulation may reduce frustration.

In industry there are many instancescreating frustration. Not providing properworking conditions, tools, equipment and PPEdespite of demand, not providing necessaryguards and safety devices on machines and notgiving promotion, increment, recognition andstatus as per requirement can cause frustration.All such dissatisfying factors should be detectedin time and appropriate remedial measures

including management functions should beadopted. Some situations leading to frustrationand techniques of identification andmanagement are given in Table 3.3.

6.4 Conflict:

Conflict means violent collision, a struggleor contest, a mental struggle etc. In industriesconflicts of both the types - physical and mental- occur.

Conflict reduces productivity. Conflict mayarise due to attitude, jealousy, bad behaviour,working condition / environment, powermongering, labour relation, favouritism etc.

To reduce conflicts, provide all necessaryand better tools, equipment, guards, safetydevices, safety clothing, protective equipmentand welfare facilities for safe, healthy andsatisfactory environment.

Conflict may occur between employer andcontract workers if the later are not consideredat par with the company employees in respect ofproviding safety equipment, training and otherfacilities. Therefore facilities of safety, health,welfare and working hours should be equallygiven to them.

Similarly safety committee meeting should

not become a platform for conflicts. Safety is nota matter of dispute or conflict. Difference ofopinion on any matters of safety should be

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settled by consulting experienced safetymanager or consultant.

Some situations leading to conflict andtechniques of identification and managementare given in Table 3.4.

Table 3.3: Frustrating Situations andRemedial Measures

Situation Identification Management1 Increasing

accidents toanindividual

1

2

3

4

5

Check job orm/c conditionChecksurroundingspace, light etc.Study type ofool, equipment

etc.Study workmethodStudy hisbehaviour

1

23

45

Remove thedefectImprove themUse ergonomicdesign, standardool, equipment

etc.Correct itEmploypsychologistand take hisadvice

2 Work

quantity(goal)excessive

1

2

Study results,

spoilage, effectsof workload onbody etc.Carry out timemotion study

1

2

Reduce the

work reasonably(make the goalattainable)From the result,adjust the work,machine, tooletc.

3 Work qualityis notobtained inspite of goodefforts

1

2

Check thematerialObserve workmethod,machine, tooletc.

1

2

Have goodquality materialGive training asrequired

4 Workerbecomesirregular,inattentive orreluctant etc.

1

2

Discuss withhim or others toknow hereasonsTry to knowfamily problemsif any

1

2

Try to removehe reasons by

giving morepay, promotion,makingpermanent etc.Try to solvesuch problemso the extent

possible

5 Monotony,fatigue etc.due to sameype of work

for a longertime andfrustrationdue to that

1

2

See the workspeed or resultsAsk the workerabout his

opinion

1

2

Give change in job, place,department etc.o find new

atmosphereGive stimulationnecessary

Table 3.4: Situations of Conflict & RemedialMeasures

Situation Identification Management

1 Supervisor (boss)

favouringone groupanddisfavouringanothergroup

1

2

Try to findout labour

unrestFinddifferencein outputof twogroups

1

2

3

Remove thereasons

ChangeSupervisorif necessaryExplainSupervisor’s behaviourif he is

justified

2 Wagedifferencefor same& similartype ofwork

1

23

LabourunrestComplaintLitigation

1

2

3

Resolve bygroupdiscussionanddialogueGive

justificationAttendproperly

3 Settlementwithworkersdelayed

1

2

Observe goslow, strikeetc.Labourunrest

1

2

Try tomakesettlement

Justifydelay

4 Unionrivalry

1

2

3

Entry ofnew unionand newdemandsWorkers’struggle

Effect onwork

1

2

3

Justifyright unionTake legalactionSettle theissues if

possible

5 Disciplinary actionagainstworker(s)

1

2

Theworker’sreactionSupport ofotherworkers tohim

1

2

Justifybeforetakingaction and

Justify afteractionConvinceothers

6 Go slow,strike,Non-

cooperation,Labourunrest

1

2

Findreasons ofdissatisfact

ionEffect onwork orefficiency

1

2

RemovereasonsProvide

safe/bettertools,equipment,facility,

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conditionetc.

6.5 Morale:

Morale is a mental condition in which bothpersonal and group features are involved.Requirement of high morale, according to NRFMaier are (1) Individual’s firm convictions andvalues which make life worth while and giveenergy and confidence to face the future (2) Hemust be aware of a job to be done to defend orextend his values and (3) His values must be inessential agreement with those of his group andthere must be a co-ordination of effort inattaining objectives.

Guion has defined morale as ‘the extent towhich an individual’s needs are satisfied andthe extent to which the individual perceives thatsatisfaction as stemming from his total jobsituation.’ This definition covers the personalaspect only, it does not cover the ‘group’reaction aspect, which is also essential. G.W.Allport has defined national morale as anindividual attitude in a group endeavour.

Thus the term morale signifies high valuesof life and a team spirit of a group, society ornation. The Indian concept stresses upon ethicalvalues and loyalty, which gives high respecttowards others.

Good morale is a resistance to frustration ordefeat and poor morale is apathy or resignation.

Good working conditions are moreconductive to good morale in industry. Type ofsupervisor and safety officer, ventilation and

temperature, lighting and colour, guardedmachinery, safe environment, sanitary andwelfare facilities and attractiveness of the shopcreate an atmosphere which influences themorale of the workers.

Psychological factors influencing moraleare mutual sacrifice, participation in-groupactivity, experience of progress toward a goal,tolerance and freedom within the group andconfidence in leaders. These factors explain thatmorale is largely a social phenomenon and issubject to social influences. Morale in respect ofan isolated individual speaks of high

motivation, persistence and self-confidence.In industry the morale of workers is

influenced by -

1. Working conditions as mentioned above.2. Behaviour of foreman, supervisor, safety

officer and other leaders, with the workers.3. Training programs (including motivation)

for workers.Sociologic and psychometric studies

suggest methods to measure group unity.

6.6 Fatigue, Boredom and Monotony:

These are another psychological factors affectinghuman behaviour.

Fatigue is defined in different ways:It is a reduction in the ability to do work

because of previous work - NRF Maier.Decrease in the capacity to do work - a loss

of efficiency.Decrease in interest or willingness to work -

a feeling of ennui or weariness - Starch.More or less or complete loss of irritability

and responsiveness of a tissue - Freeman.Condition of mind resulting from

prolonged mental activity - Wilson.It is a failure to maintain physiological or

organic equilibrium - Dill.Thus fatigue is a physiological as well as

psychological phenomenon. The evidence ofphysiological fatigue is found in muscle, nerve,blood and brain. It is measured by ergo-graphstudies, which explain the nature of fatigue.Hourly accidents and hourly production areused as a measure of industrial fatigue. Restpauses, working hours, and work shift haveeffect on fatigue.

Psychological fatigue denotes more elusive

types of factors, which cause work decrement. Itincludes the falling-off efficiency of work, whichis commonly called as mental fatigue as well asboredom and monotony. Motivation candecrease fatigue. Improvement inenvironmental conditions such as workplace,position, vibrations, training, job-change, work-day, water supply, clothing, food, sleep, restpauses etc. can also decrease fatigue.

Boredom is another similar term withminute distinction as shown in Table 3.5:

Table 3.5: Distinction between Fatigue &

BoredomFatigue Boredom

1 Physiological depletion Mental dullness

2 Decreased capacity for Decreased interest

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work in work

3 Conscious inability Feeling ofincapacity

4 Result of too muchwork challenges

Result of absence ofwork challenges

5 Spirit is willing but theflesh is weak

Flesh is willing butthe spirit is weak

6 Desire for rest Desire for change

7 Somewhat measurable Difficult to measure

Repetition and monotony contribute toboredom.

Monotony is also a mental phenomenonaffecting work. Monotony effects are moreduring the middle of the work period anddisappear in anticipation of the end of theperiod. The extent of monotony depends uponrepetitive nature of the task and degree ofattention required.

Methods to eliminate boredom andmonotony from industry are –

1.

Exchanging jobs.2. Relating the job to the larger picture.3. The use of sub-goals.4. The use of pacing methods and automatic

work habits.5. Rhythmical habit pattern.6. Piece-rate procedure.7. Creation of favourable attitudes.8. Improvement in working conditions and

housekeeping.

6.7 The Problem Employee:

Some people think that ‘every human beingis problematic, as every child in a home is aproblem child, every employee is a problememployee.’ Every addition of personality to anindustry means increase in number of problems.Emotional and rational forces of workers createtense situations. This problem needspsychological study and solution.

Why an employee becomes a problememployee? The contributing factors aredissatisfaction of any type; foreman, supervisorand bosses of undesirable types, environmentalfactors and the employee himself.

Dissatisfaction may be due to many reasons- lack of job security, irregular payment, lesspay, breach of seniority rules, wrong works ofsuperior, inactive shop committee, many

promises without fulfilment, unwanted workchanges, social unbalance etc. These should beremoved.

Defects in foreman, supervisor and bossesare - Incapable to manage others and to get co-operation from them, self-centred person,egoistic person, emotionally immature person,picayanish person (always fault finding andgrumbling), absorbing interest, improper regard

for authority etc.The environmental factors are partly due to

the nature and attitude of co-workers and partlydue to the physical conditions.

Maladjusted employees are - Unequal orsuperior to their task, persons with pronouncedself-assertive tendencies, emotionallydistinguished or immature persons, lacking inskill, ability and knowledge and lacking in jobwisdom viz., insubordination, unreliability,absenteeism, laziness, trouble making, drinking,violation of rules, carelessness, fighting,misconduct, dishonesty, loafing or sleeping,

dissatisfied, habitual loiterer, shopper, slow,agitator etc.

Fisher and Hanna have divided problempeople in three groups:1. The insane.2. Disturbed by psychoneuroses such as

paranoid personalities, inadequatepersonalities and emotionally unstable.

3. Milder forms of emotional turmoil. Thisgroup includes mostly the problememployees such as dissatisfied with their jobs, restless, absentminded, pessimistic,distractible, worrying unduly over minor

details and unable to form decisions.

To discover problem employee, variousequipment, tests, questionnaires and controlledinterviews are suggested. It is advisable(particularly in the interest of safety) to discoversuch employees before their recruitment.Subsequent finding will create problem, as itmay be difficult to remove them because oflegal, union and other reasons. Subsequentremedy is to care and train them.

7 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

It is a matter of common experience thatpeople differ from one another. Their physicalappearance and traits such as height, strength,

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intelligence, ability of work, memory, speed ofreacting a signal, honesty or emotional stabilityand mental traits, personality traits, sensorycapacities, muscular co-ordination etc. are someof the factors of individual differences.

7.1 Classification of Differences:

Joseph Tiffin and Ernest McCormick have

classified individual differences in workperformance due to following variables:

(A) Individual Variables (Human Factors):Aptitudes, personality characteristics,physical characteristics, interest andmotivation, age and other personalvariables.

(B) Situational Variables (EnvironmentalFactors) : subdivided as –1.

Workplace variables: Physicalenvironment, workspace andarrangement, design and condition of

work equipment and methods of work.2. Organisational and social variables:

Character of the organisation, type oftraining and supervision, type ofincentives and social environment.

Psychologists have tried to determine theultimate cause of individual differences amongpeople. They have shown two general categoriesof heredity and environment. Generally thepeople are influenced by the combined effect.Heredity has more effect on height, weight,strength and appearance. Environmental factors

have dominant effect on personality traits andinterests.

7.2 Criteria of Job Performance:

Any investigation of human behaviourinvolves the use of some appropriate dependentvariable, usually referred to as a criterion.Basically they are classified as of performancenature, subjective nature, physiological natureand accidents.

Due to individual differences, there is adifference in performing job also.

Some criteria of job performance are:Quantity of work, quality of work, learning timeor its equivalent, training cost, tenure on the job,

absenteeism, promotions, job sample andratings. Such criteria are used to determinewage fixation, quality control programmes,employees’ selection and their promotions etc.

What a man can do and what he actuallydoes are not necessarily the same. The termability refers to a person’s potential ofperformance, whereas the term performance refers to what a person actually does under

given conditions. How a man performs on a jobdepends both upon his ability and hiswillingness or motivation. We may express thisrelationship by the formula.

Performance = Ability x Motivation.

According to this formula, performance hasa value of zero if either ability or motivation isabsent, and increases as either factor rises invalue. This formula measures an individualdifference in work performance.

7.3 Differences affecting Safetyperformance:

Human factors contributing to accidentsare stated in part 5. They affect safetyperformance as follows:(1) Physiological Factors: Physiologicalhuman factors are physiological fitness (safecapacity) of an individual estimated from hismaximum oxygen uptake capacity, sex, body-build, age, muscular work, posture, clothing,nutrition, training and skill, sickness or disease,environmental heat load (strain), occupational

work load and physiological fatigue measuredby ‘step test’. The details of these factors arediscussed in Chapter-24.

A worker who is physically fit performswell and less susceptible to accidents. Toughtask requires more physical (muscular) work,which in turn, demands more oxygen uptakecapacity. Test of physical fitness is necessary toselect a person for accident prevention.

A man can lift more weight than a womandue to sex difference. An adult can lift moreweight than a child due to age difference. Aman with powerful muscles does more work

than that of poor muscular power. A tall manwalks faster than a short man. A fat man runsslower than a thin man. Height, body, hands,

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arms, feet, vision (eyes), hearing (ears) and otherpostures and traits create individual differencesin men and in their performance for safety.

Good nutrition, training and skill increasework-capacity and power of performance forsafety. Sick man or man with disease has moresusceptibility to accidents. High room or processtemperature, higher quantity of work andphysical fatigue certainly contribute to

accidents.

(2) Psychological Factors: Psychologicalhuman factors are attitude, aptitude, frustration,conflict, morale, motivation, boredom,monotony, accident proneness, mental capacityand skill, senses, memory, mental fatigue,mental blocks, perception of danger, acceptanceof risk, knowledge and responsibility for safety, judgement of mind, impulsiveness, ability topay attention on machines, tools or hazards,nervousness, fear, carelessness, emotionalstability, intelligence, previous experience,

vocational interest etc. Difference of thesefactors in person causes individual differencesand affects their work and safety performance.Explanation to some of these factors is alreadygiven in foregoing paragraphs. Some moreexamples of psychological factors are givenbelow:

Sensory motor ability i.e. clumsiness,slowness of motor impulses, defective senseorgans, inadequate skill etc. are causativefactors for accident. A study of over 600employees for their sensory motor test, showedthat poor test scorers had 48% more accidents

than those of high scorers.Perceptual good ability i.e. to perceive

many details of a visual field or to see andunderstand quickly from a far distance is usefulto prevent a person from danger or risk.Harano’s research work on drivers proved thisfact. If a man cannot see danger or risk whileworking with chemicals or dangerous machines,he may attract accident. If he understands andaccepts the situation as a risk, he will beconscious and more careful, may check safetydevice or use safety equipment and may avoidaccident.

Knowledge (which has no substitute) ofunsafe conditions, actions and safe practicesmakes a man less susceptible to accidents.Information, education and training of safety

subjects increase safety knowledge, which helpsfor safer performance. That is why safetyinformation and training to workers (i.e. theirknowledge building) are made statutory underthe Factories Act, 1948.

Emotional instability or maladjustment ormore than normal ups and downs in moodsmay cause more accidents. Such state of mindmay result in frustration, conflict, carelessness

or negligence ultimately resulting in accident.Frustration i.e. aggression, regression,

hostility, withdrawal, fantasy making,intoxication may make a person accidentsusceptible. Therefore his level of frustrationshould be kept under control.

Work experience helps in avoidance ofaccidents. Vernon and Van Zelts’s studiesshown that the accident rate was declined dueto increase in work experience. New employeesare more susceptible to accidents than old(experienced) ones. Higher age adds moreexperience, wisdom, maturity and stability and

therefore aged employees cause less accidentthan young ones.

(3) Physical Situational Factors: They arephysical workload and stress, working hours,work design, tool and equipment design,hazardous nature and pollution of chemicals i.e.splashes, spillage, gases, dusts, fumes, vapoursetc. directly connected with the work, nature of job and ergonomic factors.

If above situations are inconvenient orinjurious to health or polluting atmosphere,they may lead to accidents, dangers or risks.

Daily effects of chemicals on workers’health, though it is not termed as an reportableaccident (because not resulting in absenteeism),is worse than an accident and certainly needssafety measures.

Awkward position or situation of seat,operating valves, gauges, platforms, tools,equipment etc. cause unnecessary strain onworker’s body and may cause accidents.Therefore they should be redesigned to suit theworkers (ergonomics) to avoid such accidents.

Long working hours, work without restintervals, excessive weight, glare or excessive

light from welding, dust generating process etc.result in accident. They should be regulated asper the Factories Act.

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(4) Environmental Factors: They aretemperature, ventilation, light, noise, vibration,humidity, thermal or nuclear radiation, poorhousekeeping etc. and acts of God.

It is also experienced that too hot or toocold temperature, high wind velocity, highnoise, vibration, darkness, humidity, radiationetc., cause accidents, and good light, colour,music, temperature, ventilation and good

housekeeping tend to reduce them.

Psychological Tests: Various psychologicaltests have been developed and applied to detectabove mentioned factors and their correction.

Mental ability test, mechanical ability andrelated test, psychomotor test, vision test,special aptitude test, personality and interesttest, achievement test, merit rating,measurement of training, attitude scales,intelligence or IQ test, dexterity andmanipulative test, trade test and computerbased assessment methods etc., are described in

many books of industrial psychology. Old bookof Joseph Tiffin & Ernest McCormick and newbook of Lewis Aiken are worth mentioning forsuch psychological testing and assessment.

To control effects of individual differences,some control techniques are as under:

General Techniques of Accident Control:

(1) Personnel Selection: Insist for adequatesensory motor abilities, appropriate muscularperceptual speed or right perceptual style, freefrom accident proneness, disease and habit of

intoxication, appropriate age, sex, experience,work habits and good safety record.

(2) Safety Information and Training: Givesufficient information and training on work andsafety related matters. Supervisors’ training ismore essential.

(3) Control of Environmental Factors: Keepgood housekeeping, lighting, ventilation andtemperature. Avoid overcrowding, faultyarrangement of materials, machines etc. Providesufficient means of access, right tools and

equipment. Prevent leakage, pollution, noise,vibration etc., by good engineering controls.

(4) Medical Check-ups: Pre-employment andthen periodical medical check-ups of workersare necessary to detect occupational diseases(Third Schedule of the Factories Act, 1948) ordisorder if any and to take medical measures orchange of workplace etc.

(5) Safe workload, Working hours, Restintervals etc.: Excessive workload, working

hours, overtime work or work on holidaysshould be avoided or minimised. Sufficient restintervals should be given. Statutory provisionsshall be followed. This will prevent physical andmental fatigue, frustration, conflict etc.

(6) Motivation: Motivate people for safety byeffective and regular programmes. See Part 8 fordetails.

(7) Ergonomic Design: Insist for man-machinematching i.e. designing machines, tools,equipment, controls and situations most

convenient to people at work. This can reduceaccidents.

See Chapter-24 for details.

(8) Employee’s Participation: Involve workersin safety management by safety committee,safety campaigns, safety surveys and varioustypes of safety programmes.

See Chapter-6 for details.

(9) Safety Habits: Observe work methods ofemployees by safety minded supervision andcultivate and improve safe habits to do all work

in a safe and right way. Insist for safety workpermit for all hazardous jobs.

(10) Case-study Approach: All accidents mustbe properly investigated, causes of accidentsmust be studied thoroughly and remedialmeasures must be applied as early as possible.

Such accident case studies must beexplained to supervisors and workers.

See Chapter-30 for such case studies.

(11) Special Efforts: Introduce change in job ifmonotony is observed. Make the job meaningfulto develop interest in it. Take workers in

confidence to fulfil goals. Provide welfare andrecreational facilities. Give responsibility andreduce interruption of work. Use colour and

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music where appropriate. Consult psychologistfor special psychological measures to increaseworker’s interest and efficiency by change intheir behaviour. This is the benefit ofpsychology. Many studies have indicated thatwhen defects were remedied by psychotherapy and/or by the use of appropriate medicines andother corrective measures, accident rate dodecrease.

7.4 Accident Proneness:

This debatable belief is discussed below.

Concept of Accident-proneness

Accident proneness can be defined as ahigher than average susceptibility to accident,which arises from psychological factors andtends to be permanent, if not cured timely.

Old theory of accident proneness oraccident-susceptibility is derived from manyaccident case studies and Personal Factors for itscausation. Age, sex and experience, emotionalstability, physical condition, use of alcohol andattitude toward organisation are main factors.Other factors such as height, weight, eye sight,marital status, number of dependants, distanceand method of travel to work, medical history,intelligence, motivation, talkativeness,neurotics, extroversion, smoking, loneliness, lessinterest, domestic stress, temperament etc., mayalso provide ground for accident proneness.

Greenwood and Woods presented thispremise in 1919 in their paper on Industrialfatigue. It was also supported by some old

psychological studies, but their ‘so calledstatistical proofs’ are criticised as deceptivebased on inadequate samples or the result ofhighly subjective diagnosis. The later studies donot accept this concept of ‘accident proneness oraccident repeater’ and suggest to throwing it.

According to this old concept, some peopleare so constituted that their very nature (abovementioned personal factors) causes them tobring about accidents and so to injurethemselves and others. Such individuals areknown as accident-prone or accident-susceptiblepersons. People differ in degree to which they

are accident-prone in the same way that theydiffer with respect to their traits. Accident-pronepersons are not necessarily accident repeaters.

They may or may not repeat the accidentdepending upon their learning, experience,training and improvement in health, habits,environment and other personal factors.Accident-prone people do not mean a fixedgroup responsible for all accidents every time.Accident proneness is a variable qualitativefactor and any man can be accident-prone atany time depending upon personal factor

developed in him.

Is it Myth or Reality?

C.A. Drake’s study in 1940 on accidentproneness concluded that the person who reactsquicker than he can perceive is more likely tohave accidents than is the person who canperceive quicker than he can react. Farmers &Chambers and Speroff and Kerr also conductedtests but for different jobs.

It should be emphasised that the personalvariables that contribute to accident proneness

on one job may be unique to that job only.Factor(s) for work situation may differ and itcan be identified by specific statistical analysisfor that situation.

Many people do not cause any accident foryears together. It is a small percentage ofaccident-prone workers who are responsible forpersonally caused accidents. This does not meanothers do not cause accidents. Proof of this factis given in a number of studies by Slocomb,Greenwood and Woods, Karl Marbem, Bristol,Snow, Bingham and De Silva.

Various tests and clinical approaches are

suggested for accident proneness. Such studieshave recorded many contributing factors toaccident proneness. In addition to personalfactors mentioned above, other factors are-inability to concentrate, incapacity to distributeattention, slow reaction time, absentminded-ness, fatigue, reduced energy, inadequatecontrol of reflexes, poor judgement, poorsensory-motor co-ordination, excessiveperversion, oscillation of attention, hurry,worry, fear, nervousness, impulsiveness,excitement, visual keenness, thoughtlessness,overconfidence or any combination of these

traits.Based on above facts and findings, it can besaid that accident-proneness is a reality to someextent and not a mere myth. If we call it a myth

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then what should we call the reality of all aboveactual human causes and accidents actuallyhappened (and happening) due to them? Andaccident causing by the same persons under thesame working conditions where others do notcause any accident? Accident proneness is aname given to a psychological and scientificstudy of human behaviour in accident-causation.

Viteles mentioned ‘circumstances’responsible for more accidents to some persons.Such circumstances could be worry, anger, fear,guilt feeling or other emotional disturbances.

Hale and Hale pointed out that therecannot be any stable personality trait like‘accident proneness’. Some studies revealed that‘members of a study group who sustained alarge number of accidents in one period, werenot necessarily same who sustained manyaccidents in a subsequent period.

But it is also a fact that there are personswho have more accidents than other persons in

similar situations. However the repeaters areinvolved in only 15-20 percent of all accidents.Therefore another view prevails telling it a myth.Believers of this view tell that there is nothinglike accident-proneness and all accidents aredue to working conditions or impersonal factorsonly and if we can remove all such unsafeconditions there shall be no accident. Systemsafety approach is important in this regard. Aman is compelled by conditions to causemistake or accident and therefore, instead ofblaming the human faults or fate, we shouldconcentrate upon to remove the real unsafe

condition, situation or environment only. It istrue that we must first remove the unsafeconditions, but, what are the reasons that underthe same working condition some people makeaccidents and others not? Can these ‘somepeople making accidents in the same workingconditions’ be called accident prone or not? Thisreplies the question whether accident pronenessis a myth or reality.

Dr. Schulzinger and Professor Edwin EChiselli ruled out the concept of accident-proneness and stress that the proportion ofaccident-prone people in any group is so

negligible as to be quite unimportant in safetywork. Professor Edwin says, “The term accidentproneness should never be used in safety workor in studies of the causes of accidents and

injuries, as it is dangerous, misleading andcontributes nothing of practical value to ourunderstanding of industrial accidents andinjuries.” M.S. Schulzinger’s study of 35000injury cases indicates that the ‘injury repeater’ isnot a significant factor in the safety programme.

A leading industrial psychologist Maiersays that it is doubtful that a single set of suchbio-psychological traits (accident proneness)

alone can cause accidents.Mintz and Blum found that the frequency

of repeater injury approximated a pure chancedistribution.

A Complex Phenomenon:

Main reason of accident proneness is theindividual differences. Nobody wishesaccidents, but personal factors do contribute toaccidents. Ill health, tension, worry, hurry, lackof concentration and lack of training do causemany accidents. Therefore accident proneness

may be regarded as a combination of personalfactors, which make a person highly proficientin bringing about accidents. It may bedependent on a rather complex set of traits andthese traits need not be the same for all accident-prone individuals. However, if accident-proneness is to have any application to industry,it is necessary to determine the traits, which areassociated with accident susceptibility and todevelop tests for detecting their presence.Obviously, accidents can be reduced if accident-prone individuals are kept out of hazardouswork. In this way the safety of others, as well as

that of themselves, will be increased.Some measures to reduce accident

proneness are -1 Proper selection and placement of

employees.2 Safe-guarding, training and supervision of

inexperienced employees.3 Use of safety and personal protective

equipment and4 Immediate attention to injury and care.

The harm caused by the concept ofaccident-proneness, the new tests overruling

this old concept and the real philosophy, arealready explained in Part 5 of Chapter-2.In modern age and modern plants, the

concept of accident proneness is hardly

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accepted. It seems outdated. Modern accidentanalysis does not accept it and report it. Modernsafety philosophy puts more stress on detectionand removal of unsafe conditions and trainingfor safe actions. However psychologists whilestudying human failure as an accident causemay refer to such concept.

8 MOTIVATION FOR SAFETY

8.1 Need (Purpose) of Motivation:

Motivation includes inspiration, aspiration,communication, education, participation andtraining. All these factors are most essential tomould a man to achieve a desired goal in adesired manner. It is a fuel or driving force forall human activities, which should be refined,channelled, rectified, shaped or directed as perrequirement. To minimise the human errors orunsafe acts or omissions, motivation helps muchand it promotes safety.

If people are not motivated for safety, otherefforts will not help much. Even if othermeasures are taken, motivation is necessary tomould the people to achieve our goals morespeedily and yet safely. Various theories areavailable for motivating people for work.Periodical feedback to maintain motivation isalso necessary.

Our present problem is not of lack ofknowledge of safety. The real problem is ofimplementation of that knowledge, at the shopfloor level. This is because of the lack of self-motivation, lack of communication and

motivation. People should be madeparticipative by inviting them to say theiropinion, reaction or views and guided to act forimplementing the safety. Direct communicationis more useful than indirect communication.Thus communication and motivation helps inimplementing the safety laws.

Formula of Performance = Ability XMotivation, explains basic need of motivation toincrease or improve the work performance ofindividual or group.

Total loss control can be achieved bymotivation of employers, employees, trade

unions and the Government. Losses of time,money, property and production because of

accidents, conflicts etc., must be reduced andthat is possible by motivation at all fronts.

8.2 Nature of Motivation:

Motivation is one of the factors thatstimulates or influences job performance. ALatin word ‘mover’ means to move. A motive iswhat moves a person or impels a person.

Motivation is concerned with ‘Why’ and ‘How’of behaviour.

P.T. Young defined motivation as “theprocess of arousing action, sustaining theactivity in progress and regularising the patternof activity.”

Steers & Porter and Greenberg & Baronidentified 3 major components of motivation:1. Force or drive to lead to some behaviour.2. Function to guide behaviour in desired

direction and3. Maintaining or sustaining behaviour once it

has occurred.

Herbert Moore says ‘To motivate is to causea release of energy in relation to a desired goal.Effective motivation is determined by threefactors: the goal that is to be realised, the energythat is to be released and the tools that are to beused to direct and control that energy. Thewhole problem of motivation is the problem ofthe development of attitudes, loyalties andcapacities for making sacrifices toward an entitythat is of greater consequence to the individualworker than his job or his personal welfare.’

Motivation runs top to bottom, thereforethe top management and supervisors should be

motivated first. Motivation should be selfgenerated, otherwise it should be supplied orinduced.

NRF Maier explains motivating as a way ofbringing to expression an ability, which aperson already possesses. He describes twoaspects: subjective and objective. The subjectiveside is a condition in the individual, which iscalled a need, a drive or a desire. The objectiveside is an object outside the individual, whichmay be called the incentive or goal. When anincentive satisfies the need (as food satisfieshunger or money satisfies economic need), the

situation is called motivating. The types ofneeds and incentives vary from time to time andfrom person to person. It is an industrial

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problem to find out needs and their appropriateincentives. This is explained below.

8.3 Theories of Motivation:

Some psychological theories are availableto motivate people to improve theirperformance. These theories are based onvarieties of needs and their satisfaction

(incentives or rewards).

8.3.1 Hawthorne Studies (BehaviouralApproach):

In an old study conducted at theHawthorne works of the Western ElectricCompany, Chicago for 15 years, beginning in1924, concluded that the attitudes of employeescould be significantly changed by thedevelopment of a co-operative atmospherebetween workers and supervisors.

Change in temperature, humidity, lighting,

rest pauses and length of workday have littleeffect if the employees are well motivated withfriendly, social and co-operative relations. Thusmotivation has more effect than theimprovement in working conditions. If a goodconfidence is generated in people, they canwork hard for their company.

Success of Japanese management seemsrelied on this theory. Motivated soldiers havewon many battles with inferior weapons andbeing less in number. See part 8.2.4 of Chapter-6.

On power-press machines, workers mostlyinjure their fingers and get demoralised if the

frequency rate is not reduced. Here a supervisorcan play an important role by standing near theworker, explaining and training him for pre-start safety devices, guarding on machine andsafe work method, thus giving special attention,co-operation and building confidence in theworker to work accident-free.

If workers receive personal touch i.e.special attention for their safety, health andwelfare by upper management, they getmotivated to give more production even ifworking conditions like light, space, layout etc.are not fully favourable. This is the abstract of

this oldest study.

8.3.2 Maslow’s and McGregor’sHierarchy Theory of HumanNeeds: (Need Satisfaction forSafe Performance)

A.H. Maslow classified the human needs anddetermined priorities for them. These needsshould be satisfied in the following order :

1.

Physiological needs: Basic or survivalneeds of food, water, air and rest.

2. Safety needs: Protection against danger,threat and deprivation, body andposition or status. Reduction ofphysical and psychological hazards.

3. Social or Affiliation needs: Love, affection,friendship, acceptance, association andbelongingness.

4. Ego or Esteem needs: Two types - (a)Relating to one’s self-esteem i.e. needsfor self-confidence, achievement,competence and knowledge (b)

Relating to one’s reputation i.e. needsfor status, recognition, appreciation andrespect of one’s fellows.

5. Self-fulfilment needs: Relating to one’sown potentialities, for continual self-development or self-actualisation.

This theory helps management to detectneeds of their people and to satisfy thempriority wise for better or safe performance.Providing safety goggles to welder, grinder etc.,giving mask/respirator/hand gloves/apronsetc., to chemical workers and to provide ear

plugs to weavers working on high-noise looms,fulfil safety needs of the workers and motivatethem for safety. Then after they need love andaffection. The steps of this theory can be shownas under:

Human needs Detection Satisfaction Incentive or Reward Feedback forimproved performance Rethinking of type ofsatisfaction or incentive, if necessary.

Hierarchy of human needs in this theorycan be shown as under:

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Self-fulfilment need 5

Ego or Esteem need 4

Social or Affiliation need 3

Safety and Security need 2

Physiological need 1

Figure 3.1. Hierarchy of Human Needs

First need should be satisfied first, thensecond, then third etc. If person is alreadysatisfied with the first need of food, water, restetc., beginning should be made with the secondneed and so on.

Maslow’s theory was criticised by W.Bridewell, Luthans, Hall & Naligam (1968),Walba & Bridewell and surveys in Japan andEuropean countries raising more questionsagainst such needs and their satisfaction.

However it should be noted that Maslow’s

research work is some 50 years old andrepresents priority of needs of that time. Owingto improved standard of living and manychanges during last 50 years, priorities havebeen changed and may continue to change.Effects of globalisation, urbanisation, decreasein trade union activities and increase inunemployment can bring new challenges andnew needs, nevertheless Maslow’s needs stillseem important and are useful for motivation.

Our Indian concept is to minimise thehuman needs for real happiness but how toimplement it for industrial workers is a

psychological problem. Self-motivation seems tobe the best remedy.

8.3.3 ERG Theory:

Clayton Alderson offered this theory in 1969based on needs of Existence, Relatedness andGrowth (ERG). His theory is an improvementover Maslow’s theory.

Existence needs are basic needs of food,clothing, shelter etc., and management cansatisfy them by pay, allowances, better workingconditions, job security etc.

Relatedness needs are affiliation andesteem needs.

Growth needs are self-actualisation needstated by Maslow.

By knowing needs of the workers ifmanagement takes necessary action to feedthose needs, the workers can be motivated forbetter performance.

Suppose some workers do not take part inSafety Committee because of their belief thatthey know little about industrial safety. Ifknowing this need of knowledge, they are givenproper training for safety; they will be

motivated to participate in Safety Committee.

8.3.4 Herzberg’s and Myer’s Theory(Motivation - Hygiene Theory):

Frederick Herzberg and his followers -Schwartz, Jenusaitis, Stark and Myers, carriedout various studies on motivating factors.Herzberg and his team interviewed 1500workers for 12 types of investigation to knowwhat were the satisfying factors and what werethe dissatisfying factors with their reasons.From this extensive study, some more important

factors are given below:

OccupationalGroup

Satisfiers Dis-satisfiers

Scientists Work itself Responsibility

Engineers AdvancementWork itself

Responsibility,CompanyPolicy andAdministration

Supervisors AdvancementResponsibility

Pay

Technicians AdvancementResponsibility

Work itself,Pay

Femaleassemblers

Supervision Recognition,Security

Another study points out motivation needsand maintenance needs as follows:

Motivation Needs (Intrinsic Factors) : These arethe factors of growth, achievement,responsibility and recognition such asdelegation, access to information, freedom toact, atmosphere of approval, merit increases,discretionary awards, profit sharing, companygrowth, promotions, transfers and rotations,education, memberships, involvement, goal-

setting, planning, problem solving, worksimplification, performance-appraisal, utilisedaptitudes, work itself, invention & publication.

Motivation

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An effective intrinsic motivation techniqueis job enrichment, which includes -

1.

Making employees responsible for the totalfunction or completion of a task instead ofbreaking it into assembly line specialisation.

2. Allowing employees to both start andcomplete a project or task.

3. Diversification of duties so that no one has

all of a boring task (there should beinteresting parts in all jobs).4. Delegation-decision making down the

hierarchy as much as possible and5. Conducting rotating job assignments.

Maintenance Needs (Hygiene or Extrinsic orEnvironmental Factors): These are the factorsclassified as below -

1. Physical: Work layout, job demands, workrules, equipment, location, grounds,parking facilities, rest rooms, temperature,ventilation, lighting, noise.

2.

Social: Work groups, coffee groups, lunchgroups, social groups, office parties, ridepools, outings, sports, professional groups,interest groups.

3. Economic: Wages and salaries, automaticincreases, profit sharing, social security,workmen’s compensation, retirementbenefit, paid leave, insurance, tuition,discounts.

4. Security: Fairness, consistency, reassurance,friendliness, seniority rights, grievanceprocedure.

5. Orientation: Job instruction, work rules,

group meetings, shoptalk, newspaper,bulletins, handbooks, letters, bulletinboards.

6. Status: Job classification, title, furnishings,location, privileges, relationships, companystatus.

Neither intrinsic nor extrinsic rewards givea complete motivational package. The factorsvary according to person and atmosphere.Therefore selection of proper reward is a tough job.

Complete elimination of dis-satisfiers doesnot give positive satisfaction or motivation. To

inspire motivation, satisfiers are to be provided.To explain and to give (display) in writing

safe operating procedure to workers and to

provide fixed guard on cutters, fulfil physicalneeds of the workers. Promoting a Safety Officeron higher post, considering his length of serviceand performance, fulfils his need of status. Suchsteps do motivate them.

All top management, supervisors andsafety-advisors must believe that betterpsychological working conditions (stated above)can help to improve the life and cooperation of

the workers.

8.3.5 Peterson’s Behaviour Model(Motivation-Reward-SatisfactionModel):

Peterson has developed a model ofmotivation and performance as under-

MO Performance

Job climate → T ↓

Self → I Reward

The job itself → V ↓

Job Motivationalfactors

→ AT

Satisfaction

Peer group(s) → I Boss

Union → O Peer

N Union

SelfAbility

↑

Selection Training

Here safety performance is dependentupon level of motivation and his ability to

perform. Motivation depends on job climate (byboss-style, staff-climate, management-relations),self (personality achievement), the job itself, jobmotivational factors, his peer group (normsestablished and performed) and by the union(norms and pressures). Ability depends uponselection (can he do it?) and training (does heknow how?).

Following performance there are all kindsof rewards (positive and negative), whichinfluence his level of satisfaction. The rewardscome from the boss, peer groups, union and self.Upon receiving these rewards he then compares

the reward received to what he expected toreceive and is either satisfied or dissatisfied to adegree, which influences (feed back loop)

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whether or not he shall be motivated enough toperform again.

8.3.6 Vroom’s Valance or ExpectancyTheory:

It is also known as ‘instrumentality theoryor process theory’. Historically it goes back toTolman (1932), Lewin (1938) and Peak (1955)

but Vroom’s version of this theory introduced itto industrial psychology and that of Porter &Lawer (1968) emphasised on ‘How’ instead of‘What’ of motivation.

Outcomes like salary, security, recognitionetc. have different values (attractiveness) fordifferent people. Motivation according to thistheory is a product of valance (desire),expectancy and instrumentality.

Valance is the attractiveness of a goal oroutcome. It has two propositions: (1) The desire(Valance) for any particular objective (outcome)on the part of an individual is directly related to

the likelihood (instrumentality) that theobjective will in turn lead to other subsequentobjectives of given desirability and (2) Thegreater the valance of any outcome, the moreapt is a person to take action.

In Vroom’s theory, money acquires valancedue to its perceived instrumentality forobtaining other desired outcomes i.e. its powerof exchange or purchase.

The abstract of the theory is that the linkagebetween behaviour and reward should bedeclared in advance, the linkage should beimplemented and reward should be given every

time when a desired behaviour is achieved. Thislooks like a conditional motivation.

For example, if promotion or pay-rise(valance or attractiveness of the goal, outcomeor reward) is declared for certain target (desiredperformance) and if a worker feels it achievable(expectancy perception), he will be motivated toengage in performing to achieve that target. Onperformance, declared reward should be givento him.

By providing better comfort by ergonomicdesign of machines, tools, equipment, controlsetc., and reward for safety attitude and effort,

management can generate desire in workers forsafe performance.

8.3.7 Magregor’s X & Y theory:

Magregor developed this theory, which hastwo parts – theory ‘X’ and theory ‘Y’.

Theory XNormal, conventional orold views regardinghuman behaviour-

Theory YModern or correct viewsregarding humanbehaviour-

1.

An average workerhas inherent dislikeof work and willavoid it if he can.

2. An average workerprefers direction,wishes to avoidresponsibility, hasrelatively littleambition and wantssecurity above all.

3. Workers must becoerced, controlled,directed, threatened

or punished toachieve objectives.

1.

An average workerdoes not inherentlydislike the work.

2. An average workerlearns not only toaccept, but also tosick responsibilityunder properconditions.

3. Self-control andself-directive arepreferred by the

workers to achieveobjectives.

Theory ‘Y’ is more useful to develop safetyculture by motivation.

8.3.8 Goal-setting Theory:

Rayon (1970) put more stress on ‘intention’to motivate behaviour. Locke & Latham (1990)supported this theory explaining to set goals tomotivate people to show their ability(efficiency). Research studies by Miller (1978),

Latham & Locke (1979) showed thatperformance could be improved by setting‘specific goals’ and not the general goal like ‘doyour best’.

Reward for zero accident goal, accident freemonth, year or department, good housekeepingand a fixed target and guidelines motivateworkers to attain them. Goals should not be tooeasy or too difficult. Moderately difficult goalspose a challenge to an individual and imposethe commitment. Steady & Kay’s study (1964)showed that goals, which were perceived asdifficult but attainable, led to increased

performance than goals, which were easy orimpossible to achieve.

Workers should be involved in goal settingprocess instead assigning goals by others.

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Workers’ understanding and appreciating ofgoals are necessary. Latham and Saari’s study(1979) showed that it becomes easy to achievedifficult goals through supervisory support.Chhokar and Wallin’s study (1984) to improvesafety performance showed that ‘feedback toworkers how to reach the goal’ found usefuland percentage of workers working with safetyprecaution was raised from 65% to 95%.

Feedback improves individual as well asgroup performance. In Britchard, et al (1988)study, group performance showed 75%improvement by group goal setting andfeedback. Northcraft, Lee and Litucy (1990)pointed out two types of feedback - outcomefeedback and process feedback. Outcomefeedback provides information aboutconsequences of one’s actions and processfeedback about ways to improve taskperformance.

Zero accidents goal by NASA (USA) is thebest example of this theory. In some Tata

Companies, incentives to all workers of adepartment where no accident occurs during amonth, motivated the workers. Supervisorswere giving guidance to their workers toachieve the goal for their department.

8.3.9 Equity Theory:

Fastinger showed that (1) Discrepancycreates psychological tension amongst workers.(2) Tension is unpleasant for them. (3) Then theytry to get rid of the tension by taking someactions. The result is de-motivation. Therefore to

motivate people, tension should be removed byconsidering them equal and providing equalbenefit to them by policy of openness,transparency and not creating any unbalance intheir mind. J. Stasy Adam’s equity theory is oneindustrial version of balance theory.

According to this theory people comparetheir performance with others in similarsituation as under:

Equity feeling = :

Here inputs mean contribution to work i.e.an individual ability, psychomotor skills,sincerity, time spent, quality of work, co-operation with others etc. The output may

include job security, pay, chances foradvancement and growth recognition, adequateworking conditions, status, opportunity todevelop, type of supervisor etc.

If an individual’s output/input ratio isgreater than that of another person compared, itis stated an over-payment condition and createsfeeling of guilt. When one’s ratio is less thanother’s, the condition is said underpayment and

creates anger. Both these feelings (guilt oranger) are negative and people will try toreduce these feelings by negative reactions likereducing efforts, late arrival, leaving early,taking longer breaks, remaining absent morefrequently, reducing quantity and quality ofwork etc. He may try to increase the ratio byasking for a rise or other benefits. He may alsotry to indulge in stealing or damaging property,not giving co-operation to supervisor or co-workers and may indulge in indiscipline orconflict. Therefore it is advisable to avoid thesituation of both overpayment and

underpayment and treat all employees equal.Management should be more open and

socially sensitive to workers to maintain theirequity. Kind and sensitive treatment orconvincing people on justified ground shallmotivate them for better performance evenagainst reduction in pay.

In chemical factories mostly hazardouswork is carried out by contract-workers. Whenthey see their fellow company-employees doingless hazardous work and despite getting morepay, facilities and safety equipment, theycompare themselves with those of company

employees and get demotivated. Themanagement should treat them equal andshould provide equal facilities, equipment etc.

Summary: Psychological principles discussed inall above theories suggest various means andways for management (including supervisorsand safety officers) to motivate people for safetyand to identify situations leading to conflict,frustration, non-co-operation etc., andtechniques to remove them. For furthertechniques see Chapter-6 on SafetyManagement.

Own input

Own output Other’s output

Other’s input

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8.4 Methods of Motivation(Incentives or Rewards):

While discussing nature of motivation, wehave seen that there are human needs, drives ordesires (explained by various theories) whichshould be satisfied by necessary incentives orrewards for the purpose of motivation. Variousmethods are available to apply these incentiveschemes. Some are given below:

(A) Money as an incentive: Money, initself has no incentive value. But it can be usedto obtain the desired incentives, because of itsexchange power or value. Money can satisfy (1)Basic necessities of life (food, shelter, clothesand the like) (2) Necessities for health andeducation (doctors, choice of foods and so on)(3) Luxuries (mostly acquired needs) (4) Socialposition and (5) Power. If first need is satisfiedmen want money for second and so on.

Various methods of pay are appliedaccording to the need or nature of job. Pay interms of production, time, seniority, need etc.,are in practice. Pay in terms of production (workoutput) is the only method, which utilises payfor motivating all men to produce in accordancewith their abilities. But only money cannotsatisfy all needs and other methods ofmotivation are as follows.

(B) Work and Play: Men should learn toplay while they are still young, so that thisactivity can replace work when the latterbecomes too strenuous for their energies.

(C) Use of Praise as an incentive: Praise isa form of ego satisfaction, and adults and

children can readily be motivated by it.(D) Competition: It is a motivating factor

and highly effective in sports and safety. It canbe used in work and it transforms unpleasantwork into a game. Competition between equalsproduces better motivating conditions thencompetition between unequal in ability.

To promote and maintain safety, varioustypes of safety competitions should be arrangedviz., good housekeeping, accident free man-hours worked, production quantity and qualitywith safe performance, better maintenance ofmachines, stores, plant and premises, safety

slogans, posters, maxims, essays, awards ofvarious kinds etc.

(E) Other Incentives: Among otherincentives more important are job security,compensation, opportunities for promotion andadvancement, employee financial benefits(insurance and so forth) and informingemployees about their job status.

Various studies have been carried out tofind out factors of job satisfaction in differentoccupational groups, by Chant, Wyatt, Berdie,

Blum and Russ, Jurgensen and others and manyfactors (workers’ wants) have been recorded.High pay was found to be only at sixth orseventh in importance. Rank positions of suchfactors that appeal to workers are : opportunityfor advancement, steady work, opportunity touse your ideas, opportunity to learn a job, goodboss, high pay, opportunity to be of publicservice, good working companions, comfortableworking conditions, good working hours, cleanwork and easy work. Other factors like benefits,communications and recognition also exist.

Incentives are classified as financial and

non-financial, competitive and co-operative.Though money has not lost its importance, non-financial and co-operative incentives are morepreferred in these days both in industrial andeducational context. But for poor people moneywill remain a powerful incentive forever.

See Part 11.3.5 & 11.3.6 of Chapter-6 forsafety competitions and incentive schemes. Seepart 8.1.5.2 of Chapter-4 for 10 methods tocreate and maintain individual interest.

Workers have three types of relations(social system) according to Bray Field andCrockett: (i) with fellow workers (ii) within

company structure and (iii) outside thecompany. Motivation is a function of all thesesystems.

8.5 Method of Job ClimateImprovement:

Following factors should be removed from job climate to improve it for motivation and safeattitude building:

1. Lack of effective job training.2. Incompetent, untrained supervisors.3. Lack of clearly stated company policies and

procedures including safety policies.4. Departments at odds with one another.5. Display of favouritism.6. Inattention to grievances.

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7. Poor working conditions.8. Political promotions or favour.

8.6 Motivation for Safe Attitude:

Important needs (desires) are listed below -

1. Self-preservation (free of personal injury).2. Personal and material gain (reward).

3.

Loyalty (desire to co-operate).4. Responsibility (recognition of obligation).5. Pride (self satisfaction and desire for praise).6. Conformation (fear of being thought

different from others).7. Rivalry (desire to compete).8. Leadership (desire to be outstanding).

8.7 Role of Safety Management inMotivation:

Role of Management, Supervisors andSafety Department in motivation is mostimportant. They should adopt following measures:1. By ‘induction training’ new workers

(including contract workers) should begiven necessary safety instruction andtraining regarding hazards and controlmeasures in industry. This basic knowledgewill build confidence.

2. Schedule for above training should beproperly designed to include hazards ofraw materials and processes, safe operatingprocedures, safety tools and equipment tobe used, safety work permit systems,interpretation of MSDS, labels, signs &

signals, rules of transportation, loading andunloading and role of the workers in firefighting and operation of On-siteEmergency Plan.

3. Company’s Safety & Health policy,Environment policy and Quality policyshould be explained with their objectivesand benefits. Organizational interestsshould be explained. This will bringbelongingness and togetherness.

4. Workers should be encouraged toparticipate in safety committee, safetysuggestions and all safety programmes.

5.

Accident case studies should be explainedat all levels by analysing the different rolesin preventing such accidents.

6. Motivating thoughts as given in next part8.8 should be explained with examples.These will help much for motivation.

7. Team spirit and competitiveness should bebuilt-up. This will induct group motivation.

8. Supervisors should take sufficient rounds towatch all workers under them and to guidethem if any unsafe practice is noticed. Forgood work and follow up of safety rules,

they should praise the workers.9. Proper attention should be paid for basic

needs of Health, Safety and Welfarefacilities under the Factories Act and Rulesfor the workers.

10. Exploitation of any kind should be avoided.Paying less wages (less than even minimumprescribed by law) to the workers, notpaying according to his qualification andexperience or reasonable living standard,not paying overtime wages for extra work,requiring regularly to work 12 hoursinstead of 8 hours in a shift, depriving of

holidays, treating unequally among equals,partiality in giving benefits, notimplementing any legal order in favour ofworkers and indirect harassment to leave job are some instances of exploitation. Topmanagement should leave them if it desiresmotivated workforce for better performance.

11. Supervisors should recommend or the topmanagement should take timely decision togive increment, promotion and othermonetary benefits to the workers.

12. Job rotation or job enrichment should bepractised as a technique of motivation as

explained in Herzberg’s theory. It shouldinclude proper job distribution, jobsimplification and job satisfaction.

13. Opportunity of advancement for R&Dwork, new product, new market, new safetydevices, diversification and delegation ofmore powers should be given to thedeserving workers.

14. Bureaucratic or dictatorial behaviourretards motivation. Therefore middle andtop management should be cautioned forthis negative factor and they should beinstructed to observe flexibility, love,

affection, sympathy and good respect toworkers.15. Annual work assessment report (as CR in

Govt.) for individual employee should not

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be written with any bias or by misusing thepower. This will certainly de-motivate theworker. It should be transparent withopportunity for justification for not meetingany target. It should have guidance how toimprove upon.

These are general measures. A companyshould add more measures specific to its

requirement or based on any psychologicalstudy carried out in the industry.

8.8 Behaviour Based Safety (BBS)

This is the latest psychological approach toimprove human behaviours for the purpose ofreducing accidents.

Criteria and Strategies:

Psychological concept of ‘behaviouralsafety’ or behaviour based safety (BBS) was

studied and applied during the years 1968 to1972 by Aurbrey Daniels, Wanda Myers andothers. The research continued and studiesduring last 15 years showed good results that byobserving and changing behaviours of theworkers (motivation), accidents can be reducedsignificantly.

In Hawthorne studies (Part 8.3.1) it wasfound that ‘behavioural approach’ was givinggood results (accident reduction) than thechanges in effects of working conditions likelighting, working hours, rest interval etc. This isthe base of BBS concept.

In BBS approach, ‘safe behaviours’ aretargeted, decided and explained to the workers.Then performance of these behaviours isobserved. It is also called performancemanagement. Feedback is obtained and reductionin accident rate is measured.

Sometimes a ‘design team’ is formed byselecting shop-floor workers includingrepresentative of supervision and safetydepartment. This team decides following steps:

1. How to observe unsafe practices or acts andto design observation criteria for this.

2.

Coaching process to give brief guidelines toimprove safety behaviours to eliminate orreduce those unsafe acts.

3. Plan to use data of observations regardingunsafe acts.

4.

Plan to support the process of improvement(motivation for target).

5. Plan training if still required.6. Plan for maintaining the process.

Thus by such systemic planning,behavioural psychology is used to promote

safety at work. BBS approach proceeds as under:

1. Observing unsafe behaviours or acts of theworkers in the organisation and collectingtheir data.

2. Defining a set of model behaviours toreduce the unsafe acts.

3. To give short duration training to workersregarding their unsafe acts, managementobservations and explaining safe (model)behaviours.

4.

Observing new (improved) behaviours andrecording their consistency and frequency.

5.

Getting feedback and supporting newbehaviours.

6. Data collected is used for recognition,problem solving and continuousimprovement.

Management Techniques:

Management control for implementingabove BBS concept includes followingtechniques:

1. Design team of selected workers to record

observations, develop support materialsand provide training.

2. Identify elements or targets and decidesteps to focus on each of them.

3. Organise a full day meeting instead of oneor two hours meeting to plan the processafter full discussion.

4. Design own steps instead of copying thesame from other companies.

5. Do not waste time to complete training ofall the workers. Start implementation aftertraining some 20% workers and continuetraining for others. Thus the time cycle will

begin soon to observe the result.6. Avoid unnecessary training of teammembers. Those who are already trainedneed not require training.

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8.9 Motivating Thoughts:

It is said that ‘it is not the gun that fires, butit is the heart of iron which fires the gun’. Afterall it is the heart (with mind) full of confidence,courage and motivation that drive a man toachieve the goal. Motivating thoughts or ideasplay an important role in this regard. No

motivation is possible if human mind is notappealed by inspiring thought. This is true indesigning and conducting safety motivationprogrammes.

We have to motivate workers to worksafely and without accident. Therefore it shouldbe impressively brought to their mind that anyaccident will cause harm to them only andtherefore any accident prevention work is intheir interest. Some thoughts are given below asan example. Many such thoughts may bedeveloped based on experience and need oftime and situation.

(1) All are losing by Accidents:

By working in factories, a finger is cut, eyelost, hearing damaged; skin, lungs, stomachdeteriorated or cancer contracted, then who isbenefited? ... Nobody.

Life lost in accident or life span reduceddue to pollution, then, who is benefited? ...Nobody.

Nobody is ever benefited by any accident.Everybody loses only. The worker suffers painand after-effects, loses money in medicine,

journey and dispensary expenses. His familymembers suffer pain and lose time to serve him.Everything is lost of a family whose mainperson loses life in accident. The deceasedcannot be brought back by compensation.Original spare-parts of human body are notavailable in the market.

Figure pending

Figure 3.2 Human body parts are not availablein the market

The employer loses the benefit of anexperienced (trained) person, has to paycompensation in court and incur otherexpenditure. Time is lost in investigating theaccident and repairing the machine if damaged.

Production is interrupted and no such skilledworker can be prepared in a short time.

If the deceased is a social worker, societyand nation both lose his services. In totalityeverybody is losing and nobody is gaining byaccident. Therefore friends! Do determine fromtoday to stop accident by all means.

(2) Accident causes more Harm to the Worker:

First victim of any accident is workerhimself, because he is nearer to the place of

accident. Who is exposed to gas or leakage?Worker only. Who hurt by falling, slipping orstriking? Worker only. Who hurt by a fallingbody? Worker only.

Paying fine or compensation in court mayrelieve an employer, but can an injured workerbe relieved from pain and suffering? No. Canhis family get his support if he is died? No.

Thus it is the worker only who loses moreby accident. Therefore we have to think of oursafety first.

(3) Foolishness:

To provide guard after cutting of fingers, tocause fire and then to extinguish, to dischargegases and then to search mask, to inviteemergency and then to rush for controlmeasures... Is it not foolishness?

Therefore, awake, arise and remove allunsafe working conditions first.

(4) Worse than an Accident:

Every year some 2 lakhs people die inaccidents in our country. Many more are

injured. But the most serious matter is that byinhaling polluted air, we are calling deathgradually near and near.

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Is it not surprising that this condition ofworking in polluted air is not called ‘accident’because immediate absenteeism of 48 hours isnot noticed thereby?

It is always advisable to consider thiscondition worse than an accident and try toremove it.

(5) Five years deducted from life! :

Whatsoever pay-rise and facilities we mayobtain, but, if we will continue to inhalepolluted air, at the time of retirement, withgratuity, we will certainly get a certificate fromthe nature - ‘Five years have been deducted fromyour life’.

Do you wish this?If not, awake and build a wall before the

water comes. Do whatever you can do to fightpollution.

(6) Nothing is costlier than Life:Everybody loves own life because

everything can be experienced till the life is live.Future after life is unknown. All fruits of thisworld can be enjoyed only until the eyes areopen and live. Therefore nothing is costlier thanlife. Then why should we lose it by our ownmistake? Therefore firmly determine not tocommit any mistake to cause an accident tooneself or others.

(7) Safety must be our Way of Life:Safety motivation must last lifetime.

Temporary determination due to any emotionalsetback or funeral asceticism (smashan-vairagya)will not last long. Safety attitude must become a

habit or part of life. Whenever we see andwherever we see, we must see through thesafety-eyes. Our thinking, observing, workingor supervising at the workplace, home oranywhere else, must be with safety-eye, safety-outlook and safe behaviour in all respects.Safety cannot be confined with any workplaceor any time limit. It has to be with us till we liveand enjoy. Therefore it must be our way of life.

(8) Safety needs active Participation:Safety begins with our selves. ‘Others will

practise safety, it is their duty, why should Iworry?’ is an improper thinking. Safety needs

our participation too, because our mistake cancertainly contribute to an accident even ifeverything is all right. And if we do notparticipate, how can we expect others to

participate? Therefore safety needs ourparticipation first. Participate yourself in safetyand let others encourage or inspire to followyou. This is the only best way of safe behaviour.

(9) Implement, Implement & Implement:

No safety slogan, safety notice or safetyliterature, including such books, will save lifeunless it is practised. Therefore, implement what

you know or learn from safety literature.Don’t wait till any accident takes place.

Think and prevent the possibility of accidentcauses. Implement all safety measures.

There may be a thin boundary betweenwhat is safe and what is unsafe, what is legaland what is not legal. Identify this boundaryand implement preventive measures to remainwithin a safe limit.

(10) Protect the Environment:

Man is born of Food,

Food is of plants,Plants are of earth,Earth is of water,Water is of air,

Air is of space andSpace is of God.

One, who ignores this togetherness of life,perishes. Therefore Protect the Air, Water, Earthand Plants – all elements of the God. They willprotect you.(11) Killing of Nature means killing of Self:

ãUˆßæ ¿ Âý·ëçÌ×÷ °áæ×

¥æˆ×Ùæàæ¢ ·çÚUcØçâÐÌÎæ Áæ»ýÌ¢ Öô ÂéL¤áÑ â¢ØØ ˆßÂýßëçÌ×÷ÐÐ

By killing, polluting and distorting theNature and its Vicinity, we are committingSuicide and cutting the life energy. So, O Man,‘Be aware’ and restrict yourself and yourmalpractices.(12) Work of Safety People is Invisible:

Accidents, injuries and losses that takeplace are visible but those prevented areinvisible. By the constant efforts of safetypeople, hundreds and thousands of possibilitiesor events of accidents are prevented and thiswork is neither visible nor measurable. Cost ofsuch prevented losses is uncountable. Its value

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is the highest. The work of safety people shouldbe evaluated and assessed in this way.(13) Safety pledge

“On this day, I solemnly affirm that I willrededicate myself to the cause of safety, health,and protection of environment and will do mybest to observe rules, regulations andprocedures and develop attitudes and habitsconducive for achieving these objectives.

I fully realize that accidents and diseasesare a drain on the national economy and may

lead to injuries, disablements, deaths, harm tohealth, damage to property, social suffering andgeneral degradation of environment.

I will do everything possible for theprevention of accidents and occupationaldiseases and protection of environment in theinterest of self, family, community, organizationand the nation at large.”

E X E R C I S E

1. Comment on the following statements bygiving your opinion:

1. ‘Human behaviour’ is at the top in anyaccident prevention work.

2. Psychological safety factors should notbe undermined.

3. It is the ‘mind’ of the man only which isthe main driving force of any safety

activity. Utilize it for safety. 4. “Every major management problem is in

part psychological” - Ordway Tead. 5. Self-discipline is the best remedy for

unsafe acts. 6. Proper attitude toward safety is the first

requirement. 7. Frustration increases accident rate. 8. Conflict has no place in safety activity. 9. Individual differences always exist. They

are to be reconciled for the purpose ofsafety.

10. Accident proneness is reality. It cannotbe removed.

11.

Accident proneness is a vague conceptand absurdity. It must be thrown out.

12. “Motivation is a release of energy towarda desired goal” – Herbert Moore.

13. Psychological factors were found moreeffective than the working conditions inHawthorne studies to reduce accidents.

14. Maslow’s hierarchy theory of humanneeds is outdated now-a-days.

15. Motivational factors for safe attitude aredifficult to judge. Which should beadopted?

16. Safety Management has many roles toplay in motivating workers for safety.

Which are these roles? 17. All are losing and nobody is benefited by

any accident.

18. Accident causes more harm to theworker himself.

19. Nature’s Certificate – “Five years havebeen deducted from your life” if wecontinue to work in pollutedatmosphere.

20. ‘Behaviour based safety’ is a goodmodern concept but how to implement?

2. Write short note or explain in brief:1. Need of safety psychology.2. Industrial psychology.3. Definition of ‘safety psychology’.4. Employer’s psychological problems or

Employee’s psychological problems.5. Accident causative factors.6. Corrective measures to reduce

frustration OR conflict in industry.7. Morale – its importance for safety.8. Difference between fatigue and boredom.9. The problem employee.10. Accident proneness.

11.

Need of motivation for safety.12. ERG theory or Goal setting theory.13. Methods of job climate improvement.14.

Importance of motivating thoughts andtheir display.

15. Safety must be our way of life.16. Concept of Behaviour Based Safety

(BBS).

3. Discuss with details: 1. Human factors contributing to accidents.2. General techniques of accident control.3. Hawthorne studies of behavioural

approach or Mashlow’s Theory of

human needs.4. Methods of motivation.

5. BBS techniques for accident control.

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Reference and Recommended Reading :

1. Psychology for Business and Industry, byHerbert Moore, McGraw-Hill.

2. Psychology in Industry, by Norman R.F. Maier , George G. Harrap & Co.

3. Industrial Psychology, by Joseph Tiffin andE.J. McCormick, Prentice Hall of India Pvt.Ltd.

4.

Influence of Psychology in Industry, by Dr.B.K. Roy Chowdhury, Metropolitan Book Co.,New Delhi.

5. Industrial Accident Prevention, by H.W.Heinrich, McGraw-Hill.

6. Occupational Safety Management andEngineering, by Willie Hammer , PrenticeHall, USA.

7. ‘Surakshit Kamdar’ by K.U. Mistry, SiddarthPrakashan, Ahmedabad-380014

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