290 SONNET

when the increasing requirement that plays convey the illusion of real life im­pelled dramatists to exploit indirect means for conveying exposition and guid­ance to the audience. Eugene O'Neill, however, revived and extended the aside and made it a central device throughout his play Strange Interlude (1928).

Sonnet. A lyric poem consisting of a single stanza of fourteen iambic pen­tameter lines linked by an intricate rhyme scheme. There are two major pat­terns of rhyme in sonnets written in the English language:

(1) The Italian or Petrarchan sonnet (named after the fourteenth-century Italian poet Petrarch) falls into two main parts: an octave (eight lines) rhyming abbaabba followed by a sestet (six lines) rhyming cdecde or some variant, such as cdccdc. Petrarch's sonnets were first imitated in England, both in their stanza form and their subject—the hopes and pains of an adoring male lover—by Sir Thomas Wyatt in the early sixteenth century. (See Petrarchan conceit.) The Petrarchan form was later used, and for a variety of subjects, by Milton, Wordsworth, Christina Rossetti, D. G. Rossetti, and other sonneteers, who sometimes made it technically easier in English (which does not have as many rhyming possibilities as Italian) by in­troducing a new pair of rhymes in the second four lines of the octave.

(2) The Earl of Surrey and other English experimenters in the sixteenth century also developed a stanza form called the English sonnet, or else the Shakespearean sonnet, after its greatest practitioner. This sonnet falls into three quatrains and a concluding couplet: abab cdcd efef gg. There was one notable variant, the Spenserian sonnet, in which Spenser linked each quatrain to the next by a continuing rhyme: abab bebe cdcd ee.

John Donne shifted from the hitherto standard subject, sexual love, to a variety of religious themes in his Holy Sonnets, written early in the seventeenth century; and Milton, in the latter part of that century, expanded the range of the sonnet to other matters of seri­ous concern. Except for a lapse in the English Neoclassic Period, the sonnet has remained a popular form to the present day and includes among its distinguished practitioners, in the nineteenth century, Wordsworth, Keats, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Christina Rossetti, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and more recently Edwin Arlington Robinson, Edna St. Vincent Millay, W. B. Yeats, Robert Frost, W. H. Auden, and Dylan Thomas. The stanza is just long enough to permit a fairly complex lyric development, yet so short and so exigent in its rhymes as to pose a standing challenge to the artistry of the poet. The rhyme pattern of the Petrarchan sonnet has on the whole fa­vored a statement of problem, situation, or incident in the octave, with a resolution in the sestet. The English form sometimes uses a similar division of material, but often presents a repetition-with-variation of a statement in each of the three quatrains; in either case,

SPEECH-ACT THEORY

the final couplet in the English sonnet usually imposes an epigram­matic turn at the end. In Drayton's fine Elizabethan sonnet in the English form "Since there's no help, come let us kiss and part," the lover brusquely declares in the first quatrain, then reiterates in the second, that he is glad that the affair is cleanly ended, but in the concluding couplet suddenly drops his swagger to make one last plea. Here are the last quatrain and couplet:

Now at the last gasp of love's latest breath, When, his pulse failing, passion speechless lies, When faith is kneeling by his bed of death, And innocence is closing up his eyes;

Now if thou wouldst, when all have given him over, From death to life thou mightst him yet recover.

Following Petrarch's early example, a number of Elizabethan authors arranged their poems into sonnet sequences, or sonnet cycles, in which a series of sonnets are linked together by exploring the varied aspects of a rela­tionship between lovers, or else by indicating a development in the relation­ship that constitutes a kind of implicit plot. Shakespeare ordered his sonnets in a sequence, as did Sidney in Astrophel and Stella (1580) and Spenser in Amoretti (1595). Later examples of the sonnet sequence on various subjects are Wordsworth's The River Duddon, D. G. Rossetti's House of Life, Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Sonnets from the Portuguese, and the American poet William Ellery Leonard's Two Lives. Dylan Thomas' Altarwise by Owl-light (1936) is a sequence of ten sonnets which are meditations on the poet's own life. George Mere­dith's Modern Love (1862), which concerns a bitterly unhappy marriage, is sometimes called a sonnet sequence, even though its poems consist not of fourteen but of sixteen lines.

On the early history of the sonnet and its development in England through Milton, see Michael R. G. Spiller, The Development of the Sonnet: An In­troduction (1992). See also L. G. Sterner, The Sonnet in American Literature (1930); J. B. Leishman, Themes and Variations in Shakespeare's Sonnets (1963); Michael R. G. Spiller, The Sonnet Sequence: A Study of the Strategies (1997); Helen Vendler, The Art of Shakespeare's Sonnets (1997). Arthur Marotti relates the vogue of the sonnet sequences to the politics and system of literary pa­tronage in Elizabethan England, in "Love Is Not Love: Elizabethan Sonnet Se­quences and the Social Order," ELH, Vol. 49 (1982).

Speech-Act Theory, developed by the philosopher John Austin, was de­scribed most fully in his posthumous book How to Do Things with Words (1962), and was explored and expanded by other "ordinary-language philoso­phers," including John Searle and H. P. Grice. Austin's theory is directed against traditional tendencies of philosophers (1) to analyze the meaning of isolated sentences, abstracted from the context of a discourse and from the at­tendant circumstances in which a sentence is uttered; and (2) to assume, in what Austin describes as a logical obsession, that the standard sentence—of