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THEME TWO

28 THEMES IN I NDIAN H ISTORY

THEME T WO

Kings, Farmers and TownsEarly States and Economies(c. 600 B E - 600 E !

Fig. 2.1 An inscription, Sanchi

(Madhya Pradesh),c . second century BCE

There were several developments in different parts of thesubcontinent during the long sp an of 1,500 years f ollowingthe end of the Harappan civilisation. This was a lso theperiod during which the Rigveda was composed by peopleliving along the Indus and its tributaries. Agricultural

settlements emerged in many parts of thesubcontinent, i ncluding north India, theDeccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka.Besides, there is evidence of pastoralpopulations in the Deccan and furthersouth. New modes of disposal of the dead,including the making of elaborate stonestructures known as megaliths, emerged incentral and south India from the rstmillennium BCE . In many cases, the dead

were buried with a rich range of iron tools and weapons.From c. sixth century BCE , there is

evidence that there were other trends as w ell. Perhapsthe most visible was the em ergence of early states, empiresand kingdoms. Underlying these political processes w ereother changes, evident in the ways in which agriculturalproduction was organised. Simultaneously, new townsappeared almost throughout the subcontinent.

Historians attempt to understand these developments by drawing on a range of sources inscriptions, texts,

coins a nd visual material. As we will see, this is a c omplexprocess. Y ou will also notice that these sou rces do nottell the entire story.

Epigraphy is the study ofinscriptions.

". #rinse$ and #iyadassiSome of the most momentous developments in Indianepigraphy took place in the 1830s. This was when

James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the EastIndia Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi,two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and

coins. He found that most of these mentioned a kingreferred to as Piyadassi meaning pleasant to

behold; there were a few inscriptions which also

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K INGS , FARMERS AND TOWNS 29

referred to the king as Asoka, one of the m ost famous

rulers known from Buddhist texts. This gave a new direction to investigations into

early Indian political history as European andIndian scholars used inscriptions and textscomposed in a variety of languages to reconstructthe lineages of major dynasties that ha d ruled thesubcontinent. As a result, the broad contours ofpolitical history were in place by the early decadesof the twentieth century.

Subsequently, scholars b egan to shift their focusto the context of political history, investigating

whether there were connections between politicalchanges and economic and social developments. It

was soon realised that while there were links, te were not always simple or direct.

%. T&e Earliest States2.1 The sixteen mahajanapadas

The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a m ajorturning point i n early Indian history. I t i s an eraassociated with early stat es, cities, the growinguse of iron, the development of coinage, etc. Italso witnessed the growth of diverse systems ofthought, including Buddhism and Jainism. EarlyBuddhist and Jaina texts (see also Chapter 4)mention, amongst other things, sixteen statesknown as mahajanapadas . Although the lists vary,some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala,Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti occurfrequently. Clearly, these were amongst the mostimportant mahajanapadas.

While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings,some, known as ganas or sanghas , were o ligarchies(p. 30), where power was shared by a number ofmen, often collectively called rajas . Both Mahaviraand the Buddha (Chapter 4) belonged to such ganas.In some instances, as in the ca se o f the Vajji sangha ,the rajas probably controlled resources su ch as landcollectively. Although their histories are oftendifficult to reconstruct due to the lack of sources,some of these states lasted for nearly a thousand

years.Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was

often fortied. Maintaining these fortied cities as

well as providing for

incipientarmiesand bureaucracie

required resources.From c. sixth

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Inscriptionsri$tions a r e writ ings engra ed on &ard s)r*aces

& as s tone, metal or $ottery. T&ey )s)allyr d t&e ac&ie ements, acti ities or ideas o*t &o se w &o commissioned t&em an d incl)de t&e

loits o* ings, or donations made-y women and men to religio)s instit)tions.

ri$tions are irt)ally $ermanent records, some o* ic& carry dates. Ot&e rs are date d on t&e -asispalaeography or styles o* writing, wit& a *airamo)nt$recision. Fo r ance, in c . % 0 B E t&e letter /a0 was written li e1 . By c. 00 E , it was written li e t&is1 .&e earliest inscri$tions were in #ra rit, a name *or

g)ages )sed -y ordinary $eo$le. 2ames o* r)lers s)c&34atasatt) and 3so a, nown *rom #ra rit te+ts andri$tions, &a e -een s$elt in t&eir #ra rit *orms i n t&is

a$ter. 5o) will also 6 nd terms in lang)ages s)c& as #ali,mil and Sans rit, w&ic& too were )sed to write

ri$tions and te+ts. 't is $ossi-le t&at $eo$le s$o e iner lang)ages as well, e en t&o)g& t&ese were not

*or writing.

, meaning the land where a jana (a people, clan

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KAMBOJA Map 1Early states and their capitals

Pushkalavati

GANDHARA Taxila

SHURASENA

Indra rastha Ahi !h!hha tra

KURUPAN"HA#A

MA##AKusina$ara

MathuraMATS%A

Shravasti

KOSHA#AKASHI

&AJJI '&RIJJI(&aishali

MAGADHA

ANGA

"ha) aKausha)*i &aranasi Ra+ir

A&ANTI"HEDI

&ATSA&ANGA

U++a,ini

Ara* ian S-aBa, ./ B-n$al

ASHMAKA

Sketch m ap not to scal e

Which were the areas where states and cities were most densely

clustered?

Oligarchy refers to a form ofgovernment where power isexercised by a group of men.

The Roman Republic, about which you read last year, was

an oligarchy in spite of its

name.

century BCE onwards, Brahmanas began composingSanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras. Theselaid down norms for rulers (as well as for othersocial cat egories), who were ideally expected to beKshatriyas (see a lso Chapter 3). Rulers were advisedto collect t axes a nd tribute from cultivators, tradersand artisans. Wer e resources also procuredfrom pastoralists and forest peoples? We do notreally know. What we do know is that raids onneighbouring states were recognised as a legitimatemeans of acquiring wealth. Gradually, some statesacquired standing armies and maintained regular

bureaucracies. Others continued to depend onmilitia, recruited, more often than not, from thepeasantry.

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2.2 First amongst the sixteen: Magadha

Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE ,Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the mostpowerful mahajanapada . Modern historians explainthis development in a variety of ways: Magadha wasa region where agriculture was especially productive.Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) wereaccessible and provided resources for tools and

weapons. Elephants, an important component of thearmy, were found in forests in the region. Also, theGanga and its tributaries provided a means of cheapand convenient communication. However, earlyBuddhist and Jaina writers who wrote aboutMagadha attributed its power to the policies ofindividuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whomBimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda arethe best known, and their ministers, who helpedimplement their policies.

Initially, Rajagaha (the Prakrit name for present-day Rajgir in Bihar) was the capital of Magadha.Interestingly, the old name means house of theking. R ajagaha was a fortied settlement, l ocated

amongst h ills. Later, in the fourth century BCE , t hecapital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-dayPatna, commanding routes of communication alongthe Ganga.

Discuss... What are the different

explanations offered by early writers and present-day

historians for t he growth ofMagadhan power?

Fig. 2.2Fortication walls a t Rajgir

Why were these walls built?

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Languages andscriptsMost 3so an inscri$tions were int&e #ra rit lang)age w&ilet&ose in t&e nort&west o* t&e s)-continet were in3ramaic and 7ree .

Most #ra ritinscri$tions were written in t&eBra&mi scri$t 8 &owe er, some,in t&e nort&west, were written

in K&arost&i. T&e 3ramaicand 7 ree sc ri$t s were)sed *or inscri$tions in3*g&anistan.

Fig. 2.3The lion capital

Why is the lion capitalconsidered important today?

9. 3n Early Em$ire The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence

of the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta Maurya, whofounded the empire ( c. 321 BCE ), extended control asfar northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, andhis grandson Asoka, arguably the most famous rulerof early India, conquered Kalinga (present-daycoastal Orissa).

3.1 Finding out about the MauryasHistorians have used a variety of sources toreconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire.

These include archaeological nds, especiallysculpture. Also valuable are contemporary works,such as the account of Megasthenes (a Greekambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya ),

which survives in fragments. Another source thatis often used is the Arthashastra, parts of which

were probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya,traditionally believed to be the minister ofChandragupta. Besides, the Mauryas are mentionedin later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, as

well as in Sanskrit literary works. While these are useful, the inscriptions of Asoka ( c. 272/268-231BCE ) on rocks and pillars are often regarded asamongst the most valuable sources. Asoka was the rst ruler who inscribed his

messages to his subjects and offi cials on stonesurfaces natural rocks as well as polished pillars.He used the inscriptions to proclaim what heunderstood to be dhamma . This included respecttowards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas andthose who renounced worldly life, treating slaves

and servants kindly, and respect for religions andtraditions other than ones own.

3.2 Administering the empire There were ve major political centres in the

empire the capital Pataliputra an d the provincialcentres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri,all mentioned in Asokan inscriptions. If weexamine the content of these inscriptions, we nd

virtually the same message engraved everywhere fr om the pr esent-day North West Fr

ontier Provinces of Pakistan, to Andhra Pradesh,Orissa and Uttaranchal in India. Could this vastempire have had a uniform administrative

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Historians

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Map 2Distribution of Asokan inscriptions

Mans-hraShah*a0$arhi

Taxila

Kandahar

Kalsi

T. ra M--rutBaha ur

Bairat

Ni$alisa$ar Ru))ind-iRa) ur1a

#auri,a Nandan$arh#auri,a Arara+

Bha*ruGu+arra

SarnathPatali utra

Kausha)*i Ahra ura Sahasra)

U++a,ini San!hi

Girnar

Ara* ian S-aS. ara

Shishu al$arh

Jau$adaKA#INGA

Sannati

Gavi)athPalki$undu

Maski

Ud-$.la)Ra+ula Manda$iriNittur Jatin$a Ra)-sh1ar

Sidda ur Brah)a$iri

Ba, ./ B-n$al

S MAJOR RO"K EDI"TSMINOR RO"K EDI"TSPI##AR INS"RIPTIONS


"HO#AS

KERA#APUTRAS

PAND%AS

Could rulers h aveengraved inscriptions i nareas t hat were not included

withinthis is unlikely. The regions included within theempire were just t oo diverse. Imagine the contrast

between the hilly terrain of Afghanistan and thecoast of Orissa.

It is likely that administrative control wasstrongest in areas around the capital and theprovincial centres. These centres were carefullychosen, both Taxila and Ujjayini being situatedon important long-distance trade routes, whileSuvarnagiri (literally, t he golden mountain) waspossibly important for tapping the gold minesof Karnataka.

their empire?

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Source 1

What thekingsofcials did

Here is an e+cer$t *romt&e acco)nt o*Megast&enes1

O* t&e great o:cers o* state, some ;s )$er in tend t&e ri ers,meas)re t&e land, as is

done in Egy$t, and ins$ectt&e sl)ices -y w&ic& wateris let o)t *rom t&e maincanals into t&eir -ranc&es,so t&at e ery one may&a e an e

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Yet, how important was the Mauryan Empire? It

lasted for ab out 150 years, which is not a very l ongtime in the vast span of the history of thesubcontinent. Besides, if you look at Map 2, you willnotice that t he empire did not encompass the entiresubcontinent. And even within the frontiers of theempire, control was not uniform. By the secondcentury BCE , new chiefdoms and kingdoms emergedin several parts of the subcontinent.

=. 2ew 2otions o* Kings&i$

4.1 Chiefs and kings in the south The new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan and

further sou th, including the ch iefdoms of the Cholas,Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam (the name of theancient Tamil country, which included parts ofpresent-day Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, in additionto Tamil Nadu), proved to be stable and prosperous.

Chie s and chie doms3 chief is a $ower*)l man w&ose $osition may or

may not -e &ereditary. He deri es s)$$ort *rom &isin*ol .His *)nctions may incl)de $er*orming s$ecial

r it )als, leaders&i$ in war*are, and ar-itratingdis$)tes. He recei es gi*ts *rom &is s)-ordinates()nli e ings w&o )s)ally collect ta+es! and o*tendistri-)tes t&ese amongst &is s)$$orters. 7enerally,t&ere are no reg)lar armies and o:cials inc&ie*doms.

We know about these states from a variety ofsources. For instance, the early Tamil Sangam texts

(see a lso Chapter 3) contain poems describing chiefsand the ways in which they acquired anddistributed resources.

Many chiefs and kings, including theSatavahanas who ruled over parts of western andcentral India ( c. second century BCE -second centuryCE ) and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin

who established kingdoms in the north-western and western parts of the subcontinent, derived revenues

from long-distance trade. Their social origins wereoften obscure, but, as we will see in the case of theSatavahanas (Chapter 3), once they acquired powerthey attempted to claim social status in a varietyof ways.

Source 2

Capturingelephants for the arm y

T&e Arthashastra laysdown min)te details o* administrati e and militaryorganisation. T&is is w &a t i tsays a-o)t &ow to ca$t)reele$&ants1

7)ards o* ele$&ant *orests,

assisted -y t&ose w&orear ele$&ants,t&ose w&o

enc&ai n t&e legs o* ele$&ants, t&ose w&og)ard t&e -o)ndaries,t&ose w&o li e in *orests,as well as -y t&ose w&on)rse ele$&ants, s&all, wit&t&e &el$ o* 6 e or se en*emale ele$&ants to &el$in tet&ering wild ones,trace t&e w&erea-o)ts o* &erds o* ele$&ants-y *ollowing t&e co)rse o* )rine and d)ng le*t -yele$&ants.

3ccording to 7ree so)rces,t&e Ma)ryan r)ler &ada standing army o* 600,000 *oot>soldiers,90,000 ca alry and ?,000ele$&ants. Some &istorians

considert&ese acco)nts

to -e e+aggerated.

If the Greek accounts were true, what kinds of

resources do you thinkthe Mauryan ruler wouldhave required to maintainsucha large army?

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Source 3

The Pandyachief

Senguttuvanvisits the forest

T& is is an e+cer$t *rom t&eSilappadikaram, an e$ic writtenin Tamil1

(W&en &e isited t&e *orest!$e o$l e c am e downt&e mo)ntain, singing

and dancing ; 4)st as t&e de*eated s&owres$ect to t&e ictorio)s ing,so did t&ey -ring gi*ts @i ory, *ragrant wood, *ansmade o* t&e &air o* deer,&oney, sandalwood,

r ed o c &r e,antimony, t)rmeric, cardamom,$e$$er, etc. ... t&ey -ro)g&t cocon)ts, mangoes,medicinal $lants, *r)its, onions,s)garcane, Aowers, areca n)t,-ananas, -a-y tigers, lions,ele$&ants, mon eys, -ear,deer, m)s deer, *o+ ,$eacoc s, m)s cat, wildcoc s, s$ea ing $arrots, etc.;

Why did people bringthese gifts? What wouldthe ch ief have u sed thesefor?

4.2 Divine kings

One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities. This strategy is best

exemplied by the Kushanas ( c. rst century BCE -rst century CE ), who ruled over a vast kingdomextending from Central Asia to northwest India. Theirhistory h as been reconstructed from inscriptions a ndtextual traditions. The notions of kingship they

wished to project are perhaps best evidenced in theircoins and sculpture.

Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been

found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura(Uttar Pradesh). Similar st atues have been found ina shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historiansfeel this indicates that the Kushanas consideredthemselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers alsoadopted the title devaputra , or son of god, possiblyinspired by Chinese rulers who called themselvessons of heaven.

By the fourth century there is evidence of largerstates, including the Gupta Empire. Many of thesedepended on samantas , men who maintained

themselves through local resources including controlover land. They offered homage an d provided militarysupport to rulers. Powerful samantas could becomekings: conversely, weak rulers might nd themselves

being reduced to positions of subordination.Histories of the Gupta rulers have been

reconstructed from literature, coins a nd inscriptions,including prashastis , composed in praise of kings inparticular, and patrons in general, by poets. W hilehistorians often attempt to draw factual information

from such compositions, those who composed andread them often treasured them as works of poetry

Fig. 2.4 A Kushana coin

Obverse: King KanishkaReverse: A deity

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How has the king beenportrayed?

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rather t han as accounts that w ere literally true. The

Prayaga Prashasti (also k nown as the Allahabad PillarInscription) composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, thecourt poet of Sam udragupta, arguably the mostpowerful of the Gupta rulers ( c. fourth century CE ),is a case in point.

Source 4

In praise o Samudragupta

T&is is an e+cer$t *rom t&e PrayagaPrashasti:

He was wit&o)t an antagonist on eart&8&e, -y t&e o erAowing o* t&e m)ltit)deo* (&is! many good t&o)sands o* cows8(&is! mind &as r ece i edceremonial initiation *or t&e )$li*t o* t&e misera-le, t&e $oor, t&e *orlorn andt&e s) ering8 (&e is! res$lendentand em-odied indness to man ind8(&e is! e

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Source 5

TheSudarshana

( eautiful! lake in"u#arat

Find 7irnar on Ma$ %. T&eS)dars&ana la e was an arti6cial reser oir. We now a-o)ti t *rom a roc inscri$tion( c . second cent)ry E ! inSans rit, com$osed torecord t&e ac&ie ements o* t&e S&a a r)lerD)dradaman.

T&e inscri$tion mentions t&att&e la e, wit&em-an ments andwater c&annels, was -)ilt -yalocal go ernor d)ring t&er)le o* t&e Ma)ryas.Howe er, a t e rr i -l e s torm

-ro e t&e em-an mentsand water g)s&ed o)t o*

t&e la e.D)dradam an , w&o wast&en r)ling in t&e area,claimed to &a e got t&e la ere$aired )sing &is ow nreso)rces, wit&o)t im$osingany ta+ on &is s)-4ects.

3not&er inscri$tion on t&esame roc ( c. 6*t&cent)ry! mentions &ow one o* t&e r)lers o* t&e 7)$tadynasty got t&e la e re$aired

onceagain.

Why did rulers makearrangements forirrigation?

T ransplantation is used forpaddy cultivation in areas

where water is plentiful. Here,seeds are rst broadcast;

when the saplings havegrown they are transplanted

in waterlogged elds. This ensures a higher ratio of

survival of saplings and higher yi elds.

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3angingntrysid

of

rulers?

al the

rarey leftof their

and

stories

Jatakas andPanchatantra . Many

were written in

CE .nestoryknown as

Gandatindu Jataka

eand men,

miseries,

t

fm this people

and went to live in the forest. As this story indicates, the relationship between

a king and his subjects, especially the ruralpopulation, could often be strained kingsfrequently tried to ll their coffers by demandinghigh taxes, and peasants particularly found suchdemands oppressive. Escaping into the forestremained an option, as reect ed in the Jataka story.

Meanwhile, other strategies aimed at increasingproduction to meet growing demand for taxes alsocame to be adopted.

5.2 Strategies for increasing productionOne such strategy was the shift to ploughagriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river

valleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaverifrom c. sixth century BCE . The iron-tippedploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil inareas which had high rainfall. Moreover, in someparts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy wasdramatically increased by the introduction oftransplantation, although this meant back-breaking

work for the producer. While the iron ploughshare led to a growth in

agricultural productivity, its use was restri cted tocertain parts of the su bcontinent cultivators in

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areas which were semi-arid, such as parts of Punjab

and Rajasthan did not adopt it till the twentiethcentury, and those living in hilly tracts in the n orth-eastern and central parts of the subcontinentpractised hoe agriculture, which was much bettersuited to the terrain. Another strategy adopted to increase agricultural

production was the use of irrigation, through wells and tanks, and less commonly, canals.

Communities as well as individuals organised theconstruction of irrigation works. T he latter, usuallypowerful m en including kings, often recorded suchactivities in inscriptions.

5.3 Differences in rural society While these technologies often led to an increase i

production, the benets were very uneven. What isevident i s that there was a growing differentiationamongst people engaged in agriculture stories,especially within the Buddhist tradition, refer tolandless agricultural labourers, small peasants, as

well as large landholders. The term gahapati wasoften used in Pali texts to designate t he secon d andthird categories. The large landholders, as well asthe village headman (whose position was oftenhereditary), em erged as powerful gu res, an d oftenexercised control o ver other cultivators. E arly Tamilliterature (the Sangam texts) also mentions differentcategories of people living in the villages largelandowners or vellalar , ploughmen or uzhavar andslaves or adimai. It is likely that these differences

were based on differential access to land, labourand some of the new technologies. In such a

situation, qu estions of control over land must have become crucial, as these were often discussed in

legal texts.

Gahapati 3 gahapati was t&e owner, master or &ead o* a &o)se&old, w&o e+ercised control o er t&ewomen, c&ildren, sla es and wor ers w&o s&ared acommon residence. He was also t&e owner o* t&ereso)rces @ land, animals and ot&er t&ings @ t&at-elonged to t&e &o)se&old. Sometimes t&e term

was )sed as a mar er o* stat)s *or men -elonging tot&e )r-an elite, incl)ding wealt&y merc&ants.

Source 6

The importanceo

oundaries

T&e Manusmrti is one o* t&e -est> nown legal te+tso* early 'ndia, written inSans rit and com$iled-etween c. second cent)r yB E and c. second cent)ry

E . T&is is w&at t&e te+t ad isest&e ing to do1

Seeing t&at in t&e worldcontro ersies constantly arised)e to t&e ignorance o* -o)ndaries, &e s&o)ld ;&a e ; concealed-o)ndary mar ers -)ried@stones, -ones, cow s&air, c&a , as&es,$ots&erds, dried cow d)ng,-ric s, coal, $e--les an dsand. He s&o) ld also&a e ot&er similars)-stances t &a t w o) ldnot decay in t&e soil-)ried as &iddenmar ers at t&e intersectiono* -o)ndaries.

Would these boundarymarkers h ave been a dequateto resolve disputes?

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Source 7

Li e in a smallvillage

T&e Harshacharita is a-iogra$&y o* Hars&a ard&ana,t&e r)ler o* Kana)4 (see Ma$9!, com$osed in Sans rit -y&is co)rt $oet, Bana-&atta(c . se ent& cent)ry E ! . T&isis an e+cer$t *rom t&e te+t,an e+tremely rarere$resentation o* li*e i n asettlement on t&e o)ts irts o* a*orest in t&e Cind&yas1

T&e o)ts irts -eing *ort&e most $art *orest,many $arcels o* rice>land,t&res&ing gro)nd and ara-leland were -einga$$ortioned -y small*armers ; it wa smainly s$ade c)lt)re ;owing to t&e di:c)lty o* $lo)g&ing t&e s$arselyscattered 6elds co eredwit& grass, wit& t&eir *ew clears$aces, t&eir -lac soil sti** as -lac iron ;

T&ere were $eo$lemo ing along wit& -)ndleso* -ar ; co)ntless sac s o* $l)c ed Aowers, ; loadso* Aa+ and &em$-)ndles,

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their, they tried to

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by making grants of land. They also feel that kings

tried to project themselves as su permen (as we sawin the previous sect ion) because they were losingcontrol: t hey wanted to present at least a faade ofpower.

Source 8

Pra havati "upta andthe village o

$anguna

T&is is w&at #ra-&a ati 7)$ta states in &er inscri$tion1

#ra-&a ati 7)$ta ; commands t&e gramakutumbinas(&o)se&olders $easants li ing in t&e i l lage! , Bra&manas and ot&ers li ing in t&e illage o* Gang)na;

/Be it nown to yo) t&at on t&e twel*t& (l)nar day!o* t&e -rig&t (*ortnig&t! o* Kartti a, we &a e, in orderto increase o)r religio)s merit donated t&is illagewit&t&e $o)ring o)t o* water, to t&e 3c&arya(teac&er! &analas amin ; 5o) s&o)ld o-ey all (&is!commands;

We con*er on (&im! t&e *ollowing e+em$tions ty$icalo* an agrahara (t&is illage is! not to -e entered-y soldiers and $olicemen8 (it is! e+em$t *rom(t&e o-ligation to $ro ide! grass, (animal! &ides asseats , and c&arcoal (to to)ring royal o:cers!8e+em$t *rom (t&e royal $rerogati e o*! $)rc&asing*ermenting li

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The historyof

P ataliputra

Eac& city &ad a &istory o* itsown.#a ta li $) tr a, * or i ns ta nc e ,-egan as a illage nownas #ataligrama. T&en, in t&e6*t& cent)ry B E , t&eMagad&an r )lers decidedto s&i*t t&eir ca$ital *romDa4aga&a to t&is settlementand renamed it. By t&e *o)rt&cent)ry B E , it was t&ec a$ it al o * t&e Ma)ryanEm$ire and one o* t&elargest cities in 3sia.S)-se

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urban

c.BCE . As we

capitals of

majortowns werelocatedalongroutes of

Some

route

Many

cities like Mathura were bustling centres ofcommercial, cultural and political activity.

6.2 Urban populations:Elites and craftspersons

We have seen that kings and ruling elites lived infortied cities. A lthough it is difficult to conductextensive excavations at most sites because peoplelive in these areas even today (unlike the Harappan

cities), a wide ran ge of artefacts h ave been recoveredfrom them. These include ne pottery bowls anddishes, with a glossy nish, known as NorthernBlack Polished Ware, probably used by richpeople, and ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels,gurines, made of a wide range of materials gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell a ndterracotta.

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Map 3Some important kingdomsand towns

TaxilaKUSHANAS

Kanau+Mathura

Shravasti

GUPTAS &aishali&aranasi Patali utra

Kausha)*i Ra+$ir Mahasthan

SHAKASU++a,ini

&idisha "handrak-tu$arh

ARABIAN SEABharuka!h!hha

&AKATAKAS

S. ara PaithanSATA&AHANAS

Shishu al$arh

Dhan,akataka

"HO#AS

K.du)analPuhar

"HERASPAND%AS

BA% O2 BENGA#


By the second century BCE , we nd short votiveinscriptions in a number of cities. These mentionthe name of the donor, and sometimes specify his/her occupation as well. They tell us about people

who lived in towns: washing folk, weavers, scribes,carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths,officials, religious teachers, merchants and kings.

Sometimes, guilds or shrenis , organisations ofcraft producers and merchants, are mentioned as

well. These guilds probably procured rawmaterials, r egulated production, an d marketed thenished product. It is likely that craftspersonsused a range of iron tools to meet the growing

demands of urban elites.

Were there any cities inthe region where theHarappan civilisationourished in the third

millennium BCE ?

Votive inscriptions record giftsmade t o rel igious i nstitutions.

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Source 9

The %ala arcoast

(present&day'erala!

Here is an e+cer$t *romPeriplus of the

Erythraean Sea ,com$osed -y an anonymo)s7ree sailor (c. 6rst cent)ry

E!1

T&ey ( i.e . traders *roma-road! send large s&i$sto t&ese mar et>towns on acco)nt o* t&egreat

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nd and river

andvari

e

Bengal toand

Rulersoften

control

bly

there werewhose

protable.

asin Tamil

setthis andin Prakrit,

become

rAgoods

timber,

few. Spices,

mpiree

plants, and these were all transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean.

6.4 Coins and kings To some extent, exchanges were facilitated by the

introduction of coinage. Punch-marked coins madeof silver and copper ( c. sixth century BCE onwards)

were amongst the earliest to be minted and used. These have been recovered from excavations at a

number of sites throughout the subcontinent.Numismatists have studied these an d other coins toreconstruct possible commercial networks. Attempts made to identify the symbols on punch-

marked coins with specic ruling dynasties,including the Mauryas, suggest that these wereissued by kings. It is also likely that merchants,

bankers and townspeople issued some of these coins. The rst coins to bear the names and images of

rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, whoestablished control over the north-western part ofthe subcontinent c. second century BCE . The rst gold coins were issued c. rst century CE

by the Kushanas. These were virtually identical in weight with those issued by contemporary Roman

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emperors and the Parthian rulers of Iran, and have

been found from several sites in north India andCentral Asia. The widespread use of gold coinsindicates the enormous value of the transactionsthat were taking place. Besides, hoards of Romancoins have been found from archaeological sites insouth India. It is obvious t hat networks of trade werenot conned within political boundaries: south India

was not part of the Roman Empire, but there wereclose connections through trade.

Coins were also issued by tribal republics su chas that of the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana(c. rst century CE ). Archaeologists have unearthedseveral thousand copper coins issued by the

Yaudheyas, pointing to the latters interest andparticipation in economic exchanges.

Some of the most spectacular gold coins wereissued by the Gupta rulers. The earliest issuesare remarkable for their purity. These coinsfacilitated long-distance transactions from whichkings also beneted.

From c. sixth century CE onwards, nds of gold

coins taper off. Does this indicate that there wassome kind of an economic crisis? Historians aredivided on this issue. Some suggest that with thecollapse of the Western Roman Empire long-distancetrade declined, and this affected the prosperity ofthe states, communities and regions that had

beneted from it. Others argue that new towns andnetworks of trade started emerging around this time.

They also point out that though nds of coins ofthat time are fewer, coins continue to be mentionedin inscriptions and texts. Could it be that there arefewer nds because coins were in circulation ratherthan being hoarded?

Numismatics is the study ofcoins, including visualelements such as scripts andimages, m etallurgical analysisand the contexts in whichthey have b een found.

Fig. 2.7 A punch-marked coin, so named

because symbols were punched orstamped onto the metal surface

Fig. 2.8 A Yaudheya coin

Fig. 2.9 A Gupta coin

Discuss... What are the transactions

involved in trade? Which ofthese transactions areapparent from the sourcesmentioned? Are there anythat are not evident from the

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Fig. 2.10 An Asokan inscription

Fig. 2.11 Asokan Brahmi with Devanagari

equivalents

Do some Devanagari lettersappear similar to Brahmi?

Are there any that seemdifferent?

. Bac to BasicsHow 3re 'nscri$tions Geci$&eredL

So far, we have been studying excerpts fr ominscriptions amongst other things. B ut how dohistorians nd out what is written on them?

7.1 Deciphering BrahmiMost scripts used to write modern Indian languagesare derived from Brahmi, the script used in most

Asokan inscriptions. From the late eighteenthcentury, European scholars aided by Indian pandits

worked backwards from contemporary Bengaliand Devanagari (the script used to write Hindi)manuscripts, com paring their letters with olderspecimens.

Scholars w ho studied early inscriptions som etimesassumed these were in Sanskrit, although theearliest inscriptions were, in fact, in Prakrit. It wasonly after decades of painstaking investigations byseveral epigraphists that Ja mes Prinsep was able todecipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.

7.2 How Kharosthi was read The story of the decipherment of Kharosthi, the

script used in inscriptions in the northwest, isdifferent. Here, nds of coins of Indo-Greek kings

who ruled over the area ( c . second-rst centuriesBCE ) have

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facilitated matters. These coins contain the names

of kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.European scholars who could read the formercompared the letters. For instance, the symbolfor a could be found in both scripts for writingnames su ch as Apollodotus. With Prinsep identifyingthe language of the Kharosthi inscriptions a s P rakrit,it became p ossible t o rea d longer i nscriptions a s well.

7.3 Historical evidence from inscriptions To nd out how epigraphists and historians work,

let us look at two Asokan inscriptions more closely.

Note that the name of the ruler, Asoka, i s notmentioned in the inscription (Source 10). What isused instead are titles adopted by the ruler devanampiya , often translated as beloved of thegods and piyadassi , or pleasant to behold. Thename Asoka is m entioned in some other inscriptions,

which also contain these titles. After examining althese inscriptions, and nding that they match interms of content, s tyle, language and palaeography,epigraphists have concluded that they were issued

by the same ruler. You may also have noticed that Asoka claims that

earlier r ulers h ad no a rrangements t o receive repo rts.If you consider the political history of thesubcontinent prior to Asoka, do you think thisstatement is true? Historians have to constantlyassess statements made in inscriptions to judge

whether they are true, plausible or exaggerations.Did you notice that there are words within

brackets? Epigraphists sometimes add these to makethe meaning of sentences clear. This has to be done

carefully, to ensure that the intended meaning ofthe author is not changed.

Source 10

The orders o the king

T&)s s$ea s ing Ge anam$iya#iyadassi1

'n t&e $ast, t&ere wereno arrangements *ordis$osing a airs, nor *o rrecei ing reg)lar

re$orts. B)t '&a e made t&e *ollowing(arrangement!. Pati edakas

s&o)ld re$ort to me a-o)tt&e a airs o* t&e $eo$leat all times, anyw&ere,w&et&er ' am eating, int&e inner a$artment, int&e -edroom, in t&e cow$en, -eing carried ($ossi-lyin a $alan

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Source 11

The anguish o theking

W&en t&e ingGe anam$iya# iyadassi &ad -eenr)l ing *or eig&t years, t&e(co)ntry o* t&e! Kalingas($ re sen t> d ay c oa st alOrissa! was con

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Timeline "Ma4or #olitical and Economic Ge elo$ments

c .600-500 BCE Paddy transplantation; urbanisation in theGanga valley; mahajanapadas ; punch-marked coins

c. 500-400 BCE Rulers of Magadha consolidate power

c. 327-325 BCE Invasion of Alexander of Macedon

c. 321 BCE Accession of Chandragupta Maurya

c. 272/268-231 BCE Reign of Asokac. 185 BCE End of the Mauryan empire

c. 200-100 BCE Indo-Greek ru le in the northwest; Cholas, Cherasand Pandyas in south India; Satavahanas in the Deccan

c. 100 BCE -200 CE Shaka (peoples from Central Asia) rulers inthe northwest; Roman trade; gold coinage

c . 78 CE ? Accession of Kanishka

c. 100-200 CE Earliest inscriptional evidence o f landgrants by S atavahana and Shaka rulers

c . 320 CE Beginning of Gupta ru le

c. 335-375 CE Samudragupta

c. 375-415 CE Chandragupta II; Vakatakas in the Deccan

c. 500-600 CE Rise of the Chalukyas in Karnataka an d of thePallavas in Tamil Nadu

c. 606-647 CE Harshavardhana k ing of Kanauj; Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang comes in search of Buddhist texts

c . 712 Arabs conquer Sind

(Note: It is d ifficult to d ate e conomic d evelopments p recisely. Also, there a re e normoussubcontinental variations w hich have not been indicated in the timeline.Only the ea rliest dates for speci c developments h ave b een given. The d ate of K anishkasaccession is n ot certain and this h as b een marked with a ?)

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If you would like to know more, read G.2. O&a. %00=.Early !ndia: A "onciseHistory.Mano&ar, 2ew Gel&i.

D. Salomon. "?? .!ndian Epigraphy. M)ns&iramMano&arlal #)-lis&ers # t. Ntd, 2ew Gel&i.

D.S. S&arma. "? 9.Material "ulture andSocial #ormation inEarly !ndia. Macmillan,2ew Gel&i.

G. . Sircar. "?K . !nscriptionsof Asoka. #)-licationsGi ision, Ministry o*'n*ormation andBroadcasting,7o ernment o* 'ndia, 2ew Gel&i.

Domila T&a$ar. "?? .Asoka and the $ecline of theMauryas. O+*ord Pni ersity #ress,2ew Gel&i.

)or more information*you could visit&tt$1 $ro4ectso)t&asia.sdstate.ed) Gocs inde+.&tml

Write a s&ort essay (a-o)t00 words! on t&e *ollowing1

6. Discuss the main features of Mauryanadministration. Which of these elements areevident in the Asokan inscriptions that you havestudied?

7. This is a statement made by one of the best-knownepigraphists of t he twentieth century, D.C. Sircar:There i s no aspect of life, culture a nd activities ofthe Indians that is not reected in inscriptions.

Discuss.8. Discuss t he notions of kingship that developed in

the post-Mauryan period.

9. To what extent were agri cultural practicestransformed in the period underconsideration?

Ma$ wor

10. Compare Maps 1 and 2, and list the

mahajanapadas that might have been includedin the MauryanEmpire. Are any Asokan inscriptions found inthese areas?

#ro4ect (any one!

11. Collect newspapers for one month. Cut and pasteall the statements made by government officialsabout public works. Note what the reports sayabout t he resources required for such projects,

how the resources are m obilised and the objectiveof the project. Who issues these st atements, andhow and why are they communicated? Compareand contrast these with the evidence frominscriptions d iscussed in this ch apter. What arethe similarities a nd differences t hat you notice?

12. Collect ve different kinds of currency notes andcoins in circulation today. For ea ch one of these,describe what you see on the obverse and thereverse (the front an d the back). Prepare a reporton the common features as w ell as the differencesin terms of pictures, scripts and languages, si ze,shape and any other element that you nd

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signicant.Comparethese with the coinsshown in thischapter, discussingthe materials used,the techniques ofminting, the visualsymbols and theirsignicance and thepossible functionsthat coins may havehad.

Documents

2.600 bce-600ce