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This chapter covers all important findings / reviews collected from different research

articles and journals. Here the researcher has tried to give highlights of the reviews

selected for the present study.

3.1 Perceptual difference between men and women at work :

“Gender” is a system of social practices within society that constitutes people as

different in socially significant ways and organizes relations of inequality on the basis

of the difference (Ridgeway &Smith-Lovin, 1999). Most studies and societies define

gender on the basis of sex but they fail to look at gender from the viewpoint of

psychology, society, behaviour, interaction, perceptions and traits (Pearson & Cooks,

1994). Perceptual variations create expectations which perforce bracket men and

women in different roles facing variations in their job and life profile. For example,

some of the issues arising from perceptions that most working women face are: need

to strike a proper balance between work and life; relocation to the spouse’s place of

work; familiarity with the spouse’s work ties and facing the unfamiliarity of the

spouse with her work network (Fischer & Oliker, 1983). While attempting to maintain

a work life balance, children and geo-mobility played a major role on a woman’s

social and professional network than that of a man (Campbell, 1988).

Researchers have elaborated in detail the differences in attitude and perceptions of

men and women. In many countries people tend to associate higher status and

competence with men than with women (Broverman et al., 1972; Williams & Best,

1990). It is also generalized that women are more likely to engage in conflict and

women are likely to avoid conflict (Christensen, 1988; Gottman, 1994) which has

major implications in assigning roles in organizations. The effect is without doubt

seen and felt in the reporting relationship that exists between employees across

gender.

Men and women, by virtue of their biological sex have also been attributed with trait

differences (Carli, 2001; Carli and Bukatko, 2000). Some traits are associated with

“masculine” (e.g. leadership and assertiveness) and some as “feminine” (e.g. warmth

and emotionality). According to Bem (1974), gender should be defined more in terms

of “masculine” & “feminine” rather than “male” and “female”. The argument

forwarded by Bem is based on a trait analysis which postulated that there are some

88 | P a g e

traits which are common to both men and women. Hence, according to Bem (1974) it

is not the trait but the perception which brings about a difference in the understanding

of gender.

There is considerable literature on meanings associated with gender identities. One of

the many perspectives in this area is the structural symbolic interactionist perspective

(Stryker, 1980; Burke & Tully, 1977). This perspective sees identities as a set of

cultural meanings. Individuals learn these meanings through a variety of mechanisms

like interaction behaviors, people’s emotional reactions etc. which creates a base for

generation of expectations. Based on the above understanding of gender there are

various expectations across genders when they are placed in a mixed work

environment. The expectation states theory (Berger et al., 1977, Carli, 1990;

Ridgeway, 1993; Wagner & Berger, 1997) is one of the major accounts of gender

inequality among formal peers. The expectations state theory stated that actors use

cultural beliefs about the status implications of their distinguishing characteristics to

organize interaction in goal oriented settings (Berger et al. 1977). It further stated that

gender becomes salient in a setting when it either differentiates the actors or is

culturally linked to the task at hand.

Therefore, gender status beliefs shape performance expectations and create a power

and prestige order among men and women in a given scenario (Lockheed, 1985;

Wagner & Berger, 1977; Wood & Karten, 1986). The theory also postulated that men

are more influential in a mixed sex group, they participate more, are more assertive

and less likely/inclined to agree with similar women. How does the expectations

theory work in an Indian setting where the ratio of men to women is highly skewed in

favor of men, is the question I attempt to answer in the course of the paper.

Because of the prevailing situation where supply of labour is greater than its demand,

some employers do not believe much in effective motivation of workers to produce

high performance. They uphold the view that even if workers are not properly

motivated they cannot leave the job since there is no job in the labour market. Most

employers are not effective in their leadership behaviour. They treat workers as

machines believing that workers could be treated anyhow.

Some leaders do not manage their time effectively with their workers to enhance

effective job performance from the workers. In response to this, workers do not

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handle their work properly. There is no proper planning and they would not prioritize

their task accordingly. They perform their task in a negative way, the effect of which

is ineffectiveness. In this case, this study is set to investigate the influence of work

motivation, leadership effectiveness and time management as they influence

employees’ performance in an organization.

A great body of literature exists, that tracks impact of globalization on women’s

employment and empowerment. The current study falls within the same group, albeit

with a difference. The study is situated within an analytical framework that is

uniquely suited to the conditions prevailing in the different sector of Gujarat where

middle class women are engaged in an almost stagnant service structure. Trade

openness is, however, ushering in gradual transformation that has the potential to

empower middle class women, through literacy and productivity gains on a

sustainable basis.

Gender diversity within organizations has created a need for understanding and

addressing differing perceptions of employees within organizations for strengthening

work and employee relationships.

Perceptions of men and women within organizations, according to researchers, focus

primarily on organizational culture, skill sets and competencies and attitudes in same

and mixed gender groups.

Entry of women in the professional world has moved the employee population in

organizations from single gender to mixed gender. This combination of the workforce

within organizations is today more dynamic, offers greater challenges, has a diverse

set of perceptions and expectations and requires a more careful nurturing of

relationships and development of policies.

Strong beliefs on fundamental differences in the competencies and capabilities of men

and women at the professional front, argued Powell and Laura (2003), are a universal

phenomenon and are further augmented by research favoring similar views and media

propaganda. Findings of a similar nature have aided in creation of expectations and

perceptual biases/stereotypes reflected in the mind sets of people at the personal and

professional level. Stereotypes concerning gender, state researchers, are more often

than not reflections of real and actual differences between men and women (Hall &

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Carter, 1999). Findings of a similar nature further accentuate the need for a study of

gender issues within the organizational context.

Increasing number of women within organizations has brought about a shift in the

balance of men and women (with the ratio skewed in favor of men) giving rise to a

need to address specific gender issues. Additionally, with growing business

opportunities, there is a need to retain and attract the talent pool. To be able to counter

the acute resource crunch in the light of the changing economic scenario,

organizations have begun to take cognizance of the fact that women are an integral if

not essential part of the desired workforce.

This awakening is not without its side effects. In a society hitherto governed by men,

there are perceptions concerning role definitions of men and women and rules for

operational efficiency both at the home and the professional front. Hence the

transition from single to mixed gender workforce has excited perceptions and

expectations and organizations are battling to come up with suitable policies which

will help them to retain and increase the talent pool by addressing what is typically

referred to as “gender issues”.

There can be multiple views and interpretations on what constitutes “gender issues.”

An understanding of “gender issues” relates primarily to perceptions and perceptual

understanding of what is “masculine” and “feminine”. Arguably, while on one hand

there are different societal expectations of roles and behaviour of men and women in

organizations and society and perceptions about what constitutes “gender issues” and

problems related to it (Lundberg et al. 1994; Marmot et al.1991); on the other hand

there are differing personality traits, cited by researchers, as men are more agented

and women more communal (Williams & Best, 1990).

Perceptions and expectations thus mar a proper understanding of what constitutes and

what should constitute a proper mechanism of addressing of gender issues. In this

discussion of expectations vs. perceptions we cannot negate real life issues as,

biological differences between men and women, biological clock, and incidents that

call for redress within the organizations as cases of sexual harassment, and

introduction of policies which are gender equitable.

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A liberalized market regime in a rapidly globalizing Indian economy catalyzed the

transformation of the carpet sector with demand factors influencing both levels and

strategies of production. The ban on goods produced by child labour in the

international markets replaced child workers with women workers in the sector, albeit

at wages lower than their male counterparts.

Once the capacities of women workers were enhanced to meet the production and

market needs within the sector, the opportunity to participate in the production

process could have been expected to pave the way for their economic and social

empowerment through financial freedom with greater say in household decision

making.

Despite expectations, such an end could not be achieved for the carpet and

embroidery sectors in particular, considering the unorganized nature of production

that allowed intermediaries to take advantage instead. Increased competition from the

market and the demand for goods at lower prices later led to the shift witnessed in the

sector to mechanized production of ‘tufted’ carpets from ‘hand knotted’ products over

the last decade.

3.2 Motivation and Job Performance :

The level of performance of employees relies not only on their actual skills but also

on the level of motivation each person exhibits (Burney et al., 2007). Motivation is an

inner drive or an external inducement to behave in some particular way, typically a

way that will lead to rewards (Dessler, 1978). Over-achieving, talented employees are

the driving force of all firms so it is essential that organizations strive to motivate and

hold on to the best employees (Harrington, 2003).

The quality of human resource management is a critical influence on the performance

of the firm. Concern for strategic integration, commitment flexibility and quality, has

called for attention for employees motivation and retention. Financial motivation has

become the most concern in today’s organization, and tying to Masllow’s basic needs,

non-financial aspect only comes in when financial motivation has failed.

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According to Greenberg and Baron (2003, 2000) definition of motivation could be

divided into three main parts. The first part looks at arousal that deals with the drive,

or energy behind individual (s) action. People turn to be guided by their interest in

making a good impression on others, doing interesting work and being successful in

what they do. The second part referring to the choice people make and the direction

their behaviour takes. The last part deals with maintaining behaviour clearly defining

how long people have to persist at attempting to meet their goals.

Motivation can be intrinsic and extrinsic. Extrinsic motivation concerns behavior

influenced by obtaining external rewards (Hitt, Esser, & Marriott, 1992). Praise or

positive feedback, money, and the absence of punishment are examples of extrinsic or

external rewards (Deci, 1980).Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to do something

simply for the pleasure of performing that particular activity (Hagedoorn and Van

Yperen, 2003). Examples of intrinsic factors are interesting work, recognition,

growth, and achievement. Several studies have found there to be a positive

relationship between intrinsic motivation and job performance as well as intrinsic

motivation and job satisfaction (Linz, 2003). This is significant to firms in today's

highly competitive business environment in that intrinsically motivated employees

will perform better and, therefore, be more productive, and also because satisfied

employees will remain loyal to their organization and feel no pressure or need to

move to a different firm.

Deci and Ryan (2000) conducted and replicated an experiment that showed the

negative impact of monetary rewards on intrinsic motivation and performance. A

group of college students were asked to work on an interesting puzzle. Some were

paid and some were not paid for the work. The students that were not being paid

worked longer on the puzzle and found it more interesting than the students being

paid. When the study was brought into a workplace setting, employees felt that their

behavior was being controlled in a dehumanizing and alienating manner by the

rewards. It was discovered that rewards would seriously decrease an employee's

motivation to ever perform the task being rewarded, or one similar to it, any time in

the future.

Another observation of the study was that employees would expect a reward every

time the task was to be completed if the reward was offered at one time. Employees

would require the reward in order to perform the job and would probably expect the

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reward to increase in amount. If the rewards were not increased or if they were taken

away they actually served as negative reinforcement.

Deci and Ryan (2001), in collaboration with two of their colleagues, conducted a

study to examine the effects of performance-contingent rewards on an employee's

intrinsic motivation (Cameron, Deci, Koestner, and Ryan, 2001). These types of

rewards are very controlling since these rewards are directly associated with an

employee's performance of some task. In that respect, performance-contingent

rewards undermine intrinsic motivation; however, if the reward given to the employee

conveys that the employee has performed on a truly outstanding level, the reward

would serve to solidify that employee's sense of competence and decrease the

negative effect on that employee's intrinsic motivation.

Also significant in the study was the importance of the interpersonal atmosphere

within which the performance-contingent rewards were distributed. When Cameron et

al. (2001) compared the administering of rewards in a controlling climate and in a

non-controlling climate; they discovered that the performance-contingent rewards

given in the more controlling interpersonal climate undermined intrinsic motivation.

To prevent the decrease in employees' intrinsic motivation, the interpersonal climate

when distributing performance-contingent rewards should be more supportive.

Vroom (1964) proposes that people are motivated by how much they want something

and how likely they think they are to get it he suggest that motivation leads to efforts

and the efforts combined with employees ability together with environment factors

which interplay’s resulting to performance. This performance interns lead to various

outcomes, each of which has an associated value called Valence.

Adams (1965) on his part suggests that people are motivated to seek social equity in

the rewards they receive for high performance. According to him the outcome from

job includes; pay, recognition, promotion, social relationship and intrinsic reward. To

get these rewards various inputs needs to be employed by the employees to the job as

time, experience, efforts, education and loyalty. He suggests that, people tend to view

their outcomes and inputs as a ratio and then compare these ratios with others and turn

to become motivated if this ratio is high.

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3.3 Leadership Effectiveness and Job Performance :

Leadership, or more specifically effective leadership, is every bit as crucial (if not

more so) in African organizations as it is throughout the world. African organizations

are no different from others worldwide in terms of striving for performance in order to

be globally competitive. The South African situation, however, is incredibly complex

as many organizations are caught in the middle of a web of authoritarian hierarchies

and traditional leadership approaches, as well as bureaucratic hierarchies mixed with

modern approaches to leadership (Grobler, Carrell, Elbert and Hatfield, 2002).

It is argued that effective leadership has a positive influence on the performance of

organizations (Maritz, 1995; Bass, 1997; Charlton, 2000). Ultimately it is the

performance of many individuals that culminates in the performance of the

organization, or in the achievement of organizational goals. Effective leadership is

instrumental in ensuring organizational performance (Cummings and Schwab, 1973;

Hellriegel, Jackson, Slocum, Staude, Amos, Klopper, Louw and Oosthuizen, 2004).

As a result, many leadership theories have been proposed in the last fifty years which

are claimed to have influenced the overall effectiveness of the organizations where

they have been employed. In the competitive world business environment it is vital

that organizations employ leadership styles that enable organizations to survive in a

dynamic environment (Maritz, 1995; Bass, 1997).

Performance has been defined by Hellriegel, Jackson and Slocum (1999) as the level

of an individual’s work achievement after having exerted effort. Cummings and

Schwab (1973) and Whetten and Cameron (1998) believe that performance is

ultimately an individual phenomenon with environmental variables influencing

performance primarily through their effect on the individual determinants of

performance – ability and motivation. Behling and McFillen (1996) confirmed the

link between high performance and leadership in the United States by developing a

model of charismatic/transformational leadership where the leaders’ behaviour is said

to give rise to inspiration, awe and empowerment in his subordinates, resulting in

exceptionally high effort, exceptionally high commitment and willingness to take

risks. It has been widely accepted that effective organizations require effective

leadership, and organizational performance will suffer in direct proportion to the

neglect of this (Maritz, 1995; Ristow, Amos and Staude, 1999).

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Time Management and Employees’ Performance

Time management at work is critical for the success of any organization (Wood,

2006). He asserted that the biggest mistake people in the job is not realizing how

much time is lost due to poor time management at work which directly affects

employees’ performance and the company’s bottom line.

Time has to be analyzed and used wisely in the workplace. Time has to be set aside

each day to review and prioritize demands on the time. Time is costly and individual

employees and departments are accountable for the use of their time. Goals are

defined and should be clearly stated, divided into long and short term which has to be

broken down into weekly and daily action plans. Workloads have to be controlled and

more time to focus on most important aspects of the job (Heller & Hindle, 1998).

The most common challenge we face at work is time management. It affects

productivity and profit. As opined by Woods (2006), time management is critical for

the success of any organization and this directly affects employees’ performance and

the company’s bottom line. Achieving balanced time management in life and reducing

stress are part of the keys to becoming successful and fulfilled. Wood (2006) asserted

that time management behaviour; control over time has a significant effect on

employee’s job performance. Uwakwe (2002) asserted that good time management

can improve job performance, personal life and mental health. He added that a person

who performs efficiently and effectively in the job has more time for personal life.

It has been revealed that most productive and successful people are those who can

excellently manage their time. The resource of time has to be properly managed for

success in the workplace to be achieved. Time management skills are essential for

successful people. To increase productivity at work need concentration of time

management (Wood 2006). This is the ability to focus and accomplish the most vital

priorities. The environment must be set and distractions should be avoided. Heller and

Hindle (1998), asserted that people’s attitudes towards time are complex and variable.

He noted that individuals need to be aware of the current habits and attitudes which

shape his use of time if s/he is said to be time conscious.

Schriber & Gutek, (1987) found a significant relationship between overall job

performance and time management. They asserted that management of time is a key

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to managerial performance. “Gender” is a system of social practices within society

that constitutes people as different in socially significant ways and organizes relations

of inequality on the basis of the difference (Ridgeway & Smith-Lovin, 1999). Most

studies and societies define gender on the basis of sex but they fail to look at gender

from the viewpoint of psychology, society, behaviour, interaction, perceptions and

traits (Pearson & Cooks, 1994).

Perceptual variations create expectations which perforce bracket men and women in

different roles facing variations in their job and life profile. For example, some of the

issues arising from perceptions that most working women face are: need to strike a

proper balance between work and life; that she should relocate to her spouse’s place

of work; be familiar with the spouse’s work ties than the spouses being familiar with

her work network (Fischer & Oliker 1983). Campbell (1988) found that children and

geo-mobility had a much bigger impact on a woman’s social and professional network

than that of a man.

Researchers have elaborated in detail the differences in attitude and perceptions of

men and women. In many countries people tend to associate higher status and

competence with men than with women (Broverman et al., 1972; Williams & Best,

1990). It is also generalized that women are more likely to engage in conflict and

women are likely to avoid conflict (Christensen, 1988; Gottman, 1994) which has

major implications in assigning roles in organizations. The effect is without doubt

seen and felt in the reporting relationship that exists between employees across

gender.

Men and women, by virtue of their biological sex have also been attributed with trait

differences (Carli, 2001; Carli and Bukatko, 2000). Some traits are associated with

“masculine” (e.g. leadership and assertiveness) and some as “feminine” (e.g. warmth

and emotionality). According to Bem (1974), gender should be defined more in terms

of “masculine” & “feminine” rather than “male” and “female”. The argument

forwarded by Bem is based on a trait analysis which postulates that there are some

traits which are common to both men and women. Hence, according to Bem (1974) it

is not the trait but the perception which brings about a difference in the understanding

of gender.

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There is considerable literature on meanings associated with gender identities. One of

the many perspectives in this area is the structural symbolic interactionist perspective

(Stryker 1980; Burke & Tully 1977). This perspective sees identities as a set of

cultural meanings. Individuals learn these meanings through a variety of mechanisms

like interaction behaviors people’s emotional reactions etc. which creates a base for

generation of expectations.

Based on the above understanding of gender there are various expectations across

genders when they are placed in a mixed work environment. The expectation states

theory (Berger et al.,1977, Carli, 1990; Ridgeway, 1993; Wagner & Berger, 1997) is

one of the major accounts of gender inequality among formal peers. The expectations

state theory stated that actors use cultural beliefs about the status implications of their

distinguishing characteristics to organize interaction in goal oriented settings (Berger

et al. 1977). It further stated that gender becomes salient in a setting when it either

differentiates the actors or is culturally linked to the task at hand. Therefore, gender

status beliefs shape performance expectations and create a power and prestige order

among men and women in a given scenario (Lockheed, 1985; Wagner & Berger,

1977; Wood & Karten, 1986). The theory also postulated that men are more

influential in a mixed sex group, they participate more, are more assertive and less

likely/inclined to agree with similar women.

How does the expectations theory work in an Indian setting where the ratio of men to

women is highly skewed in favor of men, is the question I attempt to answer in the

course of the paper. Based on the literature review, the study is a first attempt to

capture an understanding of gender issues from the perspective of employees and

organizations. It is an exploratory study in the Indian context which can be further

extended by taking it to multiple organizations and studying their viewpoint along

similar parameters.

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3.4 Critical Reviews :

Bernard , “Work condition of Women executive and Communication Pattern”,

1987, Univ. of Chicago

It is the function for the managements in an industry that grows larger and more

complex. The executive process becomes more crucial. Barnard (1987) has made an

important study of the management process, indicates its three main functions:-

i) To provide a system of communication,

ii) To promote securing of essential efforts, and

iii) To formulate and define the purpose for the organization

Method

Women executive from 12 private sectors and 12 Govt. offices in diverse sectors has

been studied

Findings

A majority of women executives in the public sector (66.95%) share the derived

information to some extent and a majority of them (approximately 60%) widely share

the derived information among those who make the decisions. In short, we can say

that the working conditions of the women executive in the private sector are better in

comparison with the women executive in the public sector. The statistical calculation

also supports these contentions.

Thompson, “Sharing of Organizational Goals and Role Performance of Women

Executive”, 1998, Corning University

Method

600 women executives are studied from two levels i.e. top level and middle level. The

tabulation of the answers to the question, to what extent organizational goals and

objectives are shared with the women executives is divided into three categories.

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Findings

The women executives in the private sector are better placed in comparison with the

women executives in the public sector. In case of the women executives in the public

sector 32.20 per cent were of the opinion that they had knowledge pertaining to

organizational goals to some extent and only 16.10 per cent had complete knowledge.

As compared to this 34.15 per cent of the women executives in the private sector

had complete knowledge regarding the goals and objectives of their organizations.

This clearly establishes that women executives in the private sector are better

informed in comparison with the women executives in the public sector. Thus the

private and public sectors significantly differ from each other with regard to making

the executives aware about the organizational goals and objectives which would

ultimately affect their role performance.

David Robins, “Automation and Women Executives”, 1999, Harvard

Mass production is-the revolution of the first half of the twentieth century; automation

is the technological revolution of the second half of the century. David Robin fees

(1999) contended: "automation is the promise of a second or third or even final

industrial revolution - a Robot Age of unmanned production. It represents the desire

and methodology of taking people out of all phases of the production process". The

most important effects are likely to be the freeing of man from routine and allowing

him more time away from the job. It has taken roughly two centuries of the

continuous industrial revolution to get men into and now out of the factory, to proceed

from a work centered to leisure - centered world. Man seems to be approaching the

liberation of those energies that make him a creator and self - controller, as the

machines release his physical and mental energies from routine processes.

The modern man's production depends upon machinery. Similarly, the efficient role

performance of the executive in charge of production would depend upon how

efficiently the equipment and resources of an organization are maintained. As the

private sector is facing stiff competition from other private concerns it is excepted that

they would be maintaining their equipment will whereas the public sector would be a

little lethargic due to lack of competition.

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Method

The respondents' reactions are grouped into four categories depending upon the

degree to which their organizations provide them with, well-equipped resources.

Findings

A majority of women executives in the public sector (60.17%) are of the opinion that

the equipment and resources of their organization are maintained to a little extent or to

some extent and only 39.83 per cent of them are quite satisfied. In comparison with

this one notice the reverse pattern in the private sector where more than 80 per cent of

the women executives feel that the equipment and resources provided to them by their

organizations are well maintained. On this issue also it is found that the women

executives in the private sector are better placed as compared to their counterparts in -

the public sector.

Emin Kahya, “The effects of job characteristics and working conditions on job

performance”, 2006, Department of Industrial Engineering, Eskisehir

Osmangazi University, Bademlik Campus, Eskisehir, Turkey

Abstract

In performance evaluation literature, although the combination of some variables such

as age, gender, experience, observation time, and interpersonal affect has been widely

considered in determining employee performance, no investigation has indicated the

influence of workplace conditions on job performance. This study reports the effects

of job characteristics (physical efforts and job grade), and working conditions

(environmental conditions and hazards) in addition to experience and education level

on task performance and contextual performance. A total of 154 employees in 18

teams at a medium-sized metal company participated in this study. Seven criteria for

task performance and 16 for contextual performance were used for measuring

employee performance. The results showed that there were substantial relationships

between employee performance both job grade and environmental conditions. Poor

workplace conditions (physical efforts, environmental conditions, and hazards) result

in decreasing employee performance consisted of following organization rules,

quality, cooperating with coworkers to solve task problems, concentrating the tasks,

creativity, and absenteeism.

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Relevance to industry

Unpleasant working conditions in workshops have different effects on each of the job

performance indicators. This study highlighted that training program designed to

enhance job performance of the employees working under poor workplace conditions

should focus on organizational rules in terms of occupational health and safety.

Meyer & Scott, “Creating Better Working Conditions for Women Employees”,

2003, London, UK

Meyer believes that the most important asset in a company is people. Therefore, the

basic approach for our human resource system is to create a workplace where

employees can fully demonstrate their skills and capabilities, and to develop an

environment where each employee can maximize his/her value. We believe that a

company can contribute to society through employees improving their own individual

value, and by continually generating new value.

Method

About 250 women executives in organization have been studied. The organizational

system is designed to match the benefits received by a female employee with the

responsibilities assigned to her and the degree of her contribution to the company,

irrespective of his or her age or length of service. The system also retains a structure

that allows for the flexible assignment, appointment and promotion of personnel to

ensure that the right person is in the right place at the right time. Furthermore, a salary

system based on personnel evaluations, enabling the company to pay fair salaries

based on each employee’s performance is introduced. In addition, a transparent and

fair evaluation system that appreciates the importance of communication between the

evaluator and employee, creating a high level of employee satisfaction in the

evaluation process is introduced.

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Fair Recruiting Activities

The first moment of contact between Meyer and employees has been during

recruitment. The basic recruitment policy has been to select applicants based on their

capability and competence, through a fair recruitment process without any

discrimination. For example, we use an "open entry" system that offers equal

opportunity regardless of citizenship, legal residence, gender, physical handicap, or

university of graduation. Moreover, the job application form does not require

information regarding the place of legal residence, religion, family situation, or any

other information for interviews, an applicant’s idea about basic human rights decides

the capability and competence. In order for applicants to understand Meyer

traditionally welcomed applicants.

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Promotion of Work-Life Balance

Meyer promotes the concept of Work-Life Balance with the aims of raising the

motivation of employees toward their work, and allowing them to shape their careers

to realize their full potential. Among other things, childcare and nursing care are

important issues that many employees face during their careers. We believe that

strengthening initiatives for these areas will help us in fulfilling our corporate social

responsibility. Although our measures related to childcare and nursing care were

already at a higher level than those set by legal standards, in Fiscal 2006 we revised

the childcare and nursing care leave systems in order to extend the length of leave,

expand the scope of the employees eligible for leave, and relax the conditions for

taking leave.

Family-Support Holidays

As part of promoting Work-Life Balance, it has been established that family support

and holidays function as incentives to efficiency. This system allows employees to

take up to five days of special paid leave according to their individual family

situations, to attend to childbirth, childcare, or provide nursing or residential care for

other family members, and this is separate from the childcare or nursing care leave

systems. Furthermore, the Special Injury/Illness Leave (up to 50 days of paid annual

leave), which previously could only be used for the employees' own injuries or

illnesses, has been extended to allow employees to attend to childcare, nursing care or

residential care for spouses or parents. Fiscal 2008 marked the third year since the

introduction of these systems, and a total of 58 employees used them.

Initiatives to Reduce Overtime Work

As part of promoting Work-Life Balance, Meyer has implemented measures for

reducing overtime work. In Fiscal 2008, we established a task force in the Human

Resources Department with the assignment of reducing overtime work. It distributed

educational leaflets and provided individual guidance to the departments with

constantly high levels of overtime work. In addition, in November and December

2008, we increased the no overtime days ("Switch-off Day") from the usual two

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Wednesdays a month to every Wednesday in order to support and conform to the

government's campaign for "Family Day" and "Family Week." In undertaking these

activities, Marubeni strives not only to reduce overtime work but also to improve

efficiency by reviewing its business processes.

Mental Health Support Measures

As part of the measures for supporting the advancement of employees' mental health,

Meyer has introduced various kinds of e-Learning training programs, stress checks,

and an Employee Assistance Program (EAP); moreover, we have distributed the

Mental Health Manual.

Conclusions

Improving relations in working conditions has enabled to increase productivity of

female executives.

Louise Manning, “The Work Environment and its Effect on Employee

Performance”, 2004, Massachusetts

The environment that people are required to work in can have a significant impact on

their ability to undertake the tasks that they have been asked to do. This can affect

productivity and employee health and well-being. The key factors fall into two

categories, those that are driven by procedures, protocols and management

requirements and the factors that arise from premises, office or factory design.

Management driven factors include the development of organization plans such as the

allocation of responsibilities at all levels of the organization, definition of job

descriptions and the degree of access to the management and administrative support

needed to complete their tasks; working patterns, shift-working, break times, absence

or holiday cover; and Health and safety policies, including the provision of training,

development of safe working practices and the adequate supply of protective clothing

and equipment.

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Method

69 female workers in a service sector industry have been studied on the following

parameters. Work space availability, light intensity, room temperature,

Ventilation/humidity, Odor/dust or other emissions, providence of soft music,

Premises hygiene/welfare facilities.

Findings

70% of the women respondents have opted for light intensity, providence of soft

music and welfare facilities as motivating factors in the work environment. While 50-

70% have opted for room temperature and availability for space and privacy as

motivating factors.

“The Hawthorne Effect - Mayo Studies in Employee Motivation”, Elton Mayo's

Hawthorne Studies, 2006

In essence, the Hawthorne Effect, as it applies to the workplace, can be summarized

as "Employees are more productive because the employees know they are being

studied." Elton Mayo's experiments show that an increase in worker productivity is

produced by the psychological stimulus of being singled out, involved, and being

made to feel important.

Methods

115 young ladies have been constantly reminded that they are being studied. The

experiment begins by introducing various changes, each of which is continued for a

test period of four to twelve weeks.

Findings

The results of these changes are as follows:

1. They are then put on piecework for eight weeks. the Output has increased

2. They are given two five-minute breaks, one in the morning, and one in the

afternoon, for a period of five weeks the Output has increased, yet again

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3. The breaks are each lengthened to ten minutes the Output has risen sharply

4. Six five-minute breaks are introduced. The girls have complained that their

work rhythm is broken by the frequent pauses. Output has fallen only slightly

5. The original two breaks are reinstated, this time, with a complimentary hot

meal provided during the morning break. Output has increased further still

6. The workday is shortened to end at 4.30 p.m. instead of 5.00 p.m. Output has

increased sharply.

7. The workday is shortened to end at 4.00 p.m. Output is leveled off

8. Finally, all the improvements are taken away, and the original conditions

before the experiment are reinstated. They are monitored in this state for 12

more weeks. Output is the highest ever recorded - averaging 3000 relays a

week

“Rural Women in the Era of Globalization Pesticide Action Network Asia and

the Pacific”

Rural Women : Rural Poverty Report 2001: The Challenge of Ending Rural

Poverty, IFAD

Peasant and indigenous women contribute tremendously to food and agricultural

production through their toil, knowledge, and their nurturing capacities. They are

involved in all aspects of agriculture – sowing, nurturing and protecting crops from

pests, harvesting, selecting and preserving seeds for the next crop, soil enrichment and

so on. They use local ecological resources in a balanced way and then regenerate

these resources. Learning by experience, and experimenting and innovating when

faced with problems, they have developed a vast amount of knowledge and varied

skills in agriculture over generations, and have provided food security to millions of

families.

However, with current globalization strategies for control and dominance, women are

severely discriminated and seen as irrelevant and unproductive to high productive

capitalistic forms of exploitation. This gender discrimination is rooted in the

organized oppression of peoples through class, caste, race and ethnicity.

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Today, three-quarters of the 1.2 billion people in extreme poverty live in rural areas

and a great majority of them are women. Rural women rarely own land, lack access

to financial and social assets, have fewer opportunities to improve their skills and

knowledge, and are rarely able to access public decision making processes. Women’s

access to health and public services is often denied them. Women work long hours

for lower wages and take on back breaking menial tasks in the rural sector. Rural

women are the main food producers in Asia and responsible for preparing food for the

family but often they are the last to eat and eat the least. These gender biases result in

women in the rural sector being undernourished and malnourished.

Malnutrition makes women more vulnerable to various health problems. Frequent

childbearing exacerbates health problems in many countries. Most women work until

late into their pregnancies but are not given any special care; neither do they receive

extra food or rest. Due to traditional roles, pregnant farm workers in China continue

to work in the fields despite their medical condition or stage of their pregnancy,

making conditions increasingly risky to their health. Women in rural Pakistan

frequently carry water over long distances and over difficult terrain – this is linked

with increased rates of miscarriages. Malnutrition, hard labour, and occupational

exposure to chemicals and other hazards can be a lethal combination in exacerbating

the health problems of women in agriculture. However, women’s occupational

hazards in agriculture have been ignored and rarely studied

Women’s Right to Land

In July 2007, two thousand five hundred rural women, mainly Davits, met in a

Conference in Tamilnadu, India to raise their voices to highlight their struggle against

the practices of un-touch ability, gender discrimination and the negative impact of the

globalization process, and agricultural policies that are detrimental to their livelihoods

and survival. Time and again the grassroots women passionately asserted their

demands for the right of poor rural women to own land. They also outlined their

efforts and strategies to achieve land rights for impoverished women. In addition they

concluded that land ownership alone will not be enough, there has to be support for

inputs such as seeds, water and credit that would be needed to ensure sustainable

livelihoods for their communities, and agriculture that would safeguard their health

and the environment.

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These demands for equality and land rights have been the clarion call of rural women

and their movements together with peasants and landless laborers. This reform

includes not only land rights to the landless, but also the necessary support to ensure

their food and economic security. With rights over the land, the peasant women will

have the right to make decisions on how the land is used, the types of crops, the kind

of agriculture that they would choose including sustainable use of land and

sustainable agriculture. For the majority of peasants, their lives and their livelihoods

are tied to the land. Without control over land, women and men peasants cannot

sustainably and efficiently use the land and its resources. They cannot invest in

improving the soil, plan the crops that they will grow, and make long-term plans to

improve their economic situation. Their access to credit is also limited due to lack of

collateral in the form of property or other assets. As Carmen Turla-Bueno of the

Federation of Peasant Women (AMIHAN) said eloquently, “Our struggle for land is a

struggle for our lives”.

Agrarian reform that has been taken up successful in some countries shows that with

rights to land ensured, peasants have been able to have livelihood security. Recent

research from FAO shows that countries that have equitable, efficient land tenure

systems and that have been in the forefront of ensuring property rights for both men

and women have developed faster to achieve higher levels of food security, health and

welfare.

And yet, land ownership is concentrated in the hands of a few landlords. In the

Philippines, a research study conducted by KMP (Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas)

revealed that in one province of Quezon in Southern Tagalog 307 landlords control

71,900 hectares. The holdings averaged 203 hectares while the majority of coconut

farmers are either tenants or farm workers.

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Globalization and Corporate Control of Food and Agriculture

The struggle for land and productive resources is intensifying with the globalization

process. Globalization, the economic integration in trade, investment and finance,

takes the form of liberalization, privatization and deregulation. In developing and

under- developed countries, however, globalization translates into corporate

dominance over local enterprises and of international capital over domestic

economies. Corporate monopolies dominate the ownership structures of local

economies and the organization of production methods. They have control over

technology, raw material sourcing and access to markets.

The process of globalization is a continuum of colonization and the former colonizers

and imperial powers are driving the globalization process to perpetuate the control

and appropriation of natural resources to ensure cheap labour and profits from

developed countries. The process benefits the big TNCs and the elites of the

developed countries at the expense of the poor in the developing countries. In fact,

US went to war in Iraq to guarantee oil supplies to their industry. They are also

implementing a patent law in Iraq to ensure Iraqi farmers purchase the proprietary

seeds of their seed corporations and prohibit them from reusing seeds of "new" plant

varieties registered under the law.

Prantika Sengupta, “Condition of Women Working In the Unorganised Sector”,

Legal Service India.com

"The female labour force constitutes one third of the rural workers in India. Women

workers face serious problems and constraints related to work such as lack of

continuity, insecurity, wage discrimination, unhealthy job relationship, absence of

medical and accident care etc. The exploitation of female laborers in rural regions

happens both horizontally and vertically. It is time to address the issues and discuss

the kind of policy reforms and institutional changes required for the emancipation and

empowerment of rural female labour force. Empowerment should aim at changing the

nature and direction of the power structures which marginalize the women laborers.”

The most important dependent variable in industrial and organizational psychology is

job performance. One of the major concerns of manufacturing companies has focused

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on improving worker productivity, which is one of the job performance measures

(Borman, 2004). Greguras (1996) describes job performance as the extent to which an

organizational member contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization.

According to Keller (2006), when you expect the best from your employees they will

give you their best. On the other hand, when you expect little from employees they

will give you low performance in return, which was named by Manzoni and Barsoux

(2004) as set-up-to fail syndrome.

Employee motivation is one of the strategies of managers to enhance effective job

performance among workers in organizations. Motivation is a basic psychological

process. Motivating is the management process of influencing behaviour based on the

knowledge of what make people tick (Luthans, 1998). Luthans (1998) asserts that

motivation is the process that arouses, energizes, directs, and sustains behaviour and

performance. That is, it is the process of stimulating people to action and to achieve a

desired task. One way of stimulating people is to employ effective motivation, which

makes workers more satisfied with and committed to their jobs. Money is not the only

motivator. There are other incentives which can also serve as motivators. However, in

order to observe an effective work performance in an organization, work motivation

may not be only key factor as put by Luthans (1998).

In this case, leadership effectiveness and time management will be studied along to

see how they relate to work performance in this study. Time management on the other

hand is the development of processes and tools that increase a business time-

efficiency. It is the ability to manage and control time (Webb, 2006). It teaches a

number of techniques that aim to increase the effectiveness of a person in getting the

things done which need to be done. The most common challenge faced at work is time

management. It affects productivity and profit. As opined by Wood (2006), time

management at work is critical for the success of any organization and this directly

affects employees’ performance and the company’s bottom line.

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M. Kciuk, “Personnel management in the aspectof the company management,

Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering”, Vol. 25,

Issue 2, December 2007.

Method

This paper presents personnel management development in recent years. The main

focus was on the workers selection follows through the choice of the suitable methods

of recruitment and selection preceded the planning of personnel needs. The theoretical

research results of the personnel resources management obtained in the past decades

and progressed in recent years are reviewed.

Conclusions

Dynamic changes proceeded in the world; the development of the technology, the

increasing competition requires from the participants of the processes of the

management the organizations of the continuous adaptation changing surroundings.

To match this challenges, necessary becomes the possibly of the fullest human

supplies utilization. The effective system of the personnel management supplies

consists of the row related with each other processes. One attributes the special part to

the proper logging of human supplies. Workers selection follows through the choice

of the suitable methods of recruitment and selection preceded the planning of

personnel needs. So the value and development of the enterprise depends on the

correct selection of workers.

Building and Maintaining a Diverse, High Quality Workforce : A Guide for

Federal Agencies, U.S. Office for Personal Management

The Federal Government strives to be a model employer by building and maintaining

a workforce that reflects the rich diversity of the Nation. Diversity has evolved from

sound public policy to a strategic business imperative. It is an issue that requires more

attention and support within the Federal workplace, and the U.S. Office of Personnel

Management (OPM) is committed to bringing this about. This guide reflects OPM’s

commitment to diversity and to providing the best possible workplace for all Federal

employees.

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Conclusion

As the employer of a diverse workforce, the Federal Government has come a long

way, but still has more work to do. Federal agencies have an opportunity to

demonstrate their commitment to having the best workforce possible — one that is

diverse and of high quality — to conduct the Nation’s business. This guide provides

information and ideas on strategies and activities to build and maintain such a

workforce. However, there are many Federal agencies that have already developed

innovative strategies and activities and are deriving positive results from them. Many

Federal agencies are conducting diversity audits, establishing partnerships with

academic institutions serving minority populations, creating innovative recruitment

programs, setting up clear accountability measures, and designing and providing

effective training. OPM encourages agencies to share their experiences and lessons

learned because they can serve as models for the rest of the Federal Government.

Baglione, Stephen L., “Employee benefits and work conditions by demographic

categories”, Journal of Academy of Business and Economics, Saturday, March 1,

2008

Method

The survey was developed through a literature review and multiple iterations among

colleagues. It was pretested among faculty, staff, and students. It was administered at

a southeastern non-secular university. It is a professional weekend-MBA program,

where students work predominately as middle-level managers during the week.

The data were analyzed in SPSS. Data were recorded by one person and reviewed for

mistakes by another. Frequencies were then examined to ensure no data were outside

the range of feasible answers. One sample t-tests were tested against the scale

midpoint of 5.5. (Note: One question had 11 categories (zero to 10), and was tested

against a mean of five.) Independent-samples t-tests were conducted comparing

results by gender, age (35 and under and over 35), parent or not, and size of firm

(under 1,000 employees and 1,000 and above). Missing data were deleted by

individual question.

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Finding

The survey instrument was completed by 99 students from four MBA classes. Six

surveys were unusable because of incomplete data (n=93). No question had more than

eight missing values. Respondents were mostly male (57%), married (56%), and

between the ages of 25 and 45 (65%) (Table 1). They own their own house (74%) in

the suburbs (54%) and have a median income of $60,000 to $69,999. Forty-four

percent have incomes of $70,000 or above. If income equates to responsibility within

an organization, these respondents have substantial responsibility within large

organizations, as 62 percent work for a company with at least 1,000 employees.

Although we did not sample it, data from MBA students admitted to the school show

that the majority have more than five years of professional experience, representing a

wide variety of industries.

Promotions and raises should also be based upon performance. They believe in drug

testing for new and current employees; however, electronic monitoring (EM) is seen

an unwarranted invasion of privacy. Differences did not exist between those aged 35

and under and over 35. Women believe more than men in EM and providing pensions

that are best in the industry, and that upper management compensation should be in

line with that of employees. Employees in larger firms believe more strongly than

those in smaller firms that firms should provide the best wages and pensions in the

industry. Both agree that promotions should be based solely on proven performance,

although those in larger firms hold this belief with greater conviction. Those in larger

firms believe financial support for employee education and career development

should be provided by employers. No differences exist between those with or without

children.

Kay Lynn Kalkowski and Susan M. Fritz, “A Survey of Gender-Related

Motivation Studies : Subordinate Status, Roles, and Stereotyping”, Journal of

Leadership Education, Volume 3, Issue 2 - Fall 2004.

The purpose of this paper is to present a brief overview of motivational theory and

then discuss the subject of gender differences related to motivation. The paper will

explore the research that has evolved through the 1950s and 1960s as more and more

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women entered the work force to the present. The studies will be limited to those

whose subjects are part of hierarchical organizational settings and will include

discussions of subordinate status, roles, and stereotyping. The importance of this

paper in the field of leadership stems from its chronological approach to the unfolding

of perceptions about gender as they relate specifically to motivation.

Conclusion

The whole question of differences between male and female motivation to aspire to

high leadership positions arises from society’s perception of gender status. Women

have long held a subordinate status in society, which often gets interpreted as “women

are not of equal worth.” Gender stereotypes arise because people make observations

that lead them to generalize conclusions. Specifically, society has concluded that men

are agented and women are communal. Because stereotypes are so prevalent in our

society, many women believe they have lower intelligence and lesser ability than

men. The question of whether there really are gender differences in motivation

became more urgent when women began joining the work force in large numbers.

Miner (1974) coined the phrase “motivation to manage” which has come to represent

leadership in the workplace. Miner’s tests concluded that there were no consistent

differences in male and female managerial motivation in some instances and found

gender differences in others.

Responding to “gender differences” found in such studies as those of Miner (1974),

feminists came forward in the 1980s to question tests that they felt were skewed

toward male dominance and to assert some motivational theories of their own. To

summarize all of the prior gender-related motivation-to-manage research using the

Miner Sentence Completion Scale, Eagly et al. (1994) performed a meta-analysis.

These researchers concluded that managerial styles are closely related to masculine

styles. They also concluded that masculine managerial role descriptions are barriers to

women who are aspiring to managerial positions. In general, the researchers found

that men’s motivation tends to be greater than women’s on assertive leadership style.

Thornton et al. (1997) at the end of the 20th century and van Vianen and Fischer

(2002) have reflected on differences between females achieving middle management

positions and the very few who have reached top management. This phenomenon has

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been dubbed as “the glass ceiling.” Recently tests indicate there are gender

differences and that women are less ambitious than men concerning motivation-to-

manage (van Vianen & Fischer, 2002). Thornton, however, questioned the MSCS and

prior tests that have used it, saying behaviorally based measures may show fewer

gender differences than have been thought to exist. The gender-related motivation

literature also suggests that there are some women whose motivation-to-manage is

thwarted by the work-home conflict. In addition, they may be hindered by society’s

negative reaction to the woman who assumes the assertive, agented masculine

behavior to attempt to reach the top.

Jacob K. Eskildsen, Kai Kristensen, Anders H. Westlund, “Work motivation and

job satisfaction in the Nordic countries”, Vol. 26, Issue 2, 122-136, 2004.

Method

This paper studies differences in job satisfaction and intrinsic work motivation

between employees with different characteristics. Based on a study of the literature

assumptions regarding these differences are developed and tested on data from a

survey in the Nordic countries. In these survey 9,623 employees from randomly

selected households in the Nordic countries participated.

Findings

Among the findings are that Danish workers were found to be the most satisfied and

that there is no difference between the genders with respect to job satisfaction in the

Nordic countries.

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Adeyinka Tella, C.O. Ayeni and S. O. Popoola, “Work Motivation, Job

Satisfaction, and Organisational Commitment of Library Personnel in Academic

and Research Libraries in Oyo State, Nigeria”, Library Philosophy and Practice

2007.

Method

This study used a descriptive survey design. The purpose of descriptive surveys,

according to Ezeani (1998), is to collect detailed and factual information that

describes an existing phenomenon.

The target population of the study was library personnel in all research and academic

libraries in Oyo state, Nigeria. A census of five research and four academic libraries

was taken.

A total enumeration sampling technique was used to select 200 library personnel.

There were 200 participants. Of these, 82 (41%) were females; while 118 (59%) were

males. Their age ranges from 23-56 years, with a mean age of 39.5 years.

Findings

The findings of this study reveal that a correlation exists between perceived

motivation, job satisfaction, and commitment, although correlation between

motivation and commitment was negative. No difference was observed in the

perceived motivation of professional and non-professional library personnel.

Moreover, findings also show that differences exist in the job satisfaction of library

personnel in academic and research libraries, and that no relationship exists in the

organizational commitment of library personnel based on their years of experience.

The correlation that exists in this study among perceived work motivation, job

satisfaction, and organizational commitment corresponds with (Brown and Shepherd,

1997) who reported that motivation improves workers' performance and job

satisfaction. The result also agrees with Chess (1994), reported that certain

motivational factors contribute to the prediction of job satisfaction. However, negative

correlation between organizational commitment and work motivation as reported in

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this study may be a result of the fact librarians are not highly motivated by their

deeply held values and beliefs regarding the development of a shared vision as put

forward by Brown and Shepherd (1997). Tang and LiPing (1999) report that a

relationship exists between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and Woer

(1998) finds that organizational commitment relates to job satisfaction, which both

support this result. Furthermore, Stokes, Riger, and Sullivan's (1995) report that

perceived motivation relates to job satisfaction, commitment, and even intention to

stay with the firm corroborates this present result.

The second result obtained on this study was that no significant difference was

observed in the perceived work motivation of professional and non-professional

library personnel. Williams in Nwagu (1997) reported that motivation potential is

linked to five core characteristics that affect three psychological states essential to

internal work motivation and positive work outcome. That idea complements the

present finding. Similarly, the finding by Colvin (1998) that financial incentives

increase productivity, corroborates this result.

Professional and non-professional library personnel have the same perceived work

motivation if they are given the work environment and incentives that they need and

deserve. The issue of professionalism in librarianship is a very important one, but

non-professional library employees are essential to library operations and their

motivation and commitment are also essential.

Many libraries, therefore, take the same approach to motivation for all of their

employees, irrespective of status and qualifications. Hence, the non significant

difference in their perception of work motivation is probably connected with this

issue. The fact that no relationship was observed between the organizational

commitment of the library personnel and their years of experience, contradict some

previous findings of studies. For instance Irving, Coleman, and Meyer (1994) suggest

that job experience early in one's career plays a prominent role in the development of

commitment. It is commonly felt that experience increases the level of commitment of

workers in an organization, and this may be the case under normal circumstances. The

result obtained in this study may be due to particular local situations.

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The findings of this study have pointed out some salient issues in the field of

librarianship. It is imperative for library management to meet the demands of their

personnel to strengthen their motivation, satisfaction, and commitment to minimize

turnover. Governments and library management should concentrate on improving the

conditions for library personnel. One crucial area is on-the-job training to cope with

the integration of information technology into library practices. Career survival would

depend on career resilience (Casio in Sinclair et al. 2005) and pragmatic adjustment to

change (Borgen, in Adeyemo, 2000). Librarians and library staff must readily reinvent

themselves and take responsibility for managing their careers with support from

employers. Satisfaction might be found in "sacrificial labour," otherwise referred to as

labour of love by (McDonald, 1996). Uppermost in our minds should be the quest for

self actualization described by Maslow. Library personnel must acknowledge that

mental health is better anchored in intrinsic motivational factors within one's control.

The need to assume responsibility for one's career, especially in a depressed economy,

cannot be overemphasized (Heinz, 1987). Attainment of job satisfaction among

library personnel through value clarification, personal problem solving, and a creative

approach are insightful and intrinsic motivational approaches that are recommended

in this study.

It is important to note some limitations of this study. First, the study is correlation and

as such we cannot assume any causal relationship between job satisfaction,

organizational commitment, and work motivation. Second, the samples used for this

study are library personnel in academic and research libraries in Oyo State, Nigeria.

One cannot generalize findings to other states of the federation. Future researchers

may focus on the limitations and work improving the generality of the results.

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Roy F. Baumeister and Kathleen D. Vohs, “Self-Regulation, Ego Depletion, and

Motivation”, Social and Personality Psychology Compass 1, 2007.

Method

In this article they examine research on self-regulation and the related notion of

willpower in relation to motivation. Self-regulation is often employed to restrain

motivations, but the motivation to self-regulate is often crucial to the success of

engaging in self-regulation.

Conclusion

Motivation is fundamental to life, and indeed most likely the self as agent evolved to

facilitate the goal pursuits associated with crucial motivations. Yet in order to manage

conflicts between inner motivations and between external constraints and inner

motives, self-regulation is a vital function of the agented self (Baumeister, 1998).

Recent self-regulatory theories have probably not given sufficient attention to the role

played by motivation in enabling self-regulation to be successful – even when self

regulation is employed to restrain motivation.

Allan Fisher, Jane Margolis and Faye Miller, “Undergraduate Women in

Computer Science: Experience, Motivation and Culture”, UTRL :

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download.

Method

We have been using ethnographic methods, with interviews being the primary source

of our data. We regard the students as expert witnesses in their own world, and try to

ask the questions that will enable them to best elucidate their thoughts about computer

science, It is then up to us to note significant themes and patterns. We are not testing

hypotheses, but rather are generating testable hypothesis about students’ attachment

and detachment.

The participants of this study are:

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1. CMU Computer Science male (29) and female (20) students (first-year to senior);

2. Two selected samples of female non-CS majors: 9 students doing well (receiving

an A at midterm) in a non majors’ programming class.

Every interview is tape recorded. The interviews are transcribed and the transcripts

are entered into Hyper Research, a commercial computer program developed to assist

in qualitative data analysis. After coding the interviews for events and themes, the

coder writes what we call a “narrative summary.” This is our attempt to keep the

participants story as whole as possible, to avoid “context stripping.” We have worked

very hard negotiating the tension between presenting our data as full portraits and the

almost necessary “fracturing” of the data into discrete elements so that we can detect

patterns across groups and categories.

Conclusion

As we work forward from these observations toward a program of interventions, the

three sets of issues we will be working to elucidate are those surrounding individual

and cultural conceptions of computer science, those involving pedagogy, and those

involving institutional culture. In all cases, we will be working to sort the essential

features of computer science from the accidental (and perhaps harmful), and to

understand how perceptions and misperceptions axe formed and influence students’

decisions. We will be asking how we can improve both the reality of the computer

science program and its culture, and the accuracy with which they are perceived by

computer science students, other students and prospective students.

A key question that pervades students’ accounts of their relationships with computing

is their understanding of the nature of the field, in both its intellectual and social

aspects. Considering that a wide range of conceptions of computer science exists

among faculty, what about the nature of the field gets translated to existing and

potential female and male students? Among the issues that seem to deter women from

pursuing computer science is the conception that it is narrowly focused on

programming and other technical issues, and that people who enter CS are forced (or

choose) to be narrowly focused themselves. Even students within CS carry this

stereotype of others, while denying it applies to them. In our ongoing study, we will

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work to elucidate these issues, and to develop ways of communicating the “big

picture” earlier and more accurately to five-year and prospective student’s education

process and ways in which it could be improved.

If women prefer to learn about the computer in a purposeful context (i.e.

“programming for a purpose, not just to program”), does the curriculum respond? Are

assignments more in line with what seems to be young male desires, such as focusing

predominantly on the machine? Although the department has made improvements, it

is arguably still true that the early curriculum (here and nationwide) fails to paint a

complete picture of the field’s possibilities. They are also aware of the possibilities of

different pedagogical approaches to programming. One question we are analyzing is

whether females and males differ in their cognitive preferences in programming.

Another issue we plan to address is the prevailing conception of gender in CS among

the student body. The only significant “chilly climate” issue raised in our interviews

concerns the attitudes of fellow students. This is a delicate issue, posing substantial

risk of backlash against clumsy consciousness-raising efforts. In seeking effective

means of shifting the prevailing culture, we will be asking students about the roots of

their assumptions about women and computer science, and about experiences that

have changed or might change them.

Disciplining Creativity : Social Mechanisms And Human Resources

Management Practices in Creativity – Driven Organizations, presented by

Barbara Slavich at Esade – Escuela Supeerior De Administration Y Direccion De

Empresas.

This study seeks to advance the literature on organizational creativity by providing

definitional clarity on the term, analyzing how different scholars have conceptualized

it. It tries to integrate separate streams of research into a whole and to increase the

understanding of what constitutes the essence of creativity, by exploring its defining

elements and concepts.

The study aims at identifying specific HRM practices that help companies retain

creative employees in creativity-driven organizations. At this purpose, it investigates

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the specific case of a multi-unit corporation operating in the high symbolic context. In

this way, the dissertation also contributes to the human resource management and

multi-unit organizations literature.

Method

Business Source Complete database was used to collect the articles. This database is

the industry’s most commonly used business research database, providing full text for

more than 2,300 journals, including full text for more than 1,100 peer-reviewed

titles3.

An 18-year period was covered, from 1990 to 2008, in order to include in the sample

from early stage to more recent creativity studies. 1990 was chosen as the starting

point for the analysis since it marked the beginning of studies on creativity that

proliferated in the field of management. In that year researchers began analyzing

contextual factors and environmental variables associated with creativity,

conceptualizing the importance of including new elements in the definitions of

creativity.

In order to conduct the content analysis, 462 articles on academic journals and 50

books were analyzed. High prestige journals were chosen to make sure that the

leading edge of research was included in the analysis (for example, Academy of

Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Administrative Science

Quarterly, Organization Science). As the analysis got under way, it became clear that

it was necessary to also include other journals that represented a significant part of

creativity studies and that are the most receptive to research on creativity (Creativity

& Innovation Management, Creativity Research Journal).

The articles for the study were chosen by reading the abstract: if, after reading the

abstract, there was some question as to whether the article included definitional issues

on creativity, then the full article was read. Articles on creativity were included if they

were deemed to have academic merit, which operationally meant conceptual or

empirical content.

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Findings

The study of creativity could be advanced by an integration of different levels of

analysis. This consideration has implications for both theory and practice: scholars

and practitioners who want to manage creativity in organizations should focus at the

individual, team, organizational levels at the same time.

Heidi M. Reeder, “A critical look at gender difference in communication

research”, Communication Studies, Volume 47, Issue 4 Winter 1996 , pages 318 –

330

In this essay, the assumptions, ideologies, and methodologies that provide the

foundation for much of the research conducted on gender differences in interpersonal

communication are critically analyzed. (Sociological) gender is often studied as

(biological) sex, a pattern that perpetuates misinformation about the meaning of male-

female differences. In addition, the results of many of these studies are generalized,

leaving crucial within-group differences relatively ignored. Researchers also often

study gender as a predictor variable, paying less attention to how communication

creates gender. Finally, results of gender-difference studies do not tend to be analyzed

or presented critically. Suggestions are offered for undergoing more reflexive reports

of gender difference in interpersonal communication.

Petra Lindfors, Leeni Berntsson and Ulf Lundberg, “Total workload as related

to psychological well-being and symptoms in full-time employed female and male

white-collar”, International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, December, 2008.

Comparative knowledge concerning positive aspects of human functioning, such as

health and well-being and how they relate to total workload of employed women and

men, is limited. Our aim in this study was to investigate how total workload including

paid and unpaid work is related to psychological well-being and symptoms in full-

time employed women and men. We obtained data on workload, general symptoms,

and the Ryff scales covering self-acceptance, environmental mastery, positive

relations, personal growth, purpose in life, and autonomy from questionnaires mailed

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to a stratified sample of highly educated white-collar workers aged between 32 and 58

years. Data from women (n =430) and men (n = 400) living in partner relationships

with at least one child showed that increasing hours of unpaid work was associated

with decreasing levels of self-acceptance and environmental mastery in women,

whereas paid work was associated with increasing levels of personal growth and

decreasing levels of purpose in life. For men, paid work was associated with

increasing levels of personal growth and more symptoms. We discuss factors

underlying the gender-specific relationships between paid and unpaid work,

psychological well-being, and symptoms.

Pawan S. Budhwar; Debi S. Saini; Jyotsna Bhatnagar, “Women in Management

in the New Economic Environment: The Case of India”, Asia Pacific Business

Review, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2005 , pages 179 – 193.

Liberalization of the Indian economy has created considerable employment

opportunities for those, including women, who possess marketable skills and talent.

Historically, women in India have not enjoyed a good status in workplace settings

whether in managerial or operative roles. This traditional positioning of women has

restricted the intensity of their efforts towards realizing the benefits of the

globalization process. An attempt has been made in this contribution to highlight the

important issues relating to women in management in the Indian context. The

messages from a review of the literature are analyzed. Research evidence from

various sources is presented to highlight the dynamics of developments in the status

of Indian women managers. The contribution discusses the main aspects of the

historical, socio-cultural and economic factors influencing women managers: issues

concerning gender-based stereotypes; the main barriers to women's movement to top

managerial positions; the impact of developments in information technology (IT) on

women managers; and the way forward. Results from two research projects are also

presented. The analysis has important messages for practitioners and contributes to

women's studies and management in the Indian context.

Deepika Nath, “Gently shattering the glass ceiling: Experiences of Indian women

managers”, Women in Management Review, 2000, Vol. 15, Issue 7, page 44-52.

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The status of women in India has long been paradoxical. They have had access to

professions such as medicine, teaching and politics and have the right to own

property. Among some social classes, women are extremely powerful. Yet, there is a

long history of women being oppressed by men – delegated to playing subordinate

roles. India’s workforce is changing. Social values and mores, and the increased

global focus on women’s issues have changed the woman’s role impacting the career

progression of women. This paper examines the impact of social, organizational and

personal biases on the progression of professional women in India. Women managers

in India have been generally successful in rising to the executive suite in Indian

organizations, despite a culture that might suggest otherwise. These women were

successful because of the interplay of organizational and familial support, coupled

with the individual drive for success each woman demonstrated.

Merete Labriola, “Work environment factors associated with long-term sickness

absence and return to work Globalization and Women Workers”, Ph.D. Thesis,

Institute of Public Health, University of Copenhagen.

Method

A meta analysis study was carried out to know the work environment factors

associated with long – term sickness absence and return to work. She had selected

five related studies and analyzes the information using meta analysis technique.

This thesis is a comprehensive study coupling two cohorts of employees with register

data on social transfer benefits, covering a wide range of risk factors reflecting the

complex process of work disability. Some exposures are not covered in this particular

study, e.g., healthcare system, registrations, diagnosis, level of function, work ability,

workplace policy and practice etc. However, this study supports the concept of a

multifactorial etiology of work disability. While recognizing the link between health

and sickness absence, this study strongly suggests the role of work environment

factors in the etiology of work disability.

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Due to the complexity of work disability, this thesis adds only limited knowledge in

understanding this multidimensional problem as a whole, in contrast the results add

knowledge about risk factors associated with the different phases of the dynamic work

disability in a Danish context.

Findings

She had given findings in terms of solutions of different questions. The findings are as

follows :

Sickness absence was associated with working with arms lifted/hands twisted,

extreme bending/stooping of the back/neck, repetitive monotonous work, low skill

discretion, low decision authority, obesity, current or former smoking, poor self-rated

health, female gender, increasing age and working in the public sector. Furthermore

the following physical work environment exposures were associated with long-term

sickness absence: stooping work position, twisting the back, pushing/pulling heavy

loads, physical activity in work. Also, there are psychosocial environment exposures:

low decision authority, low supervisor support and low management quality was

associated with long-term sickness absence, taking into account health behavior, age,

and attitude to sickness absence.

The potential gain in sickness absence reduction through work environment

improvement was found by calculating the etiologic fraction: the etiologic fraction

attributable to differences in work environment exposures was calculated to 40%.

Higher risk of long-term sickness absence was associated with gender, age,

educational level, and the public sector. Kindergarten teachers and those employed in

daycare, healthcare, janitorial work, food preparation, and unskilled workers were at

greatest risk. Managers, computer professionals, technicians and designers, and

professionals had lower risks. The healthcare and social service sectors were also in

the higher risk category, whereas the private administration sector had a lower risk.

The majority of the findings were expected and in accordance with the literature, but

there were a couple of exceptions with regard to the effect of number of employees

and high-risk job groups and sectors. General self-efficacy was significantly lowered

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among those sick-listed compared to the general working population. Self-efficacy

showed no statistically significant association with later onset of sickness absence or

with RTW.

Long-term sickness absence was predicted by physical work environment factors at

the individual level and psychosocial work environment factors at workplace level.

Interaction between the individual physical and workplace level psychosocial risk

factors was found.

STADD Development Consulting Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, “Impact of Trade and

Globalization on Women Workers in the Handicraft Sector: Evidence from the

Carpet and Embroidery Sectors”.

At the individual level, significant associations were found between one psychosocial

and four physical factors and RTW within four weeks. Two physical factors predicted

RTW within one year. Two psychosocial and two physical factors significantly

prolonged duration of sickness absence. No significant contextual level risk factors

were found.

For a sector that impacts the lives of so many, there is precious little in terms of data

available. Exim Bank's occasional paper on ‘Indian Handicrafts: A New Direction for

Exports’ refers to a study done by NCAER a decade ago that seems to be the best

detailed documented effort till date.

The occasional paper states, ‘According to the first ever national census of the

handicrafts sector, undertaken in 1995–6 by the National Council of Applied

Economic Research (NCAER), the estimated value of goods produced in the

handicrafts sector was Rs 26,213 crore2. According to the census, the total number of

units producing handicrafts was 12.66 lakh, employing 41 lakh artisans with an

average of 3.24 persons per unit. Textile crafts constituted the largest share of the

handicraft sector accounting for over 50 per cent of the total units as well as artisans3.

During the period 1994–99, exports of handicrafts grew by 89 per cent in rupee terms

and 41 per cent in dollar terms; from Rs 3738 crore in 1994–5, the sector touched Rs

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7072 crore in 1998–99. However, exports of handicrafts have been rather lopsided,

with nine items accounting for nearly 63 per cent of the export turnover. These nine

items include art metal ware, wood ware, hand-printed textiles, hand-knotted and

embroidered textiles, leather goods, stoneware, carpets and floor coverings.

In the world market, handcrafted, semi-handcrafted and machine-crafted goods vie for

customer attention in a broad segment defined as ‘gifts and decorative’, which itself

forms a sub-segment of a wider market called ‘interior goods’. The size of world trade

in handicrafts in 1999 was estimated at US$ 75 billion. According to the Export

Promotion Council for Handicrafts (EPCH), China accounted for nearly US$ 17

billion worth of exports of decorative in 1998, in comparison with Indian exports of

handicrafts of US$ 1.7 billion.

In general, trade liberalization is considered to have a positive effect on employment

and income of the poor. However, as with all structural reforms, there are winners and

losers, and there is evidence of some episodes where the transitional costs of trade

reform fell disproportionately on the poor. However, empirical data suggests that even

for the poor, short-term costs of adjustment to trade reforms are outweighed by the

benefits4. The theoretical predilection for greater openness rests in productivity gains

through enhanced competition, efficiency, innovation and acquisition of new

technology made possible by globalization. On the other hand, the changing relative

prices induced by globalization in a competitive environment cause the re-allocation

of resources, from less to more efficient uses.

Higher integration with the world economy also enhances opportunities for expanding

market size with knowledge and experience spillovers. Thus, a proactive trade reform

policy can induce output and productivity growth along with increases in wages and

salaries, breaking the shackles of the low-earning equilibrium trap and advancing

poverty alleviation objectives. Wealth creation can lead to capital formation and

increases in output, generating higher employment in the economy with a direct

impact on poverty.

While this seems to work very well for people having access to education and higher

endowments of human capital, the above mentioned framework is not demonstrated to

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be very effective for the needs of the less endowed population for whom the state

needs to provide a more inclusive policy framework. The Swaranjayanti Gram

Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) promoted by the Ministry of Rural Development is one

such scheme directed at the marginalized and offers support to grassroots enterprises

through components such as group formation, lending, training, and insurance. The

objective of the SGSY is to augment income generation, promote thrift and arrange

for convergence of social services like family planning, health care, nutrition and

education.

The argument for higher degree of trade openness calls for an open debate on

reducing tariffs, which can be unfavorable for government revenue, ultimately

impacting its capacity to earmark expenditures for development causes such as

alleviation of poverty. However, it is argued that a reduction in the average rate of

tariff would have a positive impact on efficiency and output that would consequently

enhance the volume of trade, also resulting in higher custom revenues. To cite current

figures, provisional data available with the Finance Ministry show customs duty

collections during April–May 2007 at Rs 15,619 crore, representing a 23.78 per cent

growth over the customs duty revenues of Rs 12,618 crore recorded in the same

period last year. Thus, there is no negative effect on government revenue.

Nordas (2003) has demonstrated that there is clearly a positive correlation between

women’s share of employment and export in countries such as Mauritius, Mexico,

Peru, Philippines, and Sri Lanka. The correlation stems from variations between

sectors rather than within sectors over time, indicating that export-competing

industries tend to employ women while import-competing industries tend to employ

men. However, the statistical test yields a general result from which only a broad

trend can be deciphered. The present study aims to explicitly observe the pattern of

change in employment for women, given the changes in productivity and efficiency

within the structure of the handicraft industry in India.

Ozler (2000) has investigated the relationship between export orientation and female

share of employment in the Turkish manufacturing sector during 1983–5 following

the onset of the export-led industrialization policies. Using plant-level data, Ozler

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found that the female share of employment in a plant increases with the export to total

output ratio of the sector.

Broad trends based on cross-country analyses indicate that export promotion and trade

liberalization policies have led to feminization of the labour force in developing

countries (Wood, 1991; Cagatay and Ozler, 1995). Support for this overall trend is

found in a large number of country case studies that associate the feminization of

labour force in developing countries with the spread of export-led industrialization

(Cagatay and Berik, 1991). However, the direction of change towards or away from

feminization is not uniform across countries (Joekes, 1995). Moreover, the

interpretation of underlying processes that lead to the feminization of the labour force

is not uniform.

In some interpretations, feminization is a consequence of a shift of production to

sectors where women have been traditionally employed (Wood, 1991, 1994). Other

studies suggest that feminization is the consequence of substitution of expensive male

labour by ‘low cost’ female labour (Standing, 1989, 1999). Some research also points

to the possibilities of feminization as a consequence of decline in jobs handled by men

(Elson, 1996). Due to the diversity of observed patterns and underlying processes,

cross-country studies should be complemented by country-specific studies.

Over the last two decades, there has been a significant increase in women’s share of

industrial employment, owing to the spread of export-oriented industrialization from

its initial base in Mexico and the four Asian tigers (Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan

and Singapore) (Pearson, 1998) to other regions. This expansion has not been

universal and country-specific variations are observed.

There is, however, some evidence suggesting that the association of increased

intensity of female employment with export-oriented industrialization might be

reversed (Joekes, 1995) due to the introduction of new technologies, skill up gradation

of export producers, and reorganization of production, especially the multitasking of

flexible labour engaged in high-performance production. In the face of such

technological and organizational change, those women who manage to retain jobs get

an opportunity to emerge as multi-skilled workers, as noticed in the just-in-time

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production cultures (for example, in electronics and garment-making in Mexico)

(Pearson, 1998).

Existing studies on female employment in the manufacturing sector of the developing

economy suggest that women tend to be employed in low-skill, lower paying jobs, in

small-scale plants with low-capital intensity, and men tend to be concentrated in

higher paying and larger capitalized sectors. It is also suggested that intensity of

female employment might decrease with technological change, indicating lower

incidence of skill up gradation efforts among women (Joekes, 1995).

Jha and Ahmed (2006) documented consequence of increased trade on employment

and analyzed the relationship between women’s empowerment and export shares

normalized by state domestic product (SDP) for different states. The empowerment of

women has been measured by them through a composite index of demography,

education, health, drudgery, social status, labour participation, economic status and

leadership. The derived result shows a significant positive relationship between export

share in SDP and women’s empowerment. The regression result indicates that higher

the share of exports in economy, higher the empowerment of women. However, if one

removes education and health from gender development index, the effect of trade

liberalization on gender development becomes insignificant, which highlights the

crucial role of education and health in delivering holistic benefits of trade

liberalization.

It is also observed that education plays a significant role in gender development.

While the study has observed that integration to globalization generated a fluctuating

trend in employment prospects and uncertainties among women, the net economic

gain tends to outweigh the social cost associated with uncertainties. However, there

are instances of imbalances caused to women participation in various sectors.

Globalization may offer opportunities for women to participate in the global economy

with accompanying opportunities if they (and the sector they work in) can gear

themselves up to be competitive. Other than tariff-related support, issues concerning

skill development, credit, information and access to resources are important concerns

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for involving women in the production process and giving them a chance to compete

effectively.

The study by Fontana et al (1998) observed that improvement in income earning

capacity of women strengthens the incentive for investing into the education, health

and skill-development of the girl child. Even a casual look at the experience of Kerala

shows that a greater proportion of women participation in working population has

definitely resulted in proliferating schools and learning centers for girls. The

productivity and income gains of the women workforce are expected to contribute

positively to eradication of poverty and to ensure improved accessibility to education,

credit, health and other facilities.

Angela Keller-Herzog (1996) suggests that in the advent of globalization the main

problem lies with the level at which women are absorbed into industrial work. The

outcomes are (i) lower wages for women for equal work in comparison to male

counterparts, (ii) denial of access to many areas of work (including managerial), (iii)

poor working conditions, (iv) significant barriers for women, particularly those with

children, (v) sex segregation, (vi) absence of worker’s right, and (v) lack of provision

of facilities such as toilets and crèches for women workers.

Joekes, Susan and Ann Weston (1994) pointed out that policy issues are not just

restricted to trade negotiations, but the reality of globalization influences virtually all

policy domains. The common themes in modern neo-liberal policies designed to

attract capital are stability of liberalization and de-regulation. While the liberal state

was legitimated as the regulator of the economy and the guarantor of a degree of

social equity, the neo-liberal state has a role in adjusting the national economy to the

dynamics of a largely unregulated global economy. Therefore, globalization has many

facets and its impact on social aspects, especially on gender issues is a subject of

critical inquiry. The present study is an attempt in this direction through assessment of

sector specific impacts emerging out of opening of trade in the carpet and embroidery

sub-sectors of Uttar Pradesh.

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Impact of Trade and Globalization on Women Workers in the Handicraft

Sector: Evidence from the Carpet and Embroidery Sectors, UNCTAD- Govt. of

India – DFID Project.

The study is important for interpreting changes in economic and social conditions of

the rural craftsperson. This study is intended to lay down policy imperatives for the

sector through the analysis primary and secondary data.

The purpose of this study is to assess the commonly held view that women tend to be

more vulnerable to the negative effects of trade liberalization and less able to capture

the benefits than men. The paper restricts itself to the impact of globalization on

India’s carpet weaving and embroidery sectors within the state of Uttar Pradesh.

Method

Using data from the Annual Survey of Industry (ASI) (code 262 for carpet and 263

for embroidery) in conjunction with export figures of textile products from

Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics (DGCI&S) for the

period 1981 to 1998, the analysis adopted a multivariate regression framework. The

share of women’s employment was estimated from ASI unit level data for the

intervals 1981, 1986, 1993 and 1997.

The multivariate model was used to test the hypotheses linked to responsiveness of

female share of employment to wage income, technology and other control, as well as

explanatory factors.

It is assumed that a positive impact on women’s employment would generate higher

income and would have a positive impact on alleviating poverty. The degree of

association among variables related to employment, income, women’s empowerment

would explicitly determine linkages with other socio-economic factors effecting

quality of life. Higher women’s empowerment would be a corollary factor for

development of women. On the other hand, higher productivity could have a damping

effect on women absorption, given the greater intensity in usage of conventional and

outmoded technology.

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A variable that measures machinery investment per worker at the plant level

(INVMA) is also incorporated. The variable is included to check whether

technological up gradation at the plant-level may lead to de-feminization at the work

place. Apart from explanatory indicators, the time variable is included to capture the

trend effect. The dummy variable is included to observe the impact of policy induced

factors. The error term captures residual variation.

Two regression models were developed. These models were included to observe trend

and impact of included explanatory variables on women’s employment and

productivity. The key variable of interest in both models is export in total output.

The primary survey was intended to corroborate the fact sheet with major

stakeholders of the sector. The respondents were chosen randomly from the list of

names for each category of stakeholders, leaving room for statistical estimation from

answers received against various sets of questions related to socio-economic and

gender perspectives.

Findings

The quantitative analysis and the primary survey have given an insight into the

socioeconomic profile of weavers. It is observed that there is a change in women’s

participation in workforce and empowerment with increasing access to open markets,

though the changes are not as direct as were thought out to be. The benefits of

globalization are percolating gradually into the sector. However, the dominant

presence of intermediaries chokes the percolation of greater benefits to the workers at

the grassroots.

Most women respondents revealed that they had entered the workforce mainly to

support their families and to augment a sense of security about the financial future of

their households.

The quantitative analysis and the primary survey have given an insight into the

socioeconomic profile of weavers. It is observed that there is a change in women’s

participation in workforce and empowerment with increasing access to open markets,

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though the changes are not as direct as thought to be. The benefits of globalization are

percolating gradually into the sector. However, the dominant presence of

intermediaries is an impediment in the way of penetration of greater benefits.

Though weaving has traditionally involved more men than women, involvement of

women in carpet activity is gradually increasing as a result of the emergence of the

tufted carpet. Export figures for handmade woolen tufted carpets between the period

2005-06 and 2006-07 show that exports grew by 19.52 per cent from Rs. 971.46 crore

to Rs. 1161.10 crore.

Also important to note is that entry of women in carpet sector is mostly of recent

origin as evidenced by the maximum share of women workers in ‘1 to 2 years of

engagement’ category. This has probably come in only after substantial trade

liberalization.

Most women are engaged in employment to support their families and for greater

security of livelihood.

Dr P D Shenoy, “GLOBALIZATION : ITS IMPACT ON LABOUR IN INDIA”

He had studied the different aspects of globalization and its impact on labour in India.

In his article, he had covered different important points : The Contours of

Globalization, Current Scenario, and Changes in Labour market structure, and Advent

of liberalization, privatization and globalization, Small Scale Industries, Benefits of

Globalization, Internationalization of Production Chains (Sub-contracting,

outsourcing

arrangements), Impact on Trade Union organizations and their role in Social Dialogue

institutions, Labour Market Flexibility, Static Labour Policy but changed mindset of

the judiciary, legislature and the executive, Labour Law Reforms and different labour

/ industrial acts.

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“Improving Women’s Working Conditions in the Pearl River Delta”,

Administrative Support from The Asia Foundation Funding provided by the

Levi Strauss Foundation,

http://asiafoundation.org/pdf/china.improve.women.pdf.

Method

In cooperation with and with generous funding from the Levi Strauss Foundation, The

Asia Foundation supported the design, preparation, and implementation of a series of

projects targeting at-risk and in-need women workers in the Pearl River Delta. Begun

in 2000, the program established a baseline for improving women’s health and

hygiene in factories and set out to improve women’s health through on-site health

services. This report describes the initial situation of a number of factories selected as

2001 participants.

Through the Women’s Department of the Guangdong Labor Union, Levi Strauss

Foundation funding supports the improvement of factory conditions in 13 factories.

The Women’s Department works through local Labor Union branches and health and

sanitation stations to investigate and analyze the relation between working conditions

and women’s health and to provide on-site counseling, check-up services, and health

education to women workers. The two case studies below provide information on the

current status of a medium-sized factory producing wooden jewelry boxes for export

to the U.S., and a large factory complex supporting six different factories that produce

a vast array of consumer items.

Findings

Jewelry Box Factory, Jiangmen: This Taiwan invested factory builds wooden

jewelry boxes for export to Europe and the United States. The factory employs 300

workers, fifty percent of whom are women. Migrant workers at the factory are from

numerous provinces including Sichuan, Hunan, and Hubei. In 1993 the factory was

not doing well; safety standards and the working environment worsened which

resulted in water supply problems. Factory workers are still subjected to high

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temperatures, severe dust, and poisonous paint fumes. Poor air circulation continues

to exacerbate health issues caused by air pollutants.

The factory manger describes his workers as being in their twenties, and most having

completed junior high school. Workers work eight hour days and make a monthly

salary of 560 yuan (USD $68). Employee benefits include accident insurance and

maternity leave. But, in general workers do not collect maternity leave. If a worker

becomes pregnant she usually quits her job to go home and raise her child. Each year

the factory sees a high rate of employee turnover, about 20-30 percent. At most a

worker remains at the factory for two years.

With support from the Levi Strauss Foundation and in cooperation with the

Occupational Disease and Prevention Center, the Workers Union has conducted a

health survey and provided physical check-ups for the women workers. While many

problems still exist at this factory, the managers’ willingness to participate in this

program will result in better working conditions for the workers. Matching funds from

the Guangdong Labor Union allowed the factory to install a new water tank and

exhaust pipes to increase air circulation. Coupled with visits from the Workers Union,

visits from Asia Foundation representatives continue to apply pressure, encouraging

factory managers to make significant changes.

Overseas Chinese Agricultural Farm, Huizhou: Six factories operate under this

Overseas Chinese Agricultural Farm. The factory complex was originally intended to

employ Chinese citizens returning from Burma and Vietnam and was set up with the

assistance of the United Nations. Among others, the complex supports ceramic,

electrical, garment, and handicrafts factories. The cluster of state-owned factories

suffered economic failure as a result of the 1990s economic reforms. Most have

become foreign invested companies though some remain state-owned or privately

operated by Chinese owners. Working conditions, however, remain poor. Sixty

percent of workers within these six factories are women. The complex supports the

related schools and medical clinics and must also support 800 retired workers. Unable

to collect tax revenue as all taxes must go to the government, the complex has been

unable to pay its management staff for the past five months. The only benefit the

complex provides factory-wide is accidental insurance. Handicraft Factory: One of

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the factories within the Overseas Chinese Agricultural Farm complex is a Hong Kong

joint venture that produces handicrafts for export to Japan. Half of the women

employees are migrant laborers; the other half come from the local area and have

worked at this factory for many years.

Among the migrant women laborers turnover is high and the longest working

employees have been at the factory for two years. Workers earn between 400-500

yuan monthly (USD $49-68); compensation is determined by piece rate. Since 1993

the piece rate has increased fivefold and is now 2.3 yuan (USD $.28) per unit. The

factory manager reports that the labor is not heavy and workers do not work any

overtime hours. Worker benefits include free housing, subsidized food, accident

insurance, and paid maternity leave. However, as in other factories women do not

claim maternity leave but usually quit to raise their children at home. Many workers

are introduced to the factory through the Labor Bureau. The Labor Bureau charges

each worker a finder’s fee for securing employment. The most serious problems

within this factory relate to housing, air circulation, high temperatures, and unsanitary

eating areas and bathroom facilities. In 1998, the Guangdong Labor Union

independently provided physical check-ups for 305 women workers. One hundred of

these workers received treatment for various ailments. In 2000, Levi Strauss funding

allowed physical examinations for 1023 workers; following the second set of physical

examinations, 558 women received medical treatment.

Ailments included breast lumps and ovarian and uterus tumors. Factory personnel

explained that as this was the first time medical check-ups had been carried out, it was

impossible to determine whether these conditions resulted from factory work. With

Levi Strauss Foundation support, the Guangdong Labor Union conducted a survey to

determine the current status and satisfaction of women employees at the factory.

Seventy-six percent of the 2000 women surveyed claimed to be relatively satisfied.

Complaints describe the most serious problems as severe pollution and a poor

working environment. Funds also supported a workshop on personal hygiene and

sanitation and a lecture on current laws relevant to women workers. Future projects

will include physical check-ups for workers working under hazardous conditions and

health classes to cover multiple topics including AIDS awareness.

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ETC Group, 2005, Global Seed Industry Concentration – 2005, Communiqué,

September/October 2005, 90 & ETC, 2005, Oligopoly, Inc. 2005: Concentration

in Corporate Power, Communiqué November/December 2005, 91.

Worldwide the seeds market is being increasingly dominated by TNCs, further

marginalizing women’s role in agriculture, where traditionally rural women selected

and saved seeds for the next crop based on their special knowledge and skills. Using

various technologies (hybridization and genetic engineering), corporations are now

wresting control of seeds of major crops and are forcing farmers to re-purchase seeds

from them every time, paying a high price. In 2005, the top 10 companies controlled

half of the world’s commercial seed sales with a total worldwide market of

approximately US$21 billion per annum. The corporate concentration and control of

the seed (particularly genetically engineered seeds) in the hands of a few transnational

corporations has tremendous implications to the global food security.

This clearly indicates the subversion of science as a tool for corporate greed and not

to the “Feed the World”. There are more than 840 million people who suffer hunger

and malnutrition most of whom are in Asia but technological solutions such as genetic

engineering cannot solve these problems. Monsanto, an agrochemical and seed

corporation has used various strategies to claim that their products are safe even

though concerns over the health and environmental impacts of genetic engineering

still remain. Scientists whose studies highlight problems with the technology have

been systematically discredited. The promotion of genetic engineering is destroying

biodiversity. Genetically engineered Round-Up-Ready Crops of Monsanto (crops that

are resistant to Round Up, an herbicide) will not only destroy the diversity of crops

but also promote the increasing use of pesticides. Pesticides poison human health and

the environment and every year an estimated 25 million agricultural workers are

poisoned and many others suffer a litany of chronic diseases. And globally the same

TNCs are controlling the global agrochemical sales (herbicides, fungicides,

insecticides) of US$ 35 billion in 2004. The 10 top companies accounted for 84

percent i.e. 29.6 billion of the total market. The top six companies controlled 71 per

cent of the pesticide market; the top 2 control over one-third.

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Impact on Rural Women

The effects of transnational corporations taking over agricultural trade could

generally be summed up as follows:

Dumping of cheap, subsidized food from developed countries which has

depressed prices, leading to loss of income and livelihoods, debts, bankruptcies

and eventually loss of land. The process is changing everything including land,

biodiversity, water, food and livelihoods into commodities for sale.

Corporatization of agriculture, leading to concentration of land in a few hands

and loss of land among others, especially small-scale women farmers.

Loss of food security in farming families due to loss of income, and from the

increasing cultivation of cash crops, leading to greater hunger and deprivation

among women farmers and wage workers and specially girl children.

Increased workload both on the farms and at home for women.

Low-wage, long and back-breaking labour for women in the new market-

oriented farming systems.

Increased health risks for women from the intensive use of pesticides and other

chemicals in export-oriented cash crop farms and plantations.

Loss of control over crucial resources like seeds which were mainly the

women’s special domain.

Loss of control over crops and income for women in the new market-oriented

cash-crop economy.

The impacts of these imperialist processes with the support of patriarchal institutions

continue to deny the rights of women. Overall these processes are forcing farmers

out of farming and often out of their land, destabilizing and uprooting whole

families and communities. In this financial crunch, food consumption gets

reduced as are social expenses such as those for education and health care.

Women and girl children are the first to be deprived; they are now compelled to

work to shore up the family’s dwindling income or, in the case of some girl

children, take care of household work, so the mothers may go out and work on

farms (own or others) or factories. Farm wage workers and rural women,

meanwhile, have increasingly lost their farm work and livelihoods, and are forced

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to migrate and to be trafficked. Rural women are also increasingly facing violence

as a result of the so-called “war on terror” which is being used to suppress people’s

resistance through state initiated or state supported violence and acts of terror, and the

enactment of laws curtailing civil and political liberties.

Women’s Resistance

Women are resisting! The struggle for rural women’s liberation is the struggle for

women’s rights and equality that encompass the rights of women to productive

resources, safe working conditions, right to health and reproductive rights, and for

food sovereignty. Women’s liberation struggle is part of the broader people’s

movement for national liberation and democracy. The struggle incorporates the

resistance against oppressive systems such as patriarchy, globalization and corporate

agriculture, imperialism, feudalism, fundamentalism, militarization and extremism.

This liberation also includes the struggle from oppression within families.

Rural women are joining hands to resist these tyrannies. They have continued to

reclaim their rights, their knowledge and skills. There is a growing movement of rural

women involved in asserting their rights as farmers and agricultural workers work to

spread and mainstream ecological agriculture and to mobilize against violence,

against globalization and corporate agriculture. Women are also demanding food

sovereignty. They are challenging patriarchy within their families, communities and

at the policy level. And there have been tremendous successes.

Women’s Food Sovereignty

Peasants signify women, agricultural workers, indigenous people’s, fisher folk,

forest dwellers and rural poor

As a counter measure against globalization of food and agriculture the peasants and

rural women’s movements are developing an alternative framework for food and

agriculture that is based on the RIGHTS FRAMEWORK. Food sovereignty provides

this paradigm shift in food and agriculture and challenges corporate globalization and

corporate agriculture. Its starting point is the security of the food producing

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communities. Food sovereignty goes beyond the right to food to also include the right

to fair wages. Rights of Davits and women, and the rights of indigenous peoples for

self determination are part of this struggle and are directly linked to the right to life

and livelihoods.

Food Sovereignty is based on a rights approach and includes –

The right of people and communities to make decisions on their own food and

agriculture policies (not WTO, not an occupying power, not WB/IMF) - decision

making that involves leaders of people’s movements, communities and local

people.

the right to produce food and access to the productive resources such as land,

water, biodiversity, seeds, and other resources, etc

the right to food

the right of people and communities to their own policies and strategies for

sustainable production, distribution and consumption of food

the right of people and indigenous communities to economic, political, cultural

and spiritual sovereignty

respecting the cultures and diversity of peasants and fosters small and medium

sized production and

gender justice

Labriola M, Lund T, Burr H. Prospective study of physical and psychosocial risk

factors for sickness absence.

Risk factors in work, health and health behavior for sickness absence: results from a

longitudinal study of 3792 Danish employees. This study gives a broad overview of

risk factors associated with sickness absence (pathway from A to B in Figure 1

‘Conceptual Framework’), defined in terms of self-reported number of days of

absence from work during a year.

Additionally, the potential gain in sickness absence reduction through work

environment improvement is estimated. The aim of the study was to examine the

associations between psychosocial and physical work environment exposures,

employer characteristics, self-rated health and health behavior, and sickness absence

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from work five years after exposure among employees in Denmark. In 1995, a

random sample of 5574 employees aged 18-64 was interviewed. In 2000, 3792 of

those still employed supplied data on days absent from work the year preceding date

of follow-up. Associations between risk factors at baseline and sickness absence at

follow-up were studied. Logistic regression analyses were performed.

The 3792 employees reported a total of 23,767 days of sickness absence during the

year preceding follow-up (mean = 6.27, range 0-215 days); 2310 employees (60.9%)

reported one or more days of sickness absence. 20% of the employees accounted for

80% of total days of sickness absence. Sickness absence was associated with working

with arms lifted/hands twisted, extreme bending/stooping of the back/neck, repetitive

monotonous work, low skill discretion, low decision authority, obesity, current or

former smoking, poor self- rated health, female gender, increasing age and working

for a public employer. The etiologic fraction attributable to differences in work

environment exposures was calculated to be 40%.