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THE RELATIONHSHIP AMONG STRESS, BURNOUT, AND LOCUS OF CONTROL
OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate School
of
Tennessee State University
in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Psychology
Graduate Research Series No. __________
Shana J. Reece
August 2010
UMI Number: 3419154
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
UMI 3419154
Copyright 2010 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346
THE RELATIONHSHIP AMONG STRESS, BURNOUT, AND LOCUS OF CONTROL
OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate School
of
Tennessee State University
in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Psychology
Shana J. Reece
August 2010
To the Graduate School:
We are submitting a dissertation by Shana Reece entitled “The Relationship Among Stress,
Burnout, and Locus of Control of School Psychologists.” We recommend that it be accepted
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree, Doctor of Philosophy in School
Psychology.
Steve Trotter___________________
Chairman
Misti Counts___________________
Committee Member
Joan Popkin______ ___________
Committee Member
Erik Schmeller_________________
Committee Member
Accepted for the Graduate School:
Alex Sekwart_______________________
Dean of the Graduate School
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my grandfather, the late Colonel James D. Wattenbarger,
who is greatly missed and loved. His words of encouragement are never far from my
mind and have often kept me going on this project. Though you are not here, I know that
you are very proud.
ACKLOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my mother, Norma Reece, sister, Jana Reece, and brother, T.J.
Reece for their support and encouragement. Also, my utmost gratitude to all of my family
members for their positive support and a pat on the back when I needed it.
ABSTRACT
SHANA JEAN REECE. The Relationship Among Stress, Burnout, and Locus of Control
of School Psychologists (Under the direction of Dr. STEVE TROTTER).
The purpose of this study was to determine how stress, burnout, and locus of control are
related for school psychologists providing direct services in the Metropolitan Nashville
Public School System. This knowledge is essential in providing the needed experience
and outlook of working as a school psychologist. The current study provided school
psychologists with demographic questionnaires regarding factors such as psychologist to
student ratio, number of schools served, location of school, administration support, and
role conflict. Also participants were asked to rate which of their direct service roles;
consultation, assessment, and intervention portray the most stress and burnout.
Participants completed the School Psychologists and Stress Inventory (Wise, 1985), the
Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1986), and the Rotter Locus of Control
Scale (Rotter, 1966). The data from 55 surveys was completed by school psychologists
and analyzed using SPSS 17.0. Descriptive statistics, MANCOVAs, MANOVA, and a
Pearson r correlation were used to determine significance when data is cross-referenced
with demographic data. There were no significant relationships between school
psychologists’ stress and burnout levels and number of schools served, location of school,
number of special education students served, and locus of control. Based on the results,
the researcher suggests that school districts provide a mandatory training addressing the
effects of stress and burnout, as well as time and stress management skills. Suggestions
for future research are also given.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………...1
Statement of the Problem………………………………………….5
Significance of Study……………………………………………...6
Definition of Terms………………………………………………..6
Research Questions………………………………………………..7
II. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………9
Practitioner to Student Ratio……………………………………..11
Number of Schools………………………………………………13
Location of School……………………………………………….14
Role Conflict……………………………………………………..15
Administration Support…………………………………………..16
Direct Services…………………………………………………...17
III. METHODS………………………………………………………………20
Participants……………………………………………………….20
Instrumentation………………………………………..…………20
Procedure……………………………………………...…………22
Hypotheses……………………………………………………….23
Statistical Analysis……………………………………………….23
IV. RESULTS………………………………………………………………24
Demographic Data……………………………………………….24
Survey Data……..……………………………………………….24
Analysis of Hypotheses…..…...…………………………………26
ix
V. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………….31
Implications and Findings..…....………………………..…….. 32
Limitations of the Study…......……..……...…….......………...39
Recommendations…………..…...………....……..………........41
Suggestions for Future Research................……..….…………..41
REFERENCES……………………………………………………..……43
APPENDIXES…………………………………………………..………54
A. Informed Consent…………………………………………....55
B. Demographic Questionnaire……..…………....……………..57
C. School Psychologists and Stress Inventory
(SPSI)……...………………………………………………...59
D. Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)………………………….61
E. Rotter Locus of Control Scale……………………………….63
F. Institutional Review Board Letter of Acceptance…………...66
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Demographic Data……………………………………………………….25
2. MANCOVA concerning the number of schools served and stress and
burnout…………………………………………………………………...28
3. MANOVA concerning the location of school served and stress and
burnout…………………………………………………………………...29
4. MANCOVA concerning the number of students served and stress and
burnout…………………………………………………………………...30
5. Pearson’s r correlation concerning external locus of control and stress and
burnout…………………………………………………………………...30
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Stress and tension are part of the professional lives of school psychologists. At
times, stress may be tolerable and stimulating, but often school psychologists experience
excessive demands on their mental and physical resources as they deal with students,
parents, and colleagues. Even the best organized school psychologist is often bombarded
with daily role conflicts, interpersonal conflicts, unscheduled meetings, frequent
interruptions, and heavy workload. Research suggests that symptoms of burnout are often
reported frequently among school psychologists, particularly feelings of emotional
exhaustion (Huebner, 1993). However, little research has been conducted on the stress
experienced by school psychologists or the relationship between burnout and stress.
Within the past several years, school psychologists have been required to expand their
services and the results of these additional demands and responsibilities have provided
more stressful conditions for special services personnel. Due to the historical
implementation of IDEA (The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) and Public
Law 94-192 (1974) a significant degree of stress in schools has been formed among
school psychologists. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has created
additional responsibilities over the past 30 years, including team meetings, due process
2
paperwork, individualized education program, and intensive involvement and
accountability with parents (Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement 2004).
The combination of working with exceptional children and implementing the mandate of
IDEA has appeared to shape stressful conditions which many special services personnel
have been in previous years unable to cope (Shaw, Bensky & Dixon, 1981). In addition,
special education departments must provide services to infants and toddlers under Part H
of Public Law 99-457 (1978) (Mowder, Widerstrom & Sandall, 1989). Lastly, not only
do special education departments provide services to those with educational disabilities
but they also must provide services to “handicapped persons” under section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973.
Wise (1985) reported that school psychologists often experience a wide variety of
occupational stressors. Such stressors include an overabundance of work, insufficient
pleasure at work, inadequate structure, poor relationships with supervisor personnel, and
the feeling of lacking control over one’s situation. Wise (1985) also reported that several
demographic variables including gender, age, type of working community, number of
districts, number of year’s experience, and salary were significantly related to the school
psychologists’ ratings of stressful events. In a similar study, Reiner & Hartshorne (1982)
contend that the lack of time and excessive caseloads, as well as lack of support and
appreciation are the predominant sources of distress amongst school psychologists.
School psychologists have long reported job related stressors. Clair, Kerfoot, &
Klaus Meier (1972) identified several areas of dissatisfaction among school
psychologists. Areas identified were an unavailability of adequate testing and
3
interviewing facilities. In addition was a lack of funding to attend conventions, lack of in-
service training, lack of opportunity for placement, advancement, and isolation from
fellow school psychologists. Huebner & Mills (1994) reported that daily “hassles” were
more stressful for practicing school psychologists than “high profile” incidents such as
suicides. Last & Silverman (1989) conveyed that the experience with burnout likely
results in school psychologists “drifting away” from the profession and into other
professions involving less stress.
School psychologists are redefining their roles, a fact which can lead to higher
occupational stressors and an increase in potential burnout (DeAngelis, 2002). For school
psychologists who provide services to an eclectic array of clients, burnout could be a
significant problem. According to Levinson, Fetchkan, & Hohenshil (1988) school
psychologists are relied upon to make important and critical decisions about children
which may affect those children for the rest of their lives. Although school psychologists
usually function as a member of an interdisciplinary decision making team, Giliam &
Coleman (1981) have shown that school psychologists, by virtue of their “expert power”
and diagnostic expertise, are frequently regarded as the most influential members of this
team.
Locus of control may help to explain much about one’s perceived stress in the
workplace. According to Hurrell & Murphy (1991) locus of control is one of the most
widely studied variables in psychology. However, very few studies have been conducted
in the work setting of school psychologists. Rotter (1990) formulated the locus of control
construct to explain the failure of people to respond in a predictable manner to
4
reinforcement. According to Rotter (1966), if an individual perceives reinforcement to be
contingent upon his/her own actions then positive or negative reinforcement will
strengthen or weaken the behavior. If the individual believes that reinforcement is
externally controlled by chance, fate, or powerful others, then reinforcement will not
strengthen or weaken the behavior. It is a personality orientation characterized either by
the belief that one can control an event by one’s own efforts (internal locus of control) or
that the future is determined by forces outside one’s control (external locus of control)
(Strickland, 2006).
An external locus of control can cause school psychologists to feel like everything
that is happening in their work environment is out of their control. Yet school
psychologists with internal locus of control feel that they can be the change agents in
their lives and have control over what is going on in their environment (Lunenburg &
Cavadid, 1992). If school psychologists are stressed they are likely to have less job
satisfaction. Whether one believes that one has control over their world has a significant
impact on how the stress in their life affects them. The school psychologist with an
external locus of control may be affected more negatively by stress in the workplace
because the psychologist perceives the stress as something he or she cannot make stop or
go away (Hoyos & Kallus, n.d.). School psychologists who feel they are more burned out
have been found to ascribe an external locus of control. They feel like they have fewer
coping strategies or perceived past reinforcement strategies outside their control
(Lunenburg & Cadavid, 1992). Moreover, externals have been shown to report more
burnout (Glogow, 1986; McIntyre, 1984), job satisfaction (Spector, 1982), stress (Haplin,
5
Harris, & Haplin, 1985; Lester, 1982), alienation (Korman, Wittig-Berman, & Lang,
1981), and lower self- esteem (Lester, 1986).
On the other hand, there are school psychologists who believe they control what
happens in their lives, those with internal locus of control, report lower anxiety and
higher self-esteem (Schultz & Shultz, 2001). These school psychologists reported being
less negatively impacted by stress in the workplace than school psychologists with an
external locus of control.
Statement of the Problem
The discussion above has identified a number of stressful conditions which exist
within the work environment of those involved in the helping profession. The
acknowledgement of stressful factors that contribute to burnout among school
psychologists is important in the progress to decrease those factors and improve the
career satisfaction of school psychologists. With the importance of school psychologists
role noted, job setting factors influence the quality of services provided by school
psychologists. School psychologists need to be aware of, and use, all appropriate
resources to decrease burnout rates. Therefore, practitioner to student ratio, number of
schools served, location of school, role conflict, administration support, and the stress of
providing the main services of direct services (consultation, assessment, and intervention)
may impede the progression of decreasing burnout factors among school psychologists in
the job setting. School psychologists’ perceptions of control or lack of thereof, over
employment roles also pose as a deciding factor of stress and burnout levels.
6
Significance of Study
This study sought to determine how stress, burnout, and locus of control are
related for school psychologists providing direct services in the Metropolitan Nashville
Public School System (MNPS). This knowledge is essential in providing the needed
experience and outlook of working as a school psychologist. Factors such as psychologist
to student ratio, number of schools served, location of school, administration support, and
role conflict can help to determine the causes and rate of stress and burnout. Also the
rating of school psychologists’ services including consultation, assessment, and
intervention may play a role in what area school psychologists report to be the most
stressful. The results of this study may add to further research supporting the resilience of
school psychologists’ to burnout.
Definitions of Terms
School Psychologist. A field that applies principles of clinical psychology and
educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents'
behavioral and learning problems (www.nasponline.org). They collaborate with
educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning
environments for all students that strengthen connections between home and school
(www.naspoline.org).
Stress. An adaptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or
physiological processes that are a consequence of any external action, situation, or event
that places special physical and/or psychological demands upon a person (Ivancevich &
Matteson, 1980).
7
Burnout. A state of physical and emotional depletion resulting from working
conditions (Freudenberger, 1975). It has been further defined as a syndrome of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment (Maslach
& Jackson, 1986).
Locus of Control. A concept initially used to distinguish between two types of
situations those in which outcomes are determined by skill in contrast to settings where
chance is the main determinant of success and failure (Rotter, 1966).
External Locus of Control. Individual believes that his/her behavior is guided by
fate, luck, or other external circumstances (Rotter, 1990).
Internal Locus of Control. Individual believes that his/her behavior is guided by
his/her personal decisions and efforts (Rotter, 1990).
Research Questions
1. What relationship exists between demographic variables (student ratio, number
of schools served, and location of school) and stress of school psychologists?
2. What relationship exists between demographic variables (student ratio, number
of schools served, and location of school) and burnout of school psychologists?
3. What relationship exists between demographic variables (student ratio, number
of schools served, and location of school) and locus of control of school
psychologists?
4. What is the relationship between locus of control as measured by the Rotter
Locus of Control Scale, and stress as measured by the School Psychologists and
Stress Inventory?
8
5. What is the relationship between locus of control as measured by the Rotter
Locus of Control Scale, and burnout as measured by the Maslach Burnout
Inventory?
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
It is a widely held belief in the research that the cumulative effect of work related
stress in the helping profession can result in a condition known as burnout (Belcastro &
Hays, 1984). Burnout has become a growing concern in a variety of human service
professions (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). The term “burnout” was first introduced by
Freudenberger (1975) to refer to the emotional and physical wearing away experienced
by some professionals who work in health and care agencies (Huebner, 1993). Since then,
research on burnout among human professionals has flourished. More than 2,500 articles
were published during 1975-1989 alone (Kleiber & Enzmann, 1990). Farber (1991)
concludes that expressions of burnout now reflects today’s work environment which
includes: (a) pressure of meeting the demands of others, (b) intense competition, (c) a
drive to make money, and (d) a sense of being deprived of something that is deserved.
Maslach (1982) highlights three domains in which stressful events can arise in the work
setting: organizational, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. In the area of school psychology,
studies related to burnout have not been as frequently conducted as in the other helping
professions (e.g., nursing, social work, and mental health workers) (Golembiewski,
Munzenrider, & Stevenson, 1985; Hoff & Buchholz, 1996; Huebner, 1992, 1993a,
1993b; Jackson, Schwab, & Shuler, 1986; Jenkins & Maslach, 1994; Leiter & Meechan,
1986; Maslach, 1982; Maslach & Leiter, 1996, Niebrugge, 1994; Reiner & Hartshorne,
10
1982). For school psychologists, organizational stressors include a range of issues such as
role ambiguity, role conflict, and role overload (Brown, 1979; Huberty & Huebner, 1988;
Hughes, 1979; Last & Silberman, 1989; Wright & Thomas, 1982). Other organizational
stressors can include external forces, such as federal and state regulations, legislations,
and litigation (Lupiani, 1978) and pressures from colleagues such as teachers and
administration (Huberty &Huebner, 1988). Interpersonal stressors include problems with
supervisors or other colleagues (Hays & Clair, 1978; Lesiak & Lounsbury, 1977).
There has been an abundance of burnout among teachers and other helping
professionals; research related to burnout among school psychologists has not generated
much attention (Hoff & Buchholz, 1996). Hubeny-Pierson & Archibald uncovered only
14 studies examining burnout prior to 1987. Their investigation examined the
relationships among burnout for school psychologists in the Connecticut public school
systems. Results indicated that school psychologists, when compared to four other
teacher groups (i.e., classroom teachers, school social workers, guidance counselors, and
reading specialists) reported the second lowest levels of burnout along the
Depersonalization dimension and mid-range perceptions of burnout along the Emotional
Exhaustion and Personal Accomplishment dimensions. School psychologists reported the
second highest level of Role Conflict and the highest level of Role Ambiguity. Role
Conflict was a major factor in predicting Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization
among school psychologists. A study conducted by Huberty & Huebner (1988) found a
negative correlation between age and burnout in a national sample of school
psychologists. The results concluded that as school psychologist grew older they
11
developed a variety of behavioral and attitudinal patterns that reduced the likelihood of
burnout.
School psychology is one of the several human service professions faced with
challenges and demands that can serve as antecedents to burnout. Huebner (1992)
examined the extent of burnout among a national sample of school psychologists and
found approximately thirty percent displayed high levels of burnout. The study also
reported that burnout was related to school psychologists wanting to leave the profession
all together. Those who leave the school psychology profession for another career or to
return to school have been described as “the walking wounded of the burnout syndrome”
(Reiner & Hartshorne, 1982).
Pierson-Hubeny and Archambault (1987) examined the responses of 289
Connecticut school psychologists as part of a larger study of supportive services
personnel including classroom teacher, social workers, guidance counselors, and reading
specialist. The study found that school psychologists experienced moderate rates of
burnout on the emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment dimensions of
burnout and relatively low ratings on the depersonalization dimensions of the MBI. The
study also revealed that role conflict and role ambiguity were rated as stressful by school
psychologists, and that these role related stressors were significant predictors of the three
aspects of burnout examined.
Practitioner to Student Ratio
School psychologists are not evenly distributed across the nation. A study
conducted by Fagan (1994) reported significant state and regional variations and most
12
states do not meet the NASP standard of one school psychologist for every 1,000
students. Lund, Reschly & Connolly-Martin (1998) found that 25.5 percent of full-time
practicing school psychologists work in settings that are at or below the 1,000:1 ratio, and
almost one-half (48.7 percent) work in settings with ratios of 1,5000:1 or less. However,
32.5 percent of school psychologists work in settings with ratios of greater than 2,000:1.
There is considerable state-by-state variation in students to school psychologist ratios
(Lund, Reschly & Connolly-Martin, 1998: Thomas, 2000). Connolly and Reschly (1990)
reported a national student-to-practitioner ratio of 1,874:1. When they reported the ratios
by regions using NASP’s five regions, the northeast has the lowest ratio at 1,183:1 and
the west region has the highest ration at 3,104:1.
In the area of school psychology, numerous investigators have found
psychologists to student ratio or caseloads to be significant predictors (negatively related)
of career satisfaction and have been associated with increased role conflict and burnout
(Ahrens, 1977). Caseload for school psychologists has traditionally been expressed as the
student-to-psychologist ratio. Increased caseloads have been found to decrease the direct
and indirect interventions engaged by school psychologists (Keith, Brown, & Oberman,
1992), influence the opportunity for boundary-spanning activities, and limit role diversity
(Jerrell, 1984). “Work load,” which included caseload, was identified as a factor in high
burnout among school psychologists (Wright & Gutkin, 1981) and caseload has been
found to be negatively related to job satisfaction (Anderson, Hohenshil, & Brown, 1984).
13
Number of Schools
Traditionally, most school psychologists have simultaneously served two or three
schools in their district, but in recent years there appears to be an increasing number who
are housed full-time within a single school. Proctor & Steadman (2003) examined
whether school psychologists who serve a single (“In-House” group) differed from
school psychologists who serve several schools concurrently (“Traditional’ group) in the
three areas of job satisfaction, burnout, and effectiveness as perceived by school
psychologists. Thirty-two practicing school psychologists who were employed by a
single school and 31 who served two or more schools completed a questionnaire that
served as the basis for the study which included seven questions related to demographics
(e.g. age, gender, highest degree, ethnicity, years of practicing as a school psychologist,
number of schools currently served, and prior teaching experience). Items 1-15 related to
job satisfaction, 16-22 related to burnout, and 23-28 pertained to perceived effectiveness
which were all on a Likert-type scale in which the respondents rated their agreement with
each item (Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree). A multivariate analysis of variance was
used to yield a valid statistical analysis. Although the two groups differed on the
measures of job satisfaction, results indicated that neither group is really dissatisfied with
their jobs. The difference between these two groups on the job satisfaction score was the
largest among the three dependent variables. Items such as job diversity, caseload, others’
familiarity with the school psychologists, and integration into school activities provided
the most variance among the two groups. Also, school psychologists demonstrated that
those who serve a single school are less likely to experience symptoms of burnout than
14
those who serve two or more schools. In regards to how school psychologists perceive
their professional effectiveness both groups reported that they believe that they are
effective in helping students, teachers, and administrators and others are knowledgeable
of their professional capabilities.
Location of School
School psychologists are typically employed in the following settings: public or
private schools, universities, clinics, institutions, private practice, and community
agencies. However, the majority (approximately 82.6 percent) practice in primary and
secondary schools. Thomas (2000) reported that the percentage of school psychologists
varies by setting: urban schools 30.3 percent; suburban schools, 44.8 percent; and rural
schools, 24.9 percent.
Professional activities in which school psychologists engage in vary based upon
location and setting of school district. In the past rural school psychologists were more
likely to consult with board members, conduct home visits, and design school-wide
programs rather than their urban and suburban colleagues (Hughes & Clark, 1981).
Goldwasser, Myers, Christenson, & Graden (1983) found that in urban districts, parents
and teachers were less frequently involved in consultation activities such as Support
Team and IEP meetings. School psychologists working in systems requiring a greater
number of special education evaluations per week seemed to have less opportunity to
provide non-special education services such as consultation and prevention activities.
There was a greater tendency for consultation to occur in suburban school districts.
15
There has been increased interest in the problems faced by the rural school
psychologists in recent years. School psychologists working in rural areas are found to
have higher student/psychologists ratio, a shorter tenure in their job, and have less
experience in the field (Hughes, 1982). Rural psychologists in one study reported twice
the level of dissatisfaction with their jobs as that reported by a national sample (Solly &
Hohenshil, 1986). Curtis, Hunley & Grier (2002) examined the relationships between the
professional practices of school psychologists and the factors of practitioner training,
experience, gender, school district setting, and students-to-school psychologist ratio. The
study used a 31 item survey requesting demographic and professional practice
information from 1,411 NASP members. A statistical significance using an analysis of
variance was found between the type of school system and years of experience for school
psychologists working in different settings. School psychologists with more years of
experience and those with higher levels of training were found to have served more
students through consultation and to have conducted more in-service programs when
compared to those with less experience or training. There was not a significant difference
in the number of reevaluations completed between urban and suburban school districts.
Larger student-to-school psychologist ratios were associated with special education
related practices such as initial evaluations and reevaluations.
Role Conflict
Role definition determinants produce role ambiguity. The term refers to a lack of
clarity regarding a professional’s responsibilities, methods, goals, and/or accountability.
Role conflict is another determinant that refers to inconsistent or incompatible role
16
demands. This is especially evident when opposing pressures or expectations are exerted
or experienced in such a way that satisfying one makes compliance with another
impossible. Sheridan & Gutkin (2000) listed several important problems inherent in the
traditional practice of school psychology, including the prevalence of medical model
paradigm, the structure of school psychological services, and the growing incidence of
problems facing young people and their families.
Last & Silberman (1989) point out another obstacle that seems to be challenging
the literature on burnout and drifting away among school psychologists. The challenge is
the immersion in a constant professional identity crisis. This is especially evident in the
United States where there is controversy between the American Psychological
Association (APA) and the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP).
Questions of identity crisis not only convey role conflict, but also diffuse identity.
Working out of professional roles and knowledge base may give to an array of role
conflicts and also diffuse identity which can result in emotional exhaustions, stress, and
burnout (Last & Silberman, 1989; Sheridan & Gutkin, 2000). As the needs of schools
change, the school psychology communities must establish a definitive role.
Administration Support
Human service professionals are often expected to work within the restraints of
policies and procedures, are subjected to unhelpful supervisors and colleagues, and are
expected by supervisors to conquer immense work-loads (Edelwich & Brodsky, 1980).
These unreasonable restraints and demands must be contended with on a daily basis, and
17
it is not surprising that the unrelenting demands on the helping professional can produce
high levels of stress.
A number of studies have demonstrated the effect of supervision on the burnout
of school psychologists. The lack of supervision by persons who are not trained as school
psychologists has been found to negatively effect job satisfaction (Anderson, Hohenshil,
& Brown, 1984). Pines (1981) reported that the better the social support relationships, the
less burnout. Pines & Aronson (1988) classify social support actions into six categories
based on extensive research with collaborative groups. The six functions of social support
include: (a) listening, (b) technical support, (c) technical challenge, (d) emotional
support, (e) emotional challenge, and (f) sharing social reality. The research concludes
that people need effective support systems of dynamic communicative feedback to buffer
the potential of burnout.
Niebrugge (1994) surveyed 139 school psychologists from the Illinois School
Psychologists Association to determine variables of burnout. The study used the Maslach
Burnout Inventory, the School Psychologists’ Stress Inventory (SPI), and a specifically
designed demographic and job satisfaction questionnaire. The results of the study
suggested that symptoms of burnout occur frequently among school psychologists with
primarily demographic factors such as satisfaction with supervision and caseload to
psychologists’ discrepancy indexes being the best predictors of burnout.
Direct Services
In 1998 the NASP membership directory provided survey data on the percentage
of time members spend in various professional activities. Less than half of the school
18
psychologists’ reported time was spent assessing children. Included in the process of
assessment is presenting results to parents and school/other staff as well as utilizing
assessment information primarily to plan interventions for students experiencing
academic or behavior difficulties in school. Consultation and behavioral and other
therapeutic interventions accounted for 30 percent of professional time. The remainder
was spent in service training provided and received, administration, and research.
School psychologists have reported that ideal roles would involve a reduction in
the amount of time devoted to assessment and an increase in time devoted to
interventions and consultation (Reschly & Wilson, 1995; Smith, 1984). In a study of
Pennsylvania school psychologists (Levinson, 1990), role functions alone were found to
account for more than one-third of the variance in burnout. School psychologists who
have more diversity in their roles they perform are more satisfied in their jobs (Jerrel,
1984). Hutton, Dubes, & Muir, (1992) explored variables specifically related to
assessment based on an earlier study conducted by Goh, Teslow, & Fuller (1981). Within
the study only the percentage of time spent on assessment activities were analyzed
regionally. Respondents from one region (Eastern) reported spending the least amount of
time on assessment activities (M= 47.34%). Respondents from three out of the four
remaining regions consistently spent the majority of their time on assessment activities.
In all the research presented, each article represents knowledge and factors that
contribute to burnout in the field of school psychology. However, the area of burnout
among school psychologists has gone unaddressed. Most research conducted on the
19
subject of school psychologists and burnout is primarily outdated and needs to be
examined further to obtain updated information in order to prevent stress and burnout.
CHAPTER III
METHODS
Participants
Participants were recruited from the Metropolitan Nashville Public School
System. Participants were employed as a school psychologist in a public educational
setting. Participants included in the research were asked to volunteer to participate in the
current study. All school psychologists were currently working with exceptional
education students. The researcher arrived at the participant’s site of employment to
provide school psychologists a summary of the current study and to obtain participant
involvement in the study.
Instrumentation
Informed Consent. Participants were given informed consents prior to the
questionnaires. Informed consents address participants volunteering for participation,
confidentiality of participation, and purpose of study.
Demographic Questionnaire. Participants were given a demographic
questionnaire, which includes gender, ethnicity, age, educational level, grades assigned,
location of school, number of schools served, years of experience, number of students at
current school, number of special education students served, and number of yearly
evaluations completed. Participants will also be asked to rate their level of support from
21
supervisors, administration, and colleagues as well as rate the most stressful service to
provide as a school psychologist.
School Psychologist and Stress Inventory (SPSI). The School Psychologist and
Stress Inventory was developed by Wise (1985). It is a self-report device consisting of 32
stressful events related to areas such as interpersonal conflict, risks to self and others,
time management, and legal issues. The SPSI is based on a 6-point Likert scale
measuring how often school psychologists experience each statement in their job. Zero
occurring “Never” to 6 occurring “Ever day.” Reliability and validity are not reported for
the SPSI in previous research.
Maslach Burnout Inventor (MBI). The Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach &
Jackson, 1986) is a multidimensional measure of occupational well-being. The Maslach
Burnout Inventory is a 22-item self-report instrument. It consists of three scales:
Emotional Exhaustion (EE), Depersonalization (DP), and Personal Accomplishment
(PA). The Emotional Exhaustion refers to a person’s feelings of being overwhelmed by
job demands. The second factor, Depersonalization, refers to the development of negative
feelings and attitudes toward the client. Lastly, the third factor, Personal
Accomplishment, is displayed in feelings of being incompetent to help clients. People
who experience all three symptoms have the greatest degrees of burnout. Reported
reliability coefficients for the subscales include: .90 for Emotional Exhaustion; .79 for
Depersonalization; and .71 for Personal Accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). A
6-point Likert scale of 0= “Never,” 1= “A few times a year or less,” 2= “Once a month,”
22
3= “A few times a month,” 4= “Once a week,” 5= “A few times a week,” and 6= “Every
day” was used as the scoring key for the MBI. For this study, the MBI was used as a
global measure, measuring general burnout of school psychologists.
Rotter Locus of Control Scale. Rotter Locus of Control scale (1966) measures the
extent of a person's internal or external reinforcement beliefs. The scale is a 29-item
forced choice scale. Rotter's data indicated that scores on the I-E scale exhibited
sufficient convergent discriminate validity and satisfactory internal and test-retest
reliability (Beretvas, Suizzo, Durham, & Yarnell, 2008). The scale is scored by summing
the number of external responses, that is, the higher the scores, the more external the
person is.
Procedure
The researcher scheduled a time during after work hours to conduct
questionnaires with school psychologists at the school psychologists’ site of employment.
The researcher conducted research within a group setting with school psychologists. The
school psychologists were given a packet containing four items: (1) consent form (see
Appendix A), (2) demographic form (see Appendix B), (3) the School Psychology and
Stress Inventory (SPSI) (see Appendix C), (4) the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (see
Appendix D), and (5) the Rotter Locus of Control Scale (see Appendix E). The School
Psychology Stress Inventory (SPSI) was created by Wise (1985). The Maslach Burnout
Inventory (MBI) Scale was created by Maslach & Jackson (1986). For the purpose of this
research, “clients” refer to the students, teacher, parents, and other for whom school
psychologists provide service. The Rotter Locus of Control Scale was created by Rotter
23
(1966). The researcher instructed school psychologists to first complete the consent form
while explaining that this survey is voluntary and completely confidential. The
participants will then be asked to complete the demographic information sheet followed
the SPSI, MBI, and lastly the Rotter Scale. Upon completing the items participants were
then free to leave.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses are stated in the null:
1. A relationship will occur between higher stress and burnout levels and the increase of
schools served by school psychologists.
2. School psychologists providing direct services in a rural area will report higher levels
of stress and burnout.
3. A relationship will occur between higher stress and burnout levels and the increase of
students served by school psychologists.
4. School psychologists with an external locus of control will report more stressors and
higher burnout than school psychologists with an internal locus of control.
Statistical Analyses
Descriptive statistics were explored through an examination of frequency
distributions. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was conducted to
examine the first hypothesis. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was
conducted to examine the second hypothesis. A multivariate analysis of covariance
(MANCOVA) was conducted to examine the third hypothesis. A Pearson’s r correlation
was conducted to examine the last hypothesis.
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Participants
Participants were 55 school psychologists working in the Metro Nashville Public
School System. Fifty five out of 62 employed school psychologists returned the surveys
which resulted in an 82% response rate. Subjects were predominantly women (81.8%
followed by men at 18.2%), and employed in urban areas (78.18%, as opposed to rural
21.82%). 3.6% percent indicated they held a master’s degree, 72.7% held an educational
specialist degree, and 23.6% held a doctoral degree.
The data from 55 surveys completed by school psychologists was analyzed using
SPSS version 17.0 (2010). The survey attempted to ascertain the respondents’ stressors,
level of burnout, and locus of control. Descriptive participant attributes (frequency and
percentage) for demographic variables were analyzed and reported in the following table.
25
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of School Psychologists
Variable Total Percent
Gender
Male 10 18
Female 45 81.8
Race
Caucasian 42 57.0
African American 13 23.6
Age
32-39 years 23 41.8
41-49 years 19 34.7
50-57 years 13 23.5
Education
Masters 2 3.6
Ed. S 40 72.7
Doctoral 13 23.6
Location of School
Urban 43 78.2
Rural 12 21.8
Number of Schools
1 1 1.8
2 13 23.6
3 31 56.4
4 10 18.2
Number of Students
100-150 10 18.2
151-200 36 65.5
201-over 9 16.4
Most Stressful Service
Consultation 7 12.7
Assessment 19 34.5
Interventions 29 52.8__
The results of the school psychologists’ responses to The School Psychologists
Stress Inventory (Wise, 1985) reported a mean score of 98.13 (SD= 16.57) out of a
possible score of 192. A mean score of 98.13 indicated that, on average, the participants
experienced high stress events once a week. The most stressful events encountered by
26
school psychologists were: 1). Not enough time to perform job adequately, 2). Feeling
caught between child’s needs and administrative constraints, 3). Inadequate secretarial
help, and 4). Lack of contact with professional colleagues.
School psychologists reported providing interventions as the most stressful
service to provide in the school setting at 50.9%, followed by providing assessments at
34.5% and, lastly, consultation at 12.7%. Results also indicated that school psychologists
receive minimal support from supervisors and administration.
Statistics from the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1986)
revealed that of the 55 participants, 42.81% reported experiencing moderate levels of
burnout. Only 18.36% of participants scored a total of 26-35, out of a possible 35, on the
burnout scale indicating relatively high levels of burnout. Almost half of the participants
(38.83%) reported low burnout levels of 16-25. The most frequently occurring burnout
items were: 1) Working with people all day is really a strain for me, and 2) I feel I’m
working too hard on my job.
The results from the Rotter Locus of Control Scale (1966) reported that almost
three fourths of the school psychologists (70.91%) working in Metropolitan Nashville
Public Schools reported having an internal locus of control. The remaining 29.09%
reported an external locus of control.
Analysis of Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1 stated that a relationship will occur between stress and burnout levels and
the increase of schools served by school psychologists. Item 8 (number of schools served)
of the demographic questionnaire, the School Psychologists Stress Inventory, and the
27
Maslach Burnout Inventory relate to this hypothesis. A multivariate analysis of
covariance (MANCOVA) between the number of schools served and stress and burnout
(as shown in Table 2) was used to determine whether the hypothesis should be retained or
rejected. Using the Bonferroni approach to control for Type I error across the two
correlations, a p of less than or equal to.01 was required for significance. The
independent variables included schools with four levels (a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, and (d) 4.
Years of experience reported by school psychologists stood out as a variable that was
expected to relate to stress and burnout and might obscure the effects of increase of
stressful factors and burnout levels. The overall results of the logistic regression equation
indicated that years of experience did not significantly predict stress and burnout. The
SPSI questionnaire was scored by totaling up the final score of each participant’s survey
(192-161 every day, 160-129 a few times a week, 128-97 once a week, 96-65 a few times
a month, 64-33 a few times a year or less, and 32-0 never). Thus, raw scores range from
0 (lowest stress) to 192 (highest stress level). A median split was used to determine “High
Stress” and “Low Stress” scores. A score less than or equal to 96 was defined as “Low
Stress” and a score greater than 96 was defined as “High Stress.” The MBI questionnaire
was also scored by totaling up the final score of each participant’s survey (132-111 every
day, 110-89 a few times a week, 88-67 once a week, 66-45 a few times a month, 44-23 a
few times a year or less, and 22-0 never). Raw scores were summed for the total, with
reverse-scoring performed for all negative items (e.g. “I am stressed out at my job”). The
results evaluating normality of sampling distributions, linearity, homogeneity of variance,
homogeneity of regression, and reliability of covariates were satisfactory. Results
28
indicated that there was no statistical significance between the increase of schools served
and stress [F(3, 50) = 1.49, p = .230]. The results of the correlation analysis show that
there was no statistical significance between the increase of schools served and burnout
[F(3, 50) = .81, p = .494]. Therefore, the first hypothesis was rejected.
Table 2
Results of Multivariate Analysis of Covariance concerning number of schools served and
stress and burnout_____________________________________________
__________ df SS MS F value p value
burnout 1 1007.982 335.994 .810 .494
stress 3 1138.862 379.621 1.486 .082
Hypothesis 2 stated that school psychologists providing direct services in a rural area will
report higher levels of stress and burnout. Item 7 (location of school) of demographic
questionnaire, the School Psychologists Stress Inventory, and the Maslach Burnout
Inventory relate to this hypothesis. The Bonferroni approach was used to control for Type
I error across the two correlations, a p of less than or equal to.01 was required for
significance. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) between the location of
school served and stress and burnout (as shown in Table 3) was used to determine
whether the hypothesis should be retained or rejected. The results of the correlation
analysis show that the current hypothesis was not supported as provided by the results
stating that there was no statistical significance between the location of schools served
and stress [F(1, 53) = .06, MSE = 16.73, p = .808]. Also, the results indicated that there
was no statistical significance between the location of schools served and burnout [F(1,
53) = .62, MSE = 253.27, p = .433].
29
Table 3
Results of Multivariate Analysis of Variance concerning location of school served and
stress and burnout_________________________________
____________df SS F value p value
burnout 1 253.269 .623 .433
stress 1 16.727 .060 .808__
Hypothesis 3 stated that a relationship will occur between higher stress and burnout levels
and the increase of students served by school psychologists. Item 12 (number of students
served) of demographic questionnaire, the School Psychologists Stress Inventory, and the
Maslach Burnout Inventory relate to this hypothesis. A multivariate analysis of
covariance (MANCOVA) between the number of students served and stress and burnout
(as shown in Table 4) was used to determine whether the hypothesis should be retained or
rejected. Again, the Bonferroni approach was used to control for Type I error across the
two correlations, a p of less than or equal to.01 was required for significance. The
independent variables included number of students served with three levels (a) 1-150, (b)
151-200, and (c) 201- over. Years of experience reported by school psychologists stood
out once again as a variable that was expected to relate to stress and burnout and might
obscure the effects of increase of stressful factors and burnout levels. The overall results
of the logistic regression equation indicated that years of experience did not significantly
predict stress and burnout. Results indicated that there was no statistical significance
between the increase of students served and stress [F(2,51) = .28, p = .756]. The results
of the correlation analysis show that there was no statistical significance between the
increase of schools served and burnout [F(2,51) = .1.04, p = .360]. They hypothesis was
not supported by indication of the results.
30
Table 4
Results of Multivariate Analysis of Covariance concerning number of students served and
stress and burnout_____________________________________________
df SS MS F value p value
burnout 2 854.150 427.075 1.043 .039
stress 2 151.598 75.799 .281 .011
Hypothesis 4 stated that school psychologists with an external locus of control will report
more stressors and higher burnout than school psychologists with an internal locus of
control. A Pearson’s r correlation between external locus of control and stress and
burnout of school psychologists (shown in Table 5) was used to determine whether the
hypothesis should be retained or rejected. Lastly, using the Bonferroni approach to
control for Type I error across the two correlations, a p of less than or equal to.01 was
required for significance. The fourth hypothesis in the study was rejected. The results of
the correlation analysis show that there was no statistical significance between locus of
control and burnout [r(55) = .31, p = .020] and no statistical significance between locus
of control and stress [r(55) = .09, p = .536].
Table 5
Results of Pearson r correlation concerning external locus of control of school
psychologists and stress and burnout level_____________________________
________________________________stress burnout lofc
stress Pearson Correlation 1 .470 .085
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .536
N 55 55 55
burnout Pearson Correlation .470 1 .313
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 55 55 55
lofc Pearson Correlation .085 .313 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .536 .020
____________N 55 55 55
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
Only a handful of researchers have investigated the concept of burnout in the field
of school psychology (Huberty & Huebner, 1988; Huebner, 1992; Heubner, 1993a;
Huebner, 1994; Mills & Huebner, 1998; Pierson-Hubeny & Archambault, 1987; Reiner
& Hartshorne, 1982; Sandale, 1993). These studies have attempted to understand and
describe the concept of burnout in the context of school psychology. Only two
nationwide job satisfaction surveys have been completed in the field of school
psychology (Worrell, 2004). In both studies, random samples of school psychologists
who were NASP members were surveyed using a modified version of the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire. In both the Anderson, Hohenshil, & Brown (1984) study and
the Brown, Hohenshil & Brown (1998) study, 85 percent of school psychologists
indicated that they were satisfied with their jobs.
The current study aimed to examine school psychologists’ levels of stress and
burnout. The study looked at the number of schools served by school psychologists,
location of school, number of special education students served, and locus of control of
school psychologists. Brown, Hohenshil, & Brown (1998) noted that job satisfaction is
necessary to ensure continuous and high quality services to children and the adults who
32
work with them. Studies indicated that job satisfaction influences the emotional and
physical well being of an individual (Coll & Freeman, 1997), and job satisfaction is
associated with stress and burnout (Kesler, 1990).
Number of Schools Served
Prior research has reported the importance years of experience plays in the area
of stress and burnout. The study conducted by McKelvey & Webb (1995) revealed that
one of the strongest correlations with career satisfaction among school psychologists was
years of practice. Huberty & Heubner (1998) noted, as to age, burnout was greatest
among the younger workers, while the older workers were found to have lower rates of
burnout. With increased age, professionals seem to develop a variety of behavioral and
attitudinal patterns that reduced the likelihood of burnout. Last & Silberman (1989)
explained that school psychologists who are exposed for several years to the realities and
demands of professional school psychology, undergo an inevitable process of
“psychological erosion.” That erosion does not usually terminate in burnout, but rather
tends to be resolved though “drifting away” into another field of professional psychology.
For this current study, years of experience was looked at as a covariate, and ruled out as a
factor that accounted for stress and burnout of school psychologists. The average number
of years of experience for school psychologists in this study was 11.2 years. Considering
the limitations of this sample, the results indicated that the number of years of experience
is not related with an increase of stress and burnout.
33
The results of the analyses suggest that a correlation does not exist between the
increase of schools served and higher stress and burnout levels. The results indicated that
school psychologists who are employed in a single school and three schools experience
stress a few times a month and have low levels of burnout. Those serving two and four
schools reported encountering stress once a week with high levels of burnout. Comparing
these two groups, one and three schools and two and four schools, those serving one or
three schools have higher rates of job satisfaction, lower rates of burnout, and may
perceive themselves to be more effective than do school psychologists who serve two or
four schools. School psychologists serving two or four schools reported working in
elementary schools where as those serving one or three schools reported working in
middle and high schools. Finally, the overall total mean scores for burnout (68.25) were
average compared to those for stress (95.4), but nevertheless indicated that stress and
professional burnout does not appear to be a significant problem for this population.
The current results are commensurate with Proctor & Steadman (2003) in
comparing the job satisfaction of school psychologists housed in a single school to those
serving two or more schools, stating that overall both groups reported low levels of
burnout.
Location of School
In this study, there was no relationship between the location of school served by
school psychologists and stress and burnout levels. The study is limited in testing location
of school in relation to stress and burnout levels because the vast majority of school
psychologists in this study reported working in an urban area. Results do not generalize
34
to school psychologists working in other areas such as rural or suburban. The results only
generalize to school psychologists who are working in an urban location.
Arnold, Seekins, & Nelson (1997) compared factors such as job opportunities,
schools, public transportation, salary, prestige, and opportunities for spousal employment
among school psychologists working in urban and rural settings. Those employed in
urban settings reported more job opportunities, access to public transportation, better
schools, higher salary, more prestige, and opportunities for spousal employment.
Reschley & Connoly (1990) investigated the prevailing assumptions regarding
differences between school psychologists in different settings. Perceptions of key issues,
such as job satisfaction, of school psychologists in rural, urban, suburban, and
combination settings were compared using data from a large, nationally representative
sample of practitioners. Four items provided information rather directly related to the key
variable of job satisfaction and indirectly to the likely inclination to leave either the
current employment setting or the school psychology profession. There were no
differences among the groups on any of these variables. School psychologists in all
settings express general satisfaction with their career choice; are equally, as well,
satisfied with their current positions; find that their current positions generally meet the
expectations they had when they entered school psychology graduate work; and the vast
majority intend to continue in a school psychology career.
Practitioner to Student Ratio
Again, ruling out the impact of years of experience among the current sample of
school psychologists, a significant correlation was not found between years of experience
35
and stress and burnout. In this study, there was no relationship between the number of
special education students served by school psychologists and stress and burnout levels.
School psychologists reported an average of 151-200 students served in each of their
schools served per year. The results of a correlation between number of special
education students served and school psychologists’ stress and burnout indicated that the
number of special education students served, in a range from 151 to 200, impacted school
psychologists who experience stress and burnout once a week.
Similar to prior findings, Huebner, Gilligan, & Cobb (2002) highlight the
importance of an appropriate fit between the person and the job. To support this view,
they emphasized a study conducted by Huebner & Mills (1994), in which burnout was
predicted by the difference between the school psychologists’ ideal and actual caseloads,
rather than by the mere number of cases. Huebner (1992) also found that the size of
caseload did not predict burnout, but the school psychologists’ perceptions of their
caseload significantly related to burnout. Hughes (1979) also suggested that the
discrepancy between actual and ideal roles contributes to the decrease in job satisfaction
among school psychologists.
The current and previous studies are also consistent with the results of a study of
clinical psychologists (Raquepaw & Miller, 1989), reporting that their perceptions of
their caseloads did not relate significantly to burnout.
Locus of Control
The results of the last hypothesis found no significance between external locus of
control and higher stress and burnout levels. The findings reveal that overall school
36
psychologists reporting an internal or external locus of control experienced stress and
burnout symptoms once a week.
Wylie (2003) studied the contributions of personality variables to the prediction
of burnout in school psychologists in Arizona. The analysis demonstrated that secure
individuals who are generally relaxed under stressful conditions and who are dependable
and moderately well organized with clear goals are less likely to depersonalize the
students who they work with. The analyses also revealed that easygoing individuals who
do not put unrealistic pressure on themselves feel a high level of personal
accomplishment in their work place. The study also suggests that school psychologists
who reported themselves as easygoing, not inclined to make plans or schedules, not
concerned with demands and putting limited pressure on themselves to perform, appeared
to show a relationship with an overall positive self-assessment of his/her occupational
effort, abilities, and accomplishments as school psychologists.
Administration Support
Lawler (1973) stated that it is “not surprising that the research shows that job
satisfaction is a function of both the individual and the work environment.” The
characteristics of the work environment, including the social climate, can influence an
individual’s perception of overall job satisfaction, and combined with the individual’s
social and demographic characteristics may in fact be the major determinants of job
satisfaction.
According to Brown (1992), employee supervision and interaction have been
found to be the two significant factors when looking at job satisfaction. Supervision was
37
the area that school psychologists reported receiving minimal to no support. These
findings conquer with previous research provided by Niebrugge (1994) that reported
demographic variables, such as satisfaction with supervision, were found to be the best
predictors of burnout among 139 school psychologists from the Illinois School
Psychologist Association. Positive interactions tend to include constructive feedback,
effective communication, and a focus on quality rather than quantity (Schrofell, 1999).
These findings are consistent with the results of Huebner’s (1994) study in which
supervisors’ level of support contributed significantly to school psychologists’
depersonalization behaviors as well as to their job satisfaction.
The study indicated that “Lack of contact with professional colleagues” was one
of the highest stressful events that school psychologists encountered. This is partly due to
the recent removal of the school psychologists’ main office, in which they were able to
collaborate and consult with one another regarding professional tasks. Fellow employees
can satisfy many social needs, and sympathetic co-workers can increase job satisfaction
(Green, 2000). Leiter (1988) found that co-worker interactions both ameliorate and
exacerbate burnout. He found that (a) a greater number of links with co-workers in the
informal network was associated with increasing feelings of personal accomplishments,
and (b) that a greater number of reciprocal links with co-workers in the work-related
network predicted increased feelings of personal accomplishment and also a greater
emotional exhaustion.
38
Direct Services
Results related to issues of professional concern indicated that participants felt
significant restrictions in their functioning in the schools due to time constraints imposed
by referrals for testing and administrative duties. As cited earlier in the chapter, Last &
Silberman (1989) found overload determinants contributing to this drifting away from the
profession by school psychologists. These authors described quantitative overload, such
as, too much to do or the volume of tasks to be executed in order to complete an
assignment successfully and too many responsibilities to be met at too rapid a pace. This
is because school psychologists are required, within the framework of a single case, to
engage in a variety of activities, assignments, contacts, interventions, planning, and
coordination that must be completed in regard to assessment at various levels, consult
with the various significant persons involved, and direct interventions and supervision.
In the past school psychologists have consistently expressed the desire to vary
their tasks to include a decreased emphasis on assessment and an increased emphasis on
interventions (Cook & Patterson, 1977). Reschley & Wilson (1995) surveys completed
in 1986 and 1991 indicated that half of the school psychologists estimated that they spent
75% of their time with psychological testing activities. The current study found that
school psychologists find providing interventions as the most stressful job performed.
This is partly due to the demands of state law and requirements when assessing for the
criteria of a Specific Learning Disability. Years before the term Response to Intervention
(RTI) came into use, school psychologists could assess a child who the Support Team
suspected of having a Learning Disability without having to gather weeks of pertinent
39
information. The reason for the actual and desired role discrepancy is largely related to
special education laws such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
which dictate equality for children with disabilities. These laws define the role of the
school psychologist to include assessment, consultation, and parent training. As a result,
Jenkins and Crumbly (1986) report that special education duties of school psychologists
increased 30% after the enactment of Public Law 94-142 (Education of the
Handicapped Act). It seems ironic that the legislation that caused a surge in the need for
school psychologists (Dwyer & Gorin, 1996) is also one of the primary sources of role
restriction and dissatisfaction within the profession.
Limitations
Limitations of this study are the relatively small sample size, lack of broad
geographic representation, and the use of outdated standardized questionnaires. The
generalizability of this study is limited by the use of Metropolitan Nashville Public
School Psychologists as subjects. Results can only be generalized with the Metro Public
Schools. The reliance of qualitative, subjective determination for ratings is a significant
limitation. Self-report measures such as those involved in the School Psychology Stress
Inventory, Maslach Burnout Inventory, and Rotter Locus of Control Scale impose
additional limitations. Self-report tendencies towards enhancement, denial, self-
deceptions, and individual response style may all affect self-report measure results.
Limitations in the current study interfered with the examination of each of the
four hypotheses. The first hypothesis conducted examined the correlation of the increase
of schools served and stress and burnout levels. Due to a homogeneous sample of school
40
psychologists serving no more than three schools, the examination of the first hypothesis
addressing the relationship between schools served and stress and burnout was limited.
The range of number of schools served varied largely by participants and did not result in
a significant increase or decrease of school psychologists’ stress and burnout levels.
The second stated hypothesis addressed the differences between school location
and stress and burnout levels. The vast majority of school psychologists reported their
school location in an urban setting. Due to the lack of variability of location of the
identified school, the MANOVA resulted in non-significance.
The third hypothesis addressed the correlation between number of special
education students served and stress and burnout levels of school psychologists. The non-
significant result of the analysis between these variables may be misleading due to
participants who identified serving 151-200 students overshadowing other participants by
more than forty five percent. Although, school psychologists who reported serving 100-
150 special education students had the lowest burnout rate, but they also reported having
the highest stress factors serving the minimal of students.
A limitation also occurred with the examination of the fourth hypothesis
regarding the locus of control and stress and burnout levels of school psychologists.
Overall, both groups, internal and external locus of control, reported signs of stress and
burnout once a week.
41
Recommendations
Burnout should be recognized as a factor in the field of school psychology. When
it occurs and why it occurs needs to be regularly investigated and interventions need to be
continuously modified to accommodate those identified as burned-out or emotionally
exhausted. It is important for the administrator and trainer of school psychologists to
begin to suggest all school psychologists undergo anti-burnout intervention throughout
their career as part of their professional development.
The most critical to the current practice of school psychologist, is the implications
of the correlation between personality and burnout. It will be critical for those training
and hiring school psychologists to become aware of certain personality characteristics
and the relationship to burnout.
School psychologists, particularly those who are experiencing high level of stress,
should be educated to symptoms of burnout during their graduate training. School
psychologists needs to take the time to develop a suitable array of coping strategies that
can be used to dissipate the stress that can lead to strain and hence burnout.
Suggestions for Future Research
This study could be replicated with a larger sample derived from a greater number
of states. A qualitative design could potentially capture the difference in perceived job
stress and burnout from county to county in Tennessee by investigating closely the subtle
differences in population served and difference in roles.
Additionally, a longer and more recent questionnaire would lend itself to more
stringent examinations of construct validity, such as factor analysis. Items could also be
42
added that examine other variables related to job satisfaction, burnout, and effectiveness,
such as diversity of student population and socioeconomic status.
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54
Appendix A
Informed Consent
55
CONSENT FORM
The purpose of this study is to determine how stress, burnout, and locus of control are
related for school psychologists providing direct services in the public education setting.
The information will be collected anonymously and will be kept confidential. Your
participation is totally voluntary, and you may refuse to participate. If you participate,
please answer questions truthfully. There are no known risks associated with your
participation. The four questionnaires will take an estimated twenty minutes to
complete. You may leave or withdraw from the study at anytime without penalty.
If you have questions about your participation in this research, please contact the
Principal Researcher or the Dissertation Supervisor:
Shana Reece, M.S. Steve Trotter, Ph. D.
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Tennessee State University Tennessee State University
(615) 417-6470 (615) 963-5161
Signature:________________________________ Date:_________________
56
Appendix B
Demographic Questionnaire
57
Please circle appropriate response or indicate the numbered responses to each question on the line to the
right of each question. Your information will be kept strictly confidential
1. Gender: Male/ Female
2. Race: Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, Asian, other
3. Age: ______
4. Education Level: Please circle highest degree:
Master’s degree
Educational Specialist degree
Doctoral degree, PhD
5. Primary grade level(s) that you are assigned:
Pre-School
Elementary School
Middle School
High School
7. What area is your school located:
Urban Setting (Characteristic of the city or city life)
Rural Setting (Relating to, or characteristic of the country)
8. How many schools do you serve? _____
9. How many years have you been in your district?
____ (1) 1-5 years ______(2) 6-10 years _____(3) 10-15 years _____ 16-20 years
10. How many years have you been at your current school?
_____ (1) 1-5 years ______(2) 6-10 years _____(3) 10-15 years _____ 16-20 years
11. Approximately how many students attend your school? _____
12. Approximately how many special education students does your school currently serve? _____
13. How much support do you receive from supervisor(s)?
None Minimal Adequate Extensive
14. How much support do you receive from administration?
None Minimal Adequate Extensive
15. How much support do you receive from other colleagues?
None Minimal Adequate Extensive
16. Which service provides the most stress for you in your school setting:
Consultation Assessment Interventions
58
Appendix C
School Psychologists and Stress Inventory (SPSI)
59
Stress Inventory
Please read each statement carefully and mark the number (from 0 to 6) that best described how
frequently you experience that statement in your job. Please respond as honestly and as accurately as
possible. Your responses will be kept strictly confidential.
Never A few times Once A few times a Once A few times a Every
a year or less a month month a week week day
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
__ Notification of unsatisfactory job performance __ Report Writing
__ Not enough time to perform job adequately __ Potential suicide cases
__ Public speaking arrangements (e.g. PTA) __ Insufficient recognition of your work
__ Working with uncooperative principals and other __ Being told that you “have it easy” by
administrators classroom teachers
__ Conducting in-service workshops __ Telling parents their child is handicapped
__ A change in the schools/districts with you serve __ Lack of consensus in a staffing
__ Lack of appropriate services for children __Inadequate secretarial help
__ Keeping up with current professional literature __ Lack of contact with professional
__ Incompetent and/or inflexible “superiors” colleagues
__ A backlog of more than 5 reports to be written __ Screening bilingual children
__ Pressure to complete a set of number of cases (e.g. you __ Impending teacher’s a strike in your
must test at least 100 children a year) district
__ Conference or staffings with resistant teachers __ Supervising an intern or school
__ Keeping your district legal (i.e. in compliance with psychology graduate student
federal, state, and local regulations) __ Conducting parent groups
__ Teacher dissatisfaction with your recommendations __ Lack of availability of appropriate
__ Feeling caught between child’s needs and administrative assessment materials
constraints (i.e. trying to fit a child into existing program) __ Threat of due process hearing
__ Child abuse cases __ Spending time driving between schools
__ Carrying testing equipment around in unfavorable
weather conditions
Adapted from “School Psychologists and Stress Inventory” by P. Wise, 1985.
60
Appendix D
Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)
61
Burnout Inventory
Please read each statement carefully and decide if you feel this way about your job. If you have never had this feeling, write a “0”
(zero) before the statement. If you have had this feeling, indicate how often you feel it by writing the number (from 1 to 6) that best
describes how frequently you feel that way. For purposes of this research, “clients” refer to the students, teachers, parents, and
others for whom you provide your service. Please respond as honestly and as accurately as possible. Your responses will be kept
strictly confidential.
Never A few times Once A few times a Once A few times a Every
a year or less a month month a week week day
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
How Often Statements:
(0-6)
1._____ I feel emotionally drained from my work.
2._____ I feel used up at the end of the workday.
3._____ I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another
day on the job.
4._____ I can easily understand how my clients feel about things.
5._____ I feel as if I treat my clients as if they were impersonal objects.
6._____ Working with people all day is really a strain for me.
7._____ I deal very effective with the problems of my clients.
8._____ I feel burned out from my work.
9._____ I feel I’m positively influencing other people’s through my work.
10.____ I’ve become more callous toward people since I took this job.
11.____ I worry that this job is hardening me emotionally.
12.____ I feel very energetic.
13.____ I feel frustrated by my job.
14.____ I feel I’m working too hard on my job.
15.____ I don’t really care what happens to my clients.
16.____ Working with people directly puts too much stress on me.
17.____ I can easily create a relaxed atmosphere with my clients.
18.____ I feel exhilarated after working closely with my clients.
19.____ I have accomplished many worthwhile things in this job.
20.____ I feel like I’m at the end of my rope.
21.____ In my work I deal with emotional problems very calmly.
22.____ I feel clients blame me for some of their problems.
Administrative Use Only:
EE: _____ _____ DP: _____ _____ PA: _____ _____
62
Appendix E
Rotter Locus of Control Scale
63
Rotter Locus of Control Scale
Please read each statement carefully .Indicate which of each statement you believe to be true, despite what you may wish to be true.
There are no right or wrong answers.
1. _____ Children get into trouble because their parents punish them too harshly.
_____ The trouble with most children nowadays is that their parents are too easy with them.
2. _____ Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck.
_____ People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.
3. _____ One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don't take enough interest
in politics.
_____ There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to prevent them.
4. _____ In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world
_____ Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard he
or she tries.
5. _____ The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense.
_____ Most students don't realize the extent to which their grades are influenced by accidental
happenings.
6. _____ Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader.
_____ Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage of their
opportunities.
7. _____ No matter how hard you try some people just don't like you.
_____ People who can't get others to like them don't understand how to get along with others.
8. _____ Heredity plays the major role in determining one's personality
_____ It is mainly one's experiences in life which determine what they're like.
9. _____ I have often found that what is going to happen, will happen.
_____ Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a
definite course of action.
10. _____ In the case of the well prepared student there is rarely if ever such.a thing as an unfair
test.
_____ Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work that studying is often
useless.
11. _____ Becoming a success is a matter of hard work. Luck has little or nothing to do with it.
_____ Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time.
12. _____ The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions.
_____ This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the little guy can do
about it.
13. _____ When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work.
_____ It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out to be a matter of
good or bad fortune.
64
14. _____ There are certain people who are just no good.
_____ There is some good in everybody.
15. _____ In my case getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck.
_____ Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin.
16. _____ Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was lucky enough to be in the right place
first.
_____ Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability, and luck has little or nothing to
do with it.
17. _____ As far as world affairs are concerned, most of us are the victims of forces we can neither
understand, nor control.
_____ By taking an active part in political and social affairs the people can control world events.
18. _____ Most people don't realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental
happenings.
_____ There really is no such thing as "luck."
19. _____ One should always be willing to admit mistakes.
_____ It is usually best to cover up one's mistakes.
20. _____ It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you.
_____ How many friends you have depends upon how nice a person you are.
21. _____ In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones.
_____ Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three.
22. _____ With enough effort we can wipe out political corruption.
_____ It is difficult for people to have much control over the things politicians do in office.
23. _____ Sometimes I can't understand how teachers arrive at the grades they give.
_____ There is a direct relationship between how hard I study and the grades I get.
24. _____ A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they should do.
_____ A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are.
25. _____ Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things that happen to me.
_____ I do not believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my life.
26. _____ People are lonely because they don't try to be friendly.
_____ There's not much use in trying too hard to please people. If they like you, they like you.
27. _____ There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school.
_____ Team sports are an excellent way to build character.
28. _____ What happens to me is my own doing.
_____ Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control over the direction my life is taking.
29. _____ Most of the time I can't understand why politicians behave the way they do.
_____ In the long run the people are responsible for bad government on a national as well as on
a local level.
65
Appendix F
Institutional Review Board Letter of Acceptance
AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY/AFFIRMATIVE ACTION EMPLOYER M/F
2342219122291414
Research and Sponsored Programs Tennessee State University 3500 John A. Merritt Blvd. Nashville, Tennessee 37209-1561 Office of the Vice President
To: Shana Reece [email protected] Dr. Steve Trotter
[email protected] Dept.: Educational Administration
From: Dr. G. Pamela Burch-Sims, Chair, Institutional Review Board Re: Protocol #HS2009-2356 Date: Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The document listed below has been carefully reviewed and found to be in compliance with OPRR document title 45, Code of Federal Regulations part 46, the protection of human subjects, as amended by Federal policy, effective August 19, 1991. This project is approved as it presents minimal or no research risks to the pool of impending human subjects. Please make note, that any deviations in the administration of the protocol, accidental or otherwise should be reported to the IRB as soon as possible. The FWA for Tennessee State University is #FWA00007692, which is effective from July 16, 2007 through July 16, 2010. "The Relationship among Stress, Burnout, and Locus of Control of School Psychologists"
This approval is valid for one year from the date indicated above. Continuation of research beyond that date requires re-approval by the Institutional Review Board.
Please contact me at 963-5661 or e-mail [email protected] for additional information.