22. Rights of People Who Are Detained - NZ Human … SEcTIoN FoUR – RIGHTS oF SpEcIFIc GRoUpS 22. Rights of People Who Are Detained Tikanga o ngä Tängata Mauhere “No one can

SEcTIoN FoUR – RIGHTS oF SpEcIFIc GRoUpS 350

22. Rights of People Who Are Detained Tikanga o ngä Tängata Mauhere

“No one can be tortured or treated cruelly.”

HUMAN RIGHTS IN NEW ZEALAND 2010 351

1 InternationalhumanrightsinstrumentsareaccessibleonlineatthewebsiteoftheOfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights,http://www.unhchr.ch/.ManyofNewZealand’shumanrightsobligationsaresummarisedinMinistryofForeignAffairsandTrade(2003),Handbook on International Human Rights(2nded,Wellington:MFAT).

2 UDHR,Article3;ICCPR,Article9(1);CRPD,Article14

3 ICCPR,Article9(1);UNCROC,Article37(b);CRPD,Article14(1)(b)

4 UnitedNationsConventionRelatingtotheStatusofRefugees,Articles26and31–NotethatthelatterArticlerequiresthatrestrictionsbeplacedonthemovementsofrefugeesonlyasnecessary.

5 UDHR,Article13;ICCPR,Article12(1)(thoughthisArticlelimitstherightofmovementtothoselawfullywithinthestateterritory).AlsoseeCERD,Article5(d)(i),andCRPD,Article18.

6 UDHR,Article9;ICCPR,Article9(1);UNCROC,Article37(b);CRPD,Article14(1)(b)

7 ICCPR,Articles9(2)–(5);UNCROC,Article37(d);CRPD,Article14(2)

8 ICCPR,Article10(1);CAT,Article16(1);UNCROC,Article37(c)

9 ICCPR,Article10(2)(a)

10 UDHR,Article5;ICCPR,Article7;CAT,Article16(1);UNCROC,Article37(a);CRPD,Article15

No one can be tortured or treated cruelly.

UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,Article5

Introduction Tïmatatanga

Detentionoccurswhereapersonisnotfreetoleavea

particularplace.InNewZealand,peoplemaybedetained

inarangeofcontexts,includingprisons,policecustody,

militarydetention,mentalhealthfacilities,securecare

facilitiesforpeoplewithintellectualdisabilities,or

childrenandyoungpersons’residences.

TheCommission’s2004reviewofhumanrightsfound

thatthevulnerabilityofpeopleindetentionwasoneof

NewZealand’smostpressinghumanrightsissues.The

reportfoundthatwhileNewZealandlegislationcomplies

inmostrespectswithinternationalstandards,issuesof

concernwereapparent,particularlyinrelationtothe

capacitydemandsonfacilities,thesafetyofdetainees,

theuseofsegregation,theneedforexternalmonitoring,

andthelackofdatacollectionandreporting.

International context Kaupapa ä taiao

InternatIonal standards

TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(UDHR),

theInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights

(ICCPR),theConventionagainstTorture(CAT),the

ConventionontheRightsoftheChild(UNCROC),the

ConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities

(CRPD)andtheConventionrelatingtotheStatusof

Refugees(ConventiononRefugees)allmakeprovisions

fortherightsofpeopleindetention,includingthe

following:1

• Everyonehastherighttolibertyandsecurityofthe

person.2

• Nooneshallbedeprivedofhisorherlibertyexceptin

accordancewithlaw.3

• Everyone,includingrefugees,4hastherighttofreedom

ofmovement.5

• Nooneshallbesubjecttoarbitraryarrestordeten-

tion.6

• Followingarrest,arangeofrightsarerecognisedinthe

ICCPR,includingtherighttobeinformedofthereason

forthearrestandtherighttotestthelawfulnessofany

arrestordetention.7

• Allpersonsdeprivedoflibertyshallbetreatedwith

humanityandrespectforthedignityofthehuman

person.8

• Accusedpersons(i.e.remandprisoners)shall,except

inexceptionalcircumstances,bekeptseparate

fromconvictedpersonsandbetreatedinamanner

appropriatetotheirstatus.9

• Nooneshallbesubjectedtotortureortocruel,

inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment.10

The Human Rights commission is the central national preventive mechanism engaged in ensuring New Zealand meets its international responsibilities under the optional protocol to the convention Against Torture (opcAT).


11 ICCPR,Article7;CRPD,Article15(1)

12 CAT,Articles2(1)&5(1)(a);CRPD,Article15(2)

13 CRPD,Article14

14 UNCROC,Article37(b).SeealsoArticle40(4).

15 UNCROC,Article19(2)

16 ICCPR,Articles10(2)(b),10(3).NewZealandhasmadeareservationtotheseArticles.SeealsoUNCROC,Article37(c).

17 UNCROC,Article37(c)

18 Thesedocumentsareaccessibleonlineathttp://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/index.htm#core

• Nooneshallbesubjectedwithouthisorherfree

consenttomedicalorscientificexperimentation.11

• TheStatemusttakealleffectivelegislative,adminis-

trative,judicialandothermeasurestopreventactsof

torture.12

• Theexistenceofadisabilityshallnotjustifyadepri-

vationofliberty.13

• Thearrest,detentionorimprisonmentofchildren

shallbeusedonlyasalastresortandfortheshortest

appropriateperiodoftime.14

• TheStatemusttakeallappropriatelegislative,admin-

istrative,socialandeducationalmeasurestoprotect

childrenfromallformsofphysicalandmentalviolence,

injury,abuse,neglectandmaltreatmentbythosewho

havethecareofchildren.15

• Youngpersonsaccusedofcriminaloffencesshallbe

separatedfromadults.16

• Childrenwhoaredetainedshallbetreatedinamanner

thattakesintoaccounttheneedsofpersonsoftheir

ageandshallhavetherighttomaintaincontactwith

theirfamily.17

non-bIndIng InternatIonal standards

Theprinciplesthatunderpintheinstrumentsdiscussed

aboveare(subjecttoanyreservation)bindinguponNew

Zealand.Inadditiontothesebindinginstruments,there

areotherinstrumentsthatprovideimportantguidanceon

variousdetentionissues.

Relevantinternationalinstrumentsinclude:

• StandardMinimumRulesfortheTreatmentofPrisoners

• BasicPrinciplesfortheTreatmentofPrisoners

• BodyofPrinciplesfortheProtectionofAllPersons

underAnyFormofDetentionorImprisonment

• RulesfortheProtectionofJuvenilesDeprivedoftheir

Liberty

• StandardMinimumRulesfortheAdministrationof

JuvenileJustice(‘theBeijingRules’)

• PrinciplesofMedicalEthicsrelevanttotheRole

ofHealthPersonnel,particularlyPhysicians,inthe

ProtectionofPrisonersandDetaineesagainstTorture

andOtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentor

Punishment

• CodeofConductforLawEnforcementOfficials

• BasicPrinciplesontheUseofForceandFirearmsby

LawEnforcementOfficials

• PrinciplesfortheProtectionofPersonswithMental

IllnessandtheImprovementofMentalHealthCare.18

New Zealand context Kaupapa o Aotearoa

ratIfIcatIon of InternatIonal standards

NewZealandisapartytotheICCPR,CAT,UNCROCand

otherkeyhumanrightstreaties,buthasmadeseveral

reservationstotheconventionsthatapplytodetention.

Theseconcernthemixingofjuvenileandadultprisoners;

exgratiapaymentstopeoplewhosufferamiscarriage

ofjusticebybeingpunished,followingconvictionthatis

laterreversed,orapardon;andcompensationfortorture.

Whileworkhasbeenundertakentowardsremovingthese

reservations,theyremaininplace.

optional protocol to the convention Against Torture

(opcAT)

TheOPCATenteredintoforcein2006.Itprovidesfor

regular,independentvisitstoallplacesofdetention,with

theaimofensuringthatconditionsandtreatmentmeet

humanrightsstandards,aswellaspreventingtortureand

otherformsofcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentor


19 HumanRightsCouncil(2009),ReportoftheWorkingGroupontheUniversalPeriodicReview:NewZealand(12thsession:A/HRC/12/8/Add.1).Accessed22November2010fromhttp://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/12session/A-HRC-12-8-Add1.pdf

20 UNCommitteeAgainstTorture(2009),ConcludingObservationsoftheCommitteeagainstTorture:NewZealand,(42ndsession:CAT/C/NZL/CO/5)

21 HumanRightsCommittee(2010),ConcludingobservationsoftheHumanRightsCommittee:NewZealand,(98thsession:CCPR/C/NZL/CO/5)

punishment.NewZealandratifiedtheOPCATin2007and,

followingtheenactmentofamendmentstotheCrimes

ofTortureAct1989,establishednationalpreventive

mechanisms(NPMs)togiveiteffect.

TheOmbudsmen,theIndependentPoliceConduct

Authority(IPCA),theChildren’sCommissionerandthe

InspectorofServicePenalEstablishmentshaveeach

beendesignatedasNPMstoinspectandmonitorspecific

categoriesofplacesofdetention.TheHumanRights

Commissionhasbeenappointedtoaco-ordinatingroleas

thedesignated‘centralnationalpreventivemechanism’.

International review

NewZealandhasrecentlybeenexaminedbytheUnited

NationsHumanRightsCouncilandseveralotherUN

treatybodiesonitsimplementationofitshumanrights

obligations.

TheNewZealandGovernmentappearedbeforethe

HumanRightsCounciltopresentitsfirstreportunder

theUniversalPeriodicReviewmechanismin2009.The

over-representationofMäoriinprison(andinthecriminal

justicesystem)wasoneoftheissueshighlightedinthe

reviewandrecommendations.19Otherrecommendations

relatedtoensuringthehumanetreatmentofprisoners

ifprisonsbecomeprivatelymanaged,andensuringthat

alljuvenileoffendersareheldinseparatefacilitiesfrom

adults.

In2009,theCommitteeAgainstTorturecommented

positivelyonthereviewsofcorrectionsandpolicing

legislationwhichhaveresultedinimprovementstothe

lawinthoseareas.20ThecommitteealsowelcomedNew

Zealand’sratificationoftheCRPDandOPCAT.Arangeof

challengingissueswerealsohighlighted,including:high

imprisonmentratesandover-representationofMäoriin

prison;detentionofasylumseekers;youthjusticeissues;

investigationandprosecutionofcomplaints;detention

conditions;theuseofTasers;humanrightstraining;and

datacollection.

AnumberoftheseissueswerereiteratedwhentheUN

HumanRightsCommitteeexaminedNewZealand’s

compliancewiththeICCPRinMarch2010.21The

committee’srecommendationsincludedthatNew

Zealandshould:

• withdrawitsreservationstotheICCPRregardingthe

mixingofadultandyoungoffenders

• considerstoppingtheuseofTaserswhilesuchweapons

remaininuse,intensifyeffortstoensurethatstringent

guidelinesareadheredto,andundertakeresearchon

theeffectsofTasers

• closelymonitoranymeasuresofprivatisationofprisons

toensurethattheState’sresponsibilityforguaranteeing

therightsofpeopledetainedismet

• strengtheneffortstoreduceover-representationof

Mäoriinprisons;andincreaseeffortstoprevent

discriminationagainstMäoriintheadministrationof

justice

• ensurethatasylumseekersandrefugeesarenot

detainedinprisonsorwithconvictedprisoners.

legIslatIon

TheNewZealandBillofRightsAct1990(BoRA)contains

protectionsforthosedetained.Section22providesthat

everyonehastherightnottobearbitrarilyarrestedor

detained.Section23setsouttherightsofthosewho

arearrestedordetained.Inrespectofdetention,these

includetherighttobetreatedwithhumanityandwith

respectfortheinherentdignityoftheperson.Section

9oftheBoRAprovidestherightnottobesubjectedto

tortureortocruel,degradingordisproportionatelysevere

treatmentorpunishment.Section27(1),whichprovides

fortherighttonaturaljustice(includingfairprocedure),

andSection21,whichprovidesprotectionsinrelation

tosearchandseizure,arealsorelevanttotheissueof

detention.

TheUNCommitteeagainstTorturehasexpressedconcern

thattheBoRAisnotasupremelawthattakeshigher


22 UNCommitteeAgainstTorture(2009),para4

23 HumanRightsCommittee(2002),ConcludingObservationsoftheHumanRightsCommittee:NewZealand,(75thsession:CCPR/CO/75/NZL).Accessibleonlineathttp://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/CCPR.CO.75.NZL.En?Opendocument

statusthanotherdomesticlaw.This“mayresultin

theenactmentoflawsthatareincompatiblewiththe

convention”.22

TheCrimesofTortureAct1989alsoappliestoallforms

ofdetention.In2006,theactwasamendedtomeet

therequirementsoftheOPCAT.Anewpart2oftheact

wasinsertedtoprovideforvisitsbytheUnitedNations

subcommitteeandforthedesignationofNPMsanda

centralNPM.

Otherlegislationandpolicyrelatingtoparticularformsof

detentionarediscussedfurtherbelow.

PrIsons

New legislation

TheCorrectionsAct2004,whichcameintoforceon

1June2005,repealedandreplacedthePenalInstitutions

Act1954.Positivefeaturesofthenewlegislationinclude:

• theexplicitreferenceintheact’spurposestatement

(Section5)tocompliancewiththeUnitedNations

StandardMinimumRulesfortheTreatmentofPrisoners

andtheinclusionofprisoners’minimumentitlementsin

thelegislation

• theclearreferencetotheroleofthecorrectionssystem

inprovidingrehabilitationandreintegration

• theexpansionofcomplaintsprovisionsandtheir

elevationtoprimarylegislation

• improvementstothedisciplinaryoffenceregime

• moreregularreviewofdecisionstosegregateprisoners

forsecurityorprotectionreasons.

TheCorrectionsActalsoendedcontractualarrangements

thatallowedfortheprivatemanagementofprisons,

whichhadbeenamatterofconcerntotheUNHuman

RightsCommitteewhenitexaminedNewZealand’s

compliancewithICCPRin2002.23However,thisissue

hassincebeenrevisited,withlegislationenactedin

2009toonceagainenableprisonmanagementtobe

contractedtoprivateparties.TheCorrections(Contract

ManagementofPrisons)AmendmentAct2009includes

requirementsthatcontractorscomplywithrelevantinter-

nationalobligationsandstandards.Theymustalsoreport

regularlytothechiefexecutiveoftheDepartmentof

Correctionsonarangeofmatters,includingstafftraining,

prisonprogrammes,prisonercomplaints,disciplinary

actions,andincidentsinvolvingviolenceorself-inflicted

injuries.Contractmanagementistobeimplemented

atMtEden/AucklandCentralRemandPrison,with

tenderingprocessesunderwayin2010andthetransfer

ofmanagementtothesuccessfulcontractortotakeplace

in2011.InApril2010,theGovernmentannouncedthat

aproposednewprisoninWiri,intheformerManukau

City,istobedesigned,constructedandoperatedundera

public–privatepartnership(PPP).

OtherrecentchangestotheCorrectionsActhave

includedtheCorrectionsAmendmentAct2009,which

prohibitstheuseof‘electroniccommunicationdevices’

byprisoners,providesforthedetectionandinterception

ofradiocommunications,andexpandssearchpowers.

TheCorrections(UseofCourtCells)AmendmentAct

2009enablescourtcellstobeusedtotemporarilyhouse

prisonersduringaccommodationshortages.

AfurtheramendmenttotheCorrectionsActthroughthe

Corrections(MotherswithBabies)AmendmentAct2008

extendedtheperiodthatchildrenoffemaleprisonersmay

beaccommodatedwiththeirmothersforthepurposes

ofbreastfeedingandbonding–extendingtheupperage

limitfromsixto24months.Theactdoesnotcomeinto

forceuntilappropriatefacilitiesareavailable.Pending

theupgradingoffacilities(expectedtotakeplacein

2011–12),achangetotheCorrectionsRegulations

(regulation170)hasenabledchildrenuptotheageof

ninemonthstoremainwiththeirmotherinprison.

ThePrisoners’andVictims’ClaimsAct2005dealswith

theawardingofcompensationtoprisonersforbreaches

There are currently 20 prisons under the

remit of the Department of Corrections. The

17 men’s prisons and three women’s prisons

can accommodate up to 10170 prisoners. On

average they hold around 8500 prisoners.

Source:DepartmentofCorrectionswww.corrections.govt.nz


oftheirrightsundertheBoRA,theHumanRightsAct

1993(HRA)andthePrivacyAct1993.ThePrisoners’and

Victims’ClaimsActrestrictscompensationawardsso

theyarereservedforexceptionalcasesandusedonlyif,

andonlytotheextentthat,theyarenecessarytoprovide

effectiveredress.Ifcompensationisawarded,theact

requiresittobepaidtotheSecretaryforJustice,and

subjecttodeductionoflegalaid,reparationandvictims’

claims.A‘sunsetclause’limitingthedurationofthe

act’sprovisionsdealingwithprisoners’claimshasbeen

extended,24whilefurtherlegislationisplannedbythe

Governmenttomaketheregimepermanent.

Arangeofamendmentshavealsobeenmadetobail,

sentencingandparolelegislation.Significantamongthese

wastheintroductionofthenewcommunitysentences

undertheSentencingAmendmentAct2007.Thissawa

slowingingrowthoftheprisonpopulation,butplaced

pressureontheDepartmentofCorrectionsCommunity

ProbationandPsychologicalServices.TheParoleAmend-

mentAct2007introducedchanges,includingestab-

lishingresidentialrestrictionsthatmaybeimposedon

alloffenderssubjecttoparoleorrelease;monitoringof

offenders’compliancewithreleaseconditions;powers

toissuesummonsforinformationandevidence;imple-

mentationofconfidentialityorders;andtheabilityofthe

CommissionerofPolicetomakearecallapplication.

TheSentencingandParoleReformAct2010introduced

anewthree-stageregimeforrepeatviolentoffending,

inrelationtospecifiedqualifyingoffences.Onafirst

convictionforaqualifyingoffence,thecourtissuesa

firstwarning.Offendersconvictedofasecondqualifying

offencereceiveafinalwarningandmustservethe

sentencewithoutparole.Offendersconvictedofathird

qualifyingoffencemustreceivethemaximumsentence

and,unlessitwouldbemanifestlyunjust,servethe

sentencewithoutparole.

policy framework

The‘PrisonServiceOperationManual’setsoutpolicies

frominductiontorelease,covering:security(including

searches);prisonermovements;prisonerproperty,

financesandactivities;communication;visits;disciplinary

processes;andcomplaints.

PolIce detentIon

Detention in police cells

Policecellsareusedfordetainingpeoplefollowingarrest,

peopleonremandandsomesentencedprisonersin

certainlocations.Peoplewhoareintoxicatedmayalsobe

detainedincertaincircumstances,fortheirownorothers’

protection.27

Legislation and policy

ThePolicingAct2008replacedthePoliceAct1958.This

followedamajorreviewofpolicinglegislationin2006

to2008,involvingsignificantpublicconsultation.The

UNCommitteeAgainstTorturecommentedpositivelyon

thereview,notingthatithasresultedinimprovedhuman

rightsprovisions.

Positivedevelopmentsweretheinclusionofasetof

principlesinthenewPolicingAct,includingtheprinciple

that“policingservicesareprovidedinamannerthat

respectshumanrights”,andthesubsequentdevelopment

ofacodeofconductforallpoliceemployees.

TheCorrectionsAct2004confersageneraldutyofcare

uponthePoliceCommissionertoensurethe“safecustody

andwelfareofprisonersdetainedinpolicejails”.28 Itsets

outminimumentitlementstobedsandbedding,foodand

There are more than 400 police stations in

New Zealand. They contain 525 overnight

cells and 38 holding cells. Of these, 474 police

station cells are open 24 hours a day.25

In 2009, 177,933 people were held in police

cells following arrest, while on remand after

sentence pending hearings, or while on

transfer.26

24 Prisoners’andVictims’Claims(ExpiryandApplicationDates)AmendmentAct2010

25 IndependentPoliceConductAuthority(2009),Annual Report 2008–2009(Wellington:IPCA)

26 NZPolice(2009),Annual Report 2009(Wellington:NZP)

27 PolicingAct,section36

28 CorrectionsAct,section9


drink,accesstolegaladvisors,medicaltreatmentand

accesstostatutoryvisitors.29

Policegeneralinstructions,policiesandguidelinescontain

furtherprovisionforthetreatmentofthoseincustody,

includinginrelationtosearches,interviewing,treatment

andrightsofprisoners.Theyalsocontainmeasuresto

preventharmtopersonsincustody,suchascustodial

suicideriskmanagementandtheseparationofcertain

prisoners.30

Monitoring

Independentmonitoringofthepolicehasbeenenhanced

throughtheamendmentin2007oftheIndependent

PoliceConductAuthorityAct1988.Theamendments

includedexpandingmembershipofthetheIndependent

PoliceConductAuthority(IPCA)fromasinglepersonto

aboardofuptofivepeople;andprovidingtheIPCAwith

thesamepowersascommissionsofinquiry,including

powerstoreceiveevidence,examinedocumentsand

summonwitnesses.

Thesechanges,alongwiththeIPCA’sdesignationasan

NPM,haveexpandedandstrengthenedthepowersand

capacityoftheIPCAtoconductitsownindependent

investigationsandmonitoringofpolice.

HealtH and dIsabIlIty detentIon

Disabledpeoplemaybedetainedforanyofthereasons

notedinthischapter,iftheymeetthecriteriafor

detentionundertheapplicablelegalframeworks.

Twokeyareasarethefocusofthissection.Thefirst

relatestopeopledetainedasaresultof,orforthe

treatmentof,mentaldisorderundertheMentalHealth

(CompulsoryAssessmentandTreatment)Act1992

(MH(CAT)Act).Thedetentionofanypersonwithina

mentalhealthinstitutionisforthepurposeoftreatment

andtheassuranceofsafety,notforanypunitivereasons.

Itshouldbenotedthatonlyaminorityofpeoplebeing

treatedforamentalillnessaredetained.Thissectionalso

considersthedetentionofpeoplewithamentalorintel-

lectualdisabilitywhohavebeenthesubjectofcriminal

proceedings.

Legislation

Legislationestablishespowersofdetentioninclearly

definedcircumstances.Thekeypiecesoflegislation

include:

• MentalHealth(CompulsoryAssessmentandTreatment)

Act1992

• CriminalProcedure(MentallyImpairedPersons)Act

2003

• IntellectualDisability(CompulsoryCareandRehabilita-

tion)Act2003.

Otherrelevantlegislationrelatingtothequalityand

safetyofhealthservices,trainingandcompetencyof

healthprofessionals,andrightsofserviceusersincludes

theHealthandDisabilityCommissionerAct1994,the

HealthandDisabilityCommissioner(CodeofHealthand

DisabilityConsumerRights)Regulations1996,theHealth

andDisabilityServices(Safety)Act2001andtheHealth

PractitionersCompetenceAssuranceAct2003.31

Mental Health (compulsory Assessment and Treatment)

Act 1992

TheMH(CAT)ActprovidestheStatewithsignificant

powerstodeprivepeopleoftheirlibertyshouldthey

befoundtobementallydisorderedandadangerto

themselvesorothers.Itdefinesthecircumstancesand

theconditionsunderwhichpeoplemaybedetainedand

subjectedtocompulsoryassessmentandtreatment.

Peoplecanbedetainedforinitialassessmenttodetermine

whethertheyarementallydisorderedandrequire

compulsorytreatment.Iftheyrequirefurthertreatment,

thentheMH(CAT)ActallowsaFamilyCourtorDistrict

Courtjudgetomakeacompulsorytreatmentorder(CTO).

Italsoprovidescomprehensiveproceduresofreviewand

appealofdecisionsaboutthepatient’sconditionandlegal

status,andestablishesaprocedureforthereviewofthe

detentionofpeopleunderCTOs.

Therightsofindividualsdetainedundertheactare

defined.Theseincluderightstorespectforcultural

identity,treatment,beinformed,independentpsychiatric

29 CorrectionAct,section69.Section69(3)allowsforprisonersheldinpolicejailstobedeniedsomeminimumentitlements–toexercise,mail,phonecalls,visitors,informationandeducation–iftheirprovisionisnotpracticableinlightofavailablefacilitiesandresources.

30 NewZealandGovernment(2007),FifthPeriodicReportoftheNewZealandGovernmentontheConventionAgainstTortureandOtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentorPunishment(CAT/C/NZL/5).Accessibleonlineathttp://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/docs/AdvanceVersions/CAT.C.NZL.5.pdf

31 Seealsothechapterontherighttohealth.


advice,legaladvice,companyandseclusion,andtheright

tocomplainaboutbreachesoftheserights;aswellas

rightsrelatingtovisitors,lettersandtelephonecalls.32

TheMH(CAT)Actwasdevelopedinlinewiththeinter-

nationalhumanrightsstandardsthatexistedatthe

time.Unlikethepreviouslegislation,theactincludes

apresumptionthattreatmentwillbedeliveredinthe

communitywhereverpossible.Thisisseenastheleast

restrictiveinterventioninindividuals’rightsandfreedoms.

Compulsorytreatmentcantakeplaceinhospitalwhere

appropriate.

Section71(2)definestheconditionsunderwhichcom-

pulsorypatientscanbeplacedunderseclusion.Seclusion

involvesisolatingpatientsinsecureroomsforaperiod

oftime.UndertheMH(CAT)Act,seclusionisseenasa

‘treatment’orformofprotectionforotherpatients.33 It

isnotlegaltouseseclusionasapunishment,34andall

facilitiesarerequiredtokeepaseclusionregister.35

TheDirectorofMentalHealthcanapplytothecourtfor

anypatientwhoisunderaCTOtobemadearestricted

patient.36Arestrictedpatientisonewhopresentsspecial

difficultiesbecauseofthedangerheorsheposesto

others.37Thiscategoryissubjecttothesamerestrictions

asapplyto‘specialpatients’(seebelow).38

TheMH(CAT)Actprovidesforclinical,judicialandtribunal

reviewoftheconditionandstatusofpersonsdetained

formentalhealthreasons.Undersection16,patients

canapplyforareviewoftheirconditionbyaDistrict

Courtjudgewhentheyaredetainedundertheactfor

assessment.Theprocessisinquisitorialanddesigned

principallytoreviewthepatient’smentalcondition.39

Section84(3)confersonaHighCourtjudgethepower

toconsiderthelegalityofapatient’sdetention.The

powerispotentiallyverybroadanddesignedtoprovide

aprotectiveandsupervisoryfunctionforpeopledetained

inhospital.Ajudicialinquiryundersection84doesnot

precludetheavailabilityofawritofhabeascorpus.40

Theactalsoprovidesfortheappointmentofdistrict

inspectors.41Thesearelawyerswhocaninspect

hospitals,wardsoranyplaceinwhichpsychiatric

treatmentisgiven,atanytimetheywish.Theyalso

investigatecomplaintsbypatientsaboutbreachesoftheir

rightsandcaninstigatewiderinquiriesifnecessary.

criminal procedure (Mentally Impaired persons) Act

2003

TheCriminalProcedure(MentallyImpairedPersons)

Act2003(CP(MIP)Act),togetherwiththeIntellectual

Disability(CompulsoryCareandRehabilitation)Act2003

(IDCCRAct)regulatesthemanagementofintellectually

disabledandmentallydisorderedoffenders.Itsetsout

theprocedureswherebypersonswhoarethesubjectof

criminalproceedingsmaybefoundunfittostandtrial

oracquittedonthegroundsofinsanity,andtheconse-

quencesofsuchafindingoracquittal.

UndertheCP(MIP)Act,thecourtcanorderpeople

involvedincriminalproceedingstobeassessedand

treatedundertheMH(CAT)Act,42includingthose

acquittedbyreasonofinsanity.43Inaddition,individuals

maybetransferredfrompenalinstitutesforassessment

32 MH(CAT)Act,sections64to76

33 MH(CAT)Act,section71(2)(a)

34 section71(2)(a)statesthatseclusioncanonlybeusedwhereitis“necessaryforthecareortreatmentofthepatient,ortheprotectionofotherpatients”.

35 MH(CAT)Act,section129(1)(b)

36 MH(CAT)Act,section54

37 MH(CAT)Act,section55(3)


39 ReBWA[mentalhealth](1994)12FRNZ510;[1994]NZFLR321

40 MMvD-GofMentalHealthServices[1998]NZFLR900(CA)


42 CP(MIP)Act,sections24,25,31and34

43CP(MIP)Act,section24


andpossiblytreatmentinaforensicbedwithinamental

healthfacility.44A‘specialpatient’issomeonedetained

underthementalhealthlegislationwhohascomeinto

thementalhealthserviceviathecriminaljusticesystem,

asanoffenderorallegedoffender.45Fortreatment

purposes,specialpatientsarerequiredtobegiventhe

samecareaspatientssubjecttoCTOs,46andtherefore

theprovisionsoftheMH(CAT)Actapply.

TheCP(MIP)Actprovidesaframeworkfortheprotection

oftherightsofindividualssubjecttotheact.These

includegeneralrightstoinformation,respectforcultural

identity,independenthealthanddisabilityadvice,legal

advice,rightstosendandreceivemail,andrightsas

setoutintheCodeofHealthandDisabilityServices

Consumers’Rights.

Intellectual Disability (compulsory care and Rehabili-

tation) Act 2003

TheIDCCRActprovidesforthecompulsorycareand

rehabilitationofpeoplewithintellectualdisabilitieswho

havebeenchargedwithorconvictedofanoffence.Itis

intendedtoensurethatintellectuallydisabledoffenders

areprovidedwithappropriatecompulsorycareandreha-

bilitationwhilerecognisingandsafeguardingtheirrights.

Theactcontainsstatutorypowerstorequirecarereci-

pientstocomplywiththeircareorderandtoseclude,

restrainandmedicateundercertaincircumstances.

policy on seclusion

AlongwiththeMinistryofHealth’sguidelinestothe

MH(CAT)Act,47nationalguidelinesonseclusionhave

beendevelopedtoassistmental-healthservicesinterpret

theprovisionsoftheactandidentifybestpractice.48

RevisedHealthandDisabilityServicesStandards2008

andRestraintMinimisationandSafePractice49standards

havealsobeenissued.Thelattercovertheactual

conditionsinwhichseclusioncanbeusedandmostly

reflectinternationalbestpractice:seclusionistobeused

forsafetyratherthantherapeuticreasons,itsuseshould

beregularlyreviewed,anditshouldbeusedonlyasalast

resort.

MIlItary detentIon

TheNewZealandDefenceForce(NZDF),whichincludes

thearmy,navyandairforce,hascloseto10,000regular

forcespersonnel.50Theadministrationofdisciplineand

justicewithintheNZDFisprovidedforundertheArmed

ForcesDisciplineAct1971andCourtMartialAct2007.

Recentchangestothelegislationreflecttheresultsofa

majorreviewofthemilitaryjusticesystem.Thereview

wascommissionedbytheChiefofDefenceForcein

2002,andaimedatmodernisingthesystemtotakeinto

accountdevelopmentssuchastheBoRA.Thenewsystem

wasintroducedon1July2009.Keychangesrelateto:

thesummarytrialsystem(nowacrossallthreeservices),

rightsofappealandtheestablishmentofapermanent,

independentcourtmartial.

TheCourtMartialAct2007providesfortheappointment

ofanInspectorofServicePenalEstablishments(ISPE),

The primary facility for detention of mili-

tary personnel is the Services Corrective

Establishment (SCE) located in Burnham

Military Camp, south of Christchurch. In

addition, there are a number of holding cells

in each of the more significant defence-force

base or camp facilities, which are used to

confine members of the armed forces for short

periods. The SCE is in a purpose-built facility,

with the capacity to detain up to eight people

at any one time.




47 MinistryofHealth(2000), Guidelines to the Mental Health (Compulsory Assessment and Treatment) Act 1992(Wellington:MoH).

48 MinistryofHealth(2010),Seclusion under the Mental Health (Compulsory Assessment and Treatment) Act 1992(Wellington:MoH).

49 NewZealandStandard:RestraintMinimisationandSafePractice,NZ8131:2008.

50 NZDF(2010)Personnelstatistics,inStatement of Intent,accessed3November2010fromhttp://www.nzdf.mil.nz/public-documents/soi/2010/section-8/personnel-stats.htm


whoseroleincludesactingasanNPMundertheOPCAT.

EstablishmentofthepostofISPEtomonitorNZDF

detentionfacilitiesisasignificantdevelopment,asprior

toOPCATratification,militaryfacilitieswerenotsubject

toregularexternalmonitoringorreview.TheISPEvisits

theSCEregularly–uptoeighttimesperyear–and

withoutadvancenotice.

detentIon of cHIldren and young PeoPle

Legislation and policy

TheChildren,YoungPersonsandtheirFamiliesAct1989

(CYPFAct),isthekeypieceoflegislationrelatingto

detentionofchildrenandyoungpeople.TheCYPFActhas

twomainparts;onedealswithcareandprotectionand

theotherwithyouthjustice.UndertheCYPFAct,children

andyoungpeoplecanberemovedanddetainedfortheir

careandprotectioninvariouscircumstances.51Theycan

beplacedintothecustodyofChild,YouthandFamily

(CYF).52

ProposedchangesthroughtheChildren,YoungPersons

andtheirFamiliesAmendmentBill(No6)(2007)would

extendtheprotectionmeasuresundertheCYPFAct

toinclude17-year-olds.However,progressoftheBill

throughthelegislativeprocesshasstalled,despiteurging

fromtheUNthatthelawchangebeadopted.53

TheCYPFActmakesadistinctionbetweenchildren

(thoseaged10–13)andyoungpersons(aged14–16).

Offendingbychildren(aged10–13)isgenerallydealtwith

bytheFamilyCourtundertheact’scareandprotection

provisions,whileyoungpeople(aged14–16)aresubject

totheact’syouthjusticeprovisionsandaredealtwithby

theYouthCourt.

ThepassageoftheChildren,YoungPersonsand

theirFamilies(YouthCourtsJurisdictionandOrders)

AmendmentAct2010extendedtheYouthCourt’s

jurisdictiontocover12-and13-year-oldsinrelationto

certainseriousoffences.Thiseffectivelyloweredtheage

ofcriminalresponsibility,incontrasttoUNcommittee’s

recommendationsthattheageinNewZealandshouldbe

raised.

TheCYPFActdealswiththeissuesofwhenandwhere

childrenandyoungpeoplewhoareaccusedorconvicted

ofcommittingcriminaloffencescanbedetained.Part

4oftheCYPFActlistsguidingprinciples,oneofwhich

isthatachildoryoungpersonwhocommitsanoffence

shouldbekeptinthecommunitysofarasispracticable

andconsonantwiththeneedtoensurethesafetyof

thepublic.54Followingarrest,theycanbedetainedby

police55orgivenintothecustodyofothers,including

CYF.56

AchildoryoungpersoncanbesentencedbytheYouth

Courttosupervisionwithresidencerequirement.57

Childrenandyoungpersonswhoaresentencedto

imprisonmentcanbedetainedinaresidenceapproved

byCYF,orincertaincircumstances,ifthecourtconsiders

thereisnoothersuitableoption,aprison.58Inprisons,

youngpeopleareaccommodatedseparatelyfromadults,

althoughthemixingofprisonersunder18withthose

aged18or19maybeapprovedwhereitissafetodoso

andinthebestinterestsoftheprisonersconcerned.59

A‘test-of-best-interest’hasbeendevelopedforthis

purpose.

Whenachildoryoungpersonisdetainedfortheircare

andprotection,theirwelfareandinterestsarethefirst

51 CYPFAct,sections39,40,42

52 CYPFAct,sections78,101,67

53 UNCommitteeAgainstTorture(2009),para8

54 CYPFAct,section208;thereisalsoapresumptioninsection15oftheBailAct2000thatyoungoffenderswillbeallowedbailratherthanremandedincustody.

55 CriminalJusticeAct1985(CJA),section142(2A)

56 CYPFAct,sections234–236

57 CYPFAct,sections283(n),311

58 CJA,section142A.AmemorandumofunderstandingbetweentheDepartmentofCorrectionsandCYFalsomakesitclearthatyoungoffendersshouldberemandedorservetheirsentenceinaprisononlyasalastresort.

59 CorrectionsRegulations2005,Regs179–180


andparamountconsideration.60Whentheyaredetained

undertheyouthjusticeprovisions,guidingprinciplesin

theCYPFActrequirethattheybedealtwithinaway

thatacknowledgestheirneedsandthatwillgivethem

theopportunitytodevelopinresponsible,beneficialand

sociallyacceptableways.61

TheChildren,YoungPersons,andtheirFamilies(Resi-

dentialCare)Regulations1996providecomprehensive

rulesforthetreatmentofchildrenandyoungpeople

detainedinCYFresidences,andrequireahighstandard

ofprofessionalcare.62Theseincludelimitationson

powersofpunishmentanddiscipline,andprocesses

forinspectionsandreview,includingthefunctionsof

anindependentgrievancepanel.Corporalpunishment

orotherphysicalforceisprohibited,asisdiscipline

ortreatmentthatiscruel,inhuman,degradingor

humiliating,orislikelytoinduceanunreasonableamount

offearoranxiety.63Theregulationsarealsosupple-

mentedbystandardoperatingproceduresandpractice

frameworks.64

New Zealand today Aotearoa i tënei rä

PrIsons

Growth in prisoner numbers

TheCommission’s2004reporthighlightedtheneedto

upgradeandincreasethecapacityofprisonsandalter-

nativestoprisons.Sincethatresearchwasundertaken,

theprisonpopulationhasrisenbyafurther30percent

approximately,despitesomeinitiativeswhichhave

attemptedtocurbNewZealand’shighimprisonmentrate.

At185per100,000,NewZealand’srateofimprison-

mentperheadofpopulationisoneofthehighestinthe

OECD.65

Theincreaseintheprisonpopulationhasbeenlinkedtoa

riseinsomerecordedcrimerates,particularlywithregard

toseriousdrugoffendingandfamilyviolence;increased

60 CYPFAct,section6

61 CYPFAct,section4(f)

62 Reg3

63 Regs20and21

64 Accesibleonlineathttp://www.practicecentre.cyf.govt.nz/index.html

65 Theimprisonmentrateof185per100,000populationishighcomparedwithAustralia(about126per100,000),EnglandandWales(153per100,000)andmanyEuropeanstates(withratesunder100per100,000).SeeInternationalCentreforPrisonStudies[n.d.],WorldPrisonBrief.Accessibleonlineathttp://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/law/research/icps/worldbrief/

Eight residences have been established under

Section 364 of the CYPF Act – four youth

justice residences (including a newly opened

residence in Rotorua), and four care and

protection residences.

Care and protection residences:

• Whakatakapokai in South Auckland –

up to 20 young people

• Epuni in Lower Hutt near Wellington –


• Te Oranga in Christchurch –


• Puketai in Dunedin –

up to eight young people.

Youth justice residences:

• Korowai Manaaki in South Auckland –


• Lower North in Palmerston North –

up to 30 young men

• Te Puna Wai o Tuhinapo in Christchurch –


• Te Maioha o Parekarangi in Rotorua –

up to 30 young people.

There is also a specialist unit for young people

who have displayed sexually inappropriate

behaviour. Te Poutama Arahi Rangatahi (TPAR)

in Christchurch is a 12-bed unit operated by

Barnardos under a contract with CYF.

cHIld youtH and faMIly resIdences


policeofficernumbers;trendsinthedenialofbail;theuse

oflongersentences;andthe“tighteningofparolerelease

decisions”.66

Severalpiecesofnewlegislationmakedetentionmore

likely.TheBailAct2000increasedthenumbersofpeople

servingtimeonremand;theSentencingAct2002altered

minimumnon-paroleperiodsinrelationtoanumber

ofoffencesandabolishedtheformerpresumption

againstimprisonmentforpropertyoffences;andrecent

amendmentstotheParoleAct2002establishedrelease

onparoleasaprivilege,andnotaright.67Thedominance

ofcustodyisalsoassertedinnewlegislation,suchasthe

SentencingandParoleReformAct2010.

Sentencingstatisticsshowageneraltrendofincreasing

useofimprisonmentoverthepastdecade.Although

growthispredictedtoslowslightlyoverthenexteight

years,68thereareexpectedtobe10,314prisonersby30

June2017–a23percentincreasefrom30June2009.

Fournewprisonshavebeenopenedinthepastfiveyears

totrytomeetthegrowthinprisonernumbers.Further,

thereisaproposaltobuildanew1000-bedprisoninWiri,

SouthAuckland.Thedevelopmentofa‘containerunit’at

RimutakaPrisonandincreaseduseofcellsharing(‘double

bunking’)hasalsobeenimplemented.TheCorrections

(UseofCourtCells)AmendmentAct2009enables

courtcellstobemorereadilyusedtohouseprisoners

temporarilyduringaccommodationshortages.

Whiletheseresponsesfocusontryingtoaccommodate

therisingprisonpopulation,therehavealsobeensome

attemptstoaddressthehighimprisonmentrateitself.

In2007,the‘EffectiveInterventions’packagewasintro-

duced.Thesentencesofhomedetention,community

detentionandintensivesupervisionwereintroduced

inOctober2007,withthepassageoftheSentencing

AmendmentAct2007andtheParoleAmendmentAct

2007.In2009,theyaccountedforabout8percentof

allsentences.69Whileplacingincreasedstrainonthe

CommunityProbationService,thesesentenceshave

hadsomeeffectinslowingthegrowthoftheprison

population.In2005,11percentofalloffenderswere

sentencedtoperiodsofimprisonment;by2008thishad

decreasedto8percent.TheDepartmentofCorrections

alsonotedthattheimplementationofthesenewcommu-

nity-basedsentenceswasestimatedtohavereducedthe

prisonpopulationbyaround700.70

InApril2009,theMinisterofJusticeandAssociate

MinisterofCorrectionsconvenedameetingonthe

‘DriversofCrime’toidentifyandsuggestwaysof

addressingthecausesofcrime.Therewasgeneral

agreementthatthekeysolutionlayinearlyintervention,

andthatthisrequiredaco-ordinatedapproachacross

arangeofgovernmentsectors,ratherthanthejustice

sectoralone.TheGovernmenthassinceannouncedan

66 DepartmentofCorrections(2008), Briefing for the Incoming Minister,November2008(Wellington:DepartmentofCorrections),p11

67 section28(1AA)wasinsertedbysection17oftheParoleAmendmentAct2007.

68 Thisisduepartlytoimprovedcourtprocessingtimes,whichareexpectedtoreducethedurationofremandsincustody.SeeMinistryofJustice(2010),2009–2017 Criminal Justice Forecast Report (Wellington:MoJ).

69 MinistryofJustice(2010),ConvictionandSentencing2000to2009.Updatedbulletin,accessibleonlineathttp://www.justice.govt.nz/publications/global-publications/c/conviction-and-sentencing-2000-to-2009

70 DepartmentofCorrections(2008)

Total number of correction facilities: 20

Total number of prisoners as at

30 June 2010: 8816

Percentage of male prisoners: 93.6%

Percentage of female prisoners: 6.3%

Percentage of Mäori prisoners: 50.9%

Percentage of Pacific prisoners: 11.5%

Average remand prisoner

population (2009–10): 1828

Average sentenced prisoner

population (2009–10): 6587

Average youth prisoner

population (2009–10): 76

Source:DepartmentofCorrectionswww.corrections.govt.nz


approachaimedatimprovingservicesforthoseatrisk

ofbeingtheoffendersorvictimsofthefutureandtheir

families.Thereisincreasedfocusonaddressingthe

issuesthatleadtothehighnumberofMäoriwhoare

apprehended,convictedandimprisoned.TheGovernment

hasidentifiedfourpriorityareasforcross-government

action:71

• antenatal,maternityandearlyparentingsupport

• programmestoaddressbehaviouralproblemsinyoung

children

• reducingtheharmcausedbyalcohol

• alternativeapproachestomanaginglow-leveloffenders

andofferingpathwaysoutofoffending.

Theimpactoftheseinitiativesistobemonitoredbythe

MinistryofJustice,andareviewofprogresswillbecarried

outin2011.

Disparities in imprisonment rates

Mäorimakeupapproximately12.5percentofthegeneral

populationaged15andover,butaccountforoverhalfof

themaleprisonpopulationandaround60percentofthe

femaleprisonpopulation.TheDepartmentofCorrections

recentlynoted:“Researchshowsthatmorethan30per

centofallMäorimalesbetweentheagesof20and29

yearshavearecordofservingoneormoresentences

administeredbytheDepartmentofCorrections;thecorre-

spondingfigurefornon-Mäoriisaround10percent.”72

Theover-representationofMäoriwithintheprisonsystem

hasbeenthesubjectofmuchinternationalcomment.The

UNHumanRightsCouncil,theCommitteeAgainstTorture

andtheCommitteeontheEliminationofRacialDiscrimi-

nationhaveeachrecommendedthatNewZealandfocus

itsattentiononcombatingover-representationand

discriminationwithinthecriminaljusticesystem.

RecentresearchbytheMinistryofJusticeonbiasinthe

criminaljusticesystem73notesthatthekeyelements

ofdisproportionaterepresentationaredifferential

involvementinoffending,directdiscrimination,and

indirectdiscriminationinthecriminaljusticesystem.All

threemayoperatetogethertoresultindisproportionate

outcomes.

Theresearchidentifiedfeaturesofsuccessfulresponses,

whichinclude:

• involvementofthedisproportionatelyaffectedgroups

inprogrammedesign,implementationandgovernance

• aholisticapproachthataddressesbroaderstructural

inequalities(beyondthecriminaljusticesystem)

• inclusionofculturalcomponents

• monitoring,whilerecognisingthatpositivechanges

maytaketimetoemerge

• addressingthedifferentaspectsoftheproblem

(offendingandreoffending,directdiscriminationand

indirectdiscrimination).

71 ‘DriversofCrime:awholeofgovernmentpriority’,NZGovernmentmediarelease,17December2009.Accessed3November2010fromhttp://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/drivers+crime+whole--government+priority

72 DepartmentofCorrections(2008),p27

73 MinistryofJustice(2010),Identifying and Responding to Bias in the Criminal Justice System: A Review of International and New Zealand Research(Wellington:MoJ)

etHnIcIty of PrIsoners (June 2010)

European33.6%

Mäori50.9%

Asian2.7%

Unknown0.5%

Pacific peoples11.5%

Other0.9%

Source:DepartmentofCorrections,‘PrisonFactsandStatistics’,http://www.corrections.govt.nz/about-us/facts_and_statistics/prisons/march_2011.html


Theresearchconcludedthatacomprehensivepolicy

approachshouldinvolve:

• addressingthedirectandunderlyingcausesofethnic

minorityandindigenousoffending

• enhancingculturalunderstandingandresponsiveness

withinthejusticesector(includingthroughparticipa-

tionandaccountability)

• developingprocessesthatidentifyandseektooffset

thenegativeimpactsofneutrallaws,structures,

processesanddecision-makingcriteriaonparticular

ethnicgroups.

ArangeofinitiativesaimtoreducetherateofMäori

imprisonment.TheMinistryofJusticehasdeveloped

initiativestoreduceMäorioffending,andtheissue

hasbeenafocusoftheDriversofCrimeinitiative.The

DepartmentofCorrectionshasaMäoristrategicplan

andfiveMäorifocusunits,with300availablebeds.A

2009evaluationreportonMäorifocusunitsandMäori

therapeuticprogrammesindicatedthattheunitsand

programmeshadhadapositiveimpactonthelikelihood

ofreconvictionandre-imprisonmentforthosewho

completedtheprogrammes.74In2010,budgetfunding

wasannouncedfortwokaupapaMäorireintegration

units,‘WhareOrangaAke’,tobeestablishedtoprovide

supportpriortoreleaseingainingemployment,securing

suitableaccommodationandimprovingfamilyandwider

socialrelationships.

Detention conditions

Risingprisonernumbersareakeyfactorthatcanpoten-

tiallyunderminemanyoftheadvancesthathavebeen

made.Accesstoemployment,education,healthservices,

treatmentprogrammes,recreationandvisitorscanall

beaffectedbycapacityandstaffingpressures.Lackof

appropriatefacilitiesmayleadtoanumberofotherhuman

rightsissues,suchasmixingofremandandsentenced

prisoners,agemixingandincreasedlock-downperiods.

Despiteeffortstoupgradeanddeveloptheprisonestate,

growthintheprisonerpopulationhasplacedcontinued

pressureonfacilitiesandhasmeantthatold,obsoleteor

inadequatefacilitiescontinuetobeused.Measuressuch

asdouble-bunkingandincreasedlock-downhourshave

thepotentialtoexacerbatethenegativeeffectsofpoor

conditions.

In2009,theCommitteeAgainstTortureexpressedcon-

cernsabouttheforecastgrowthinprisonernumbersand

therisksofviolencethatcouldresultfromovercrowding.

In2010,theGovernmentreportedbacktothecommittee

thatithadtakenstepstomanagecapacitypressures.75

Thosestepsincludebuildingadditionalfacilities,aswell

asinitiativestoreduceimprisonmentrates.76

Safety

RatesofassaultsandunnaturaldeathsinNewZealand

prisonscomparefavourablywithotherjurisdictions.In

2009/10,thereweresixunnaturaldeathsinprisons,all

apparentsuicides.Therewere32seriousprisoner-on-pris-

onerassaults(arateof0.36per100prisoners)andtwo

seriousprisonerassaultsonstaff(arateof0.02per100

prisoners).Thesefiguresrepresentanimprovementon

thepreviousyearwhentheassaultrateroseslightly,after

severalyearsofstableanddecreasingassaultrates.77

Thoughsmallinnumber,seriousassaults,anumberof

prisonerdeathsincustodyandthe2010deathofastaff

memberhavehighlightedongoingconcernsofmanaging

violencewithinprisons.

Followingthedeathin2006ofayoungprisonerwhile

beingtransportedinaprisonvanandthesubsequent

Ombudsmen’sinvestigationintothetransportof

prisoners,78theDepartmentofCorrectionshas

introducedanumberofmeasuresaimedatpreventing

prisonerassaultsduringtransport.TheDepartmentisin

74 DepartmentofCorrections(2009),Mäori Focus Units and Mäori Therapeutic Programmes: Evaluation Report(Wellington:DepartmentofCorrections)

75 ResponseoftheNewZealandGovernmenttotheCommitteeAgainstTorture,CAT/C/NZL/CO/5/Add.1,18May2010,pp1–2.Accessibleonlineathttp://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/docs/followup/CAT-C-NZL-CO-5-Add1.pdf

76 SuchastheDriversofCrimeapproachdiscussedabove.

77 DepartmentofCorrections(2008),Annual Report 2007-2008(Wellington:DepartmentofCorrections);DepartmentofCorrections(2009),AnnualReport2008–2009(Wellington:DepartmentofCorrections)

78 OfficeoftheOmbudsmen(2007),Ombudsmen’s Investigation of the Department of Corrections in Relation to the Transport of Prisoners.(Wellington:OO)


theprocessofreplacingitsprisonertransportfleetwith

newvehiclesfittedwithsingle-occupantcompartments

forprisonersinordertopreventprisoner-on-prisoner

violence.

TheDepartmenthasalsointroducedwaistrestraints

foruseduringprisonertransportinmulti-occupant

compartments.Whileaimedatpreventingassaultsduring

transport,theroutineuseofsucharestrictivemeasure

hasitselfpromptedhumanrightsconcerns.79Inits

2009reportonNewZealandtheUNCommitteeAgainst

Tortureexpressedconcernsregardingtheuseofrestraints

andrecommendedthattheirusebekeptunderconstant

review.80

Employment, education and training

Considerableadvanceshavetakenplaceintheincreased

provisionoftrainingandemploymentinprisonssince

2004.Therehavebeensignificantimprovementsin

numbersofprisonersinvolvedinemploymentactivities,

vocationaltraining,literacyandeducationalcourses.

Thereisalsoanexpandedrangeofunitsandfocussed

programmesthatspecificallyattendtothediverseneeds

ofprisoners.

AsatMarch2010,55percentofsentencedprisoners

wereengagedinrehabilitationactivityand67percent

ofsentencedprisonerswereengagedinemployment

activity,upfrom38percentin2006.

Opportunitiesforeducationandtrainingareofparticular

importance.Manyprisonershavepoorlabour-market

attachmentandlowliteracyandnumeracylevels.For

example,in2008,55percentofprisonersreportedthat

theyhadnothadajobbeforetheywenttoprison.81

Upto90percentofprisonershadlowliteracyskills,

belowthoseneededtoparticipatefullyinaknowledge

society(comparedwitharound43percentofthegeneral

population). Upto80percentofprisonershadlow

numeracyskillsatasimilarlevel(comparedwith51per

centofthegeneralpopulation).82Manyyoungprisoners

donothavebasicliteracyskillsbecauseofuntreated

sightorhearingdifficulties(e.g.glueear),orbecausethey

couldnotcopewiththeschoolsystemorhavelearning

difficulties.83

Health services

Prisonersareentitledtoreceiveastandardofhealthcare

thatisreasonablyequivalenttothatavailabletothe

generalpublic.84TheDepartmentofCorrectionsprovides

primaryhealthcare(whichincludesprimarymedical,

nursinganddentalcare),whilesecondaryandtertiary

healthcareservicesareprovidedbydistricthealthboards.

Prisonershaveahighernumberofhealth-relatedissues

thanthegeneralpopulation.Manyprisonersenterprison

withexistingandsometimeschronichealthproblems,

seriousmentalillnessesorsubstance-misuseproblems.

ResearchundertakenbytheNationalHealthCommittee

(NHC)highlightsthecomparativelypoorhealthof

prisonersandmakesrecommendationstoimprovethe

healthofprisoners,theirfamiliesandwhänau,andthe

widercommunity.85

Thereportnotesthatmorethanhalfofprisonershave

experiencedaseriousmental-healthcondition;64per

centhavehadatleastoneheadinjury;and89percent

havehadasubstance-abusedisorderatsometimeintheir

lives.Manyhavehadinfrequentcontactwiththehealth

system,despitebeingamongthosewiththehighestand

mostcomplexhealthneeds.86

79 OfficeoftheOmbudsmen(2008),Annual Report 2007/2008(Wellington:OO),p19;HumanRightsCommission(2009),‘CommentsoftheNewZealandHumanRightsCommissiononNewZealand’sImplementationoftheUnitedNationsConventionAgainstTorture’.Accessibleonlineathttp://www.hrc.co.nz/hrc_new/hrc/cms/files/documents/18-May-2009_11-04-40_CAT_HRC_comments_Mar_09.doc

80 UNCommitteeAgainstTorture(2009),para9;HumanRightsCommission(2009)

81 DepartmentofCorrections(2009),Prisoner Skills and Employment Strategy (2009–2012)(Wellington:DepartmentofCorrections).Accessibleonlineathttp://www.corrections.govt.nz/news-and-publications/statutory-reports/prisoner-skills-and-employment-strategy-2009-2012.html

82 ibid

83 BaragwanathS(2009),‘BoysinPrison:WhatabouttheirEducation?’,inMaxwellG(ed),‘AssessingtheCausesofOffending:WhatistheEvidence?’(Wellington:InstituteofPolicyStudies)

84 CorrectionsAct2004,section75

85 NationalHealthCommittee(2010),Health in Justice: Improving the health of prisoners and their families and whänau(Wellington:MoH)


TheNHCrecommendationsincludethetransferof

responsibilityforprisonprimaryhealthcarefromthe

DepartmentofCorrectionstothehealthsector.The

reportalsorecommendssignificantadditionalinvestment

inmental-health,addiction-treatmentorotherservices;

changestominimisethenegativeeffectsofincarceration;

andimprovementstohealthcaredelivery.

Expansionofdrugandalcoholtreatmentunitshas

increasedthenumberofprisonerswhocanbetreated

eachyearfrom500to1040.87Whilerepresentinga

substantialimprovement,thesefiguresstillshowthata

significantnumberofprisonersarenotaccessingthese

programmes.Itsuggeststhereisstillconsiderablescope

forfurtherexpansionandimprovement.88

TheCommission’s2004reportidentifiedissuesregarding

theconditionsforpeopleinprisonswhohavedisabilities

ormentalillnesses.Amongtheconcernsraisedwerethe

availabilityandaccessibilityofappropriatefacilitiesand

services,andthelackofdataondisabledpeopleinprison.

Sincethen,amental-healthscreeningtoolhasbeendeve-

lopedandtrialledbytheDepartmentofCorrections

andMinistryofHealth.Itsimplementationwillbeginin

2011–12,andisexpectedtosignificantlyenhancethe

availabilityofqualitydataonprisoners’mentalhealth

needs.

Risingprisonernumbershaveaddedtopressureson

mentalhealthservices,andtherehavebeenongoing

concernsabouttheavailabilityofsufficientplacesin

forensicservicestomeetdemand.89 90 91Waitinglists

forforensicinpatientservicescanmeansomeprisoners

remaininprisonwhilewaitingforspecialistmental-health

care.

Theneedfortimelyaccesstoserviceshasalsobeen

highlighted,particularlyforthosewithmildtomoderate

mentalillness,women,thosewithpersonalitydisorders

andMäori.92Ithasalsobeennotedthatimprovingaccess

tomental-healthservicesisparticularlyimportant,given

thepotentialofthemental-healthscreeningtoolto

identifymoreprisonerswithmental-healthneeds.93

Staffing

Therehavebeenincreasingconcernsaboutstaffsafety.

InMay2010,CorrectionsOfficerJasonPalmerwaskilled

atSpringHillCorrectionsFacility,inthefirstfatalattack

againstamemberofprisonstaffinNewZealand.In

2008–09,therewere11seriousprisonerassaultsonstaff–

arateof0.14per100prisoners.Thiswasanincreaseon

the2007–08rateof0.08,againstastableanddownward

trendoverthepreviousfiveyears.In2009–10the

numberofseriousassaultsagainststafffelltotwo.

Concernsaboutprisonerattacksagainststaffhaveledto

theintroductionofnewpersonalprotectiveequipment

andtools.Theseincludestab-proofvests,shields,helmets

andbatons.Apepperspraydeviceisalsobeingtested.In

addition,prisonstaffhavebeentrainedincomprehensive

tactical-communicationtechniquestoprovidetheprimary

meansofdiffusingdifficultprisonerbehaviour.

86 ibid.Seealso“PoorPrisonerHealthisaProblemforEveryone’,NationalHealthCommitteemediarelease,16July2010.Accessibleonlineathttp://www.nhc.health.govt.nz/moh.nsf/indexcm/nhc-news-poor-prisoner-health-problem-everyone

87 Onlineathttp://www.corrections.govt.nz/news-and-publications/magazines-and-newsletters/corrections-news/2010/corrections-news-jul-aug-2009/budget-round-up.html

88 Arangeoffactorsthatmayresultinlackofengagementinemployment,educationorrehabilitationprogrammesincludetheavailabilityofplacesonprogrammes;availabilityofprogrammesincertainlocations;difficultiesinprovidingprogrammesforprisonersservingshortersentences;levelsofaccessacrossdifferentsecurityclassificationsandforremandandsegregatedprisoners;schedulingofprogrammesandcompetingprioritiesonprisoners’time;andthewillingnessofprisonerstoparticipate.

89 Since2004,thisissuehasbeenraisedrepeatedlybytheOfficeoftheOmbudsmen(OO).SeeOO(2005),Ombudsmen’s Investigation of the Department of Corrections in relation to the Detention and Treatment of Prisoners,p55;OO(2007),Investigation into Issues involving the Criminal Justice Sectorp95;OO(2008),Report of the Ombudsmen 2007/08,pp8–9;andOO(2009),Report of the Ombudsmen 2008–9,p31.

90 ControllerandAuditorGeneral(2010),Performance Audits from 2008: Follow-up report(Wellington:OfficeroftheAuditorGeneral),pp28–31;ControllerandAuditor-General(2008),Mental Health Services for Prisoners(Wellington:OfficeroftheAuditorGeneral)

91 SimpsonS(2008),‘NewZealandProvisionofForensicMentalHealthServices’,RECAPNewsletter35,April.Accessibleonlineathttp://www.rethinking.org.nz/Print_Newsletters/Issue_35.pdf

92 ibid

93 ControllerandAuditor-General(2010),p31;ControllerandAuditorGeneral(2008)


Theongoinggrowthintheprisonpopulationhas

increasedthepressuresonstaff,andtheDepartmentof

Correctionshasundertakenmajorrecruitmentinorder

toaddressstaffingissues.Staff-to-prisonerratioshave

improvedslightlysince2004.In2008–09,theratioof

prisonerstofull-timeequivalentfrontlinestaffinNew

Zealandwasidentifiedat2.3:1.

PolIce detentIon

Thereviewofpolicinglegislationandexpansionofthe

roleoftheIPCAhavestrengthenedprotectionsforthose

detainedinpolicecustody.Therehavealsobeenimprove-

mentsintermsofreducingdetentionofyoungpeoplein

policecells.

Policecellsprovideminimumaccommodationforpeople

awaitingacourthearingandthoseonremand.They

aresuitableforaveryshortperiodonly.Thenatureand

standardoffacilitiesvaries,withsomeolderfacilities

requiringreplacement.

Mental-health pilot initiatives

Placementofmental-healthnursesinpolicestations

hasbeenshowntobesuccessfulinassistingthepolice

tobettermanagetherisksofthoseintheircustody

whohavementalhealth,alcoholorotherdrug(AOD)

problems.

Awatch-housenurse(WHN)initiativewaspilotedin

ChristchurchcentralandCounties-Manukaupolice

stationsfrom2008tomid-2010.Anevaluationfound

thattheWHNs’presencehadhelpedpolicewiththe

managementofdetaineeswithmentalhealthorAOD

issuesandhadlessenedtheriskofharmtodetaineesand

custodialstaff.94Theinitiativewasconsideredtoprovide

timelyinterventionfordetaineeswithsuspectedmental

healthandAODissues,andhadalsoservedtoenhance

relationshipsbetweenDHBsandthepolice.TheWHNs

checkedondetaineesandupgradedordowngraded

detainees’monitoringregimes,asappropriate.They

providedinformaltrainingtohelpcustodialstaffidentify

andmanagedetaineeswithmentalhealthandaddiction

disorders.TheevaluationnotedthatWHNcoverage

wouldideallybeextendedto24hoursaday,sevendays

aweek,ortoprovidegreatercoverageatnightsandon

weekends.

AsimilarinitiativeinRotoruawasregardedasvery

effectiveforthetimelyassessmentandfacilitation

oftreatmentfordetainees,andwasthoughttohave

contributedtobetteroutcomes.95

Weapons and equipment

TheintroductionofTasersin2008representedadeparture

fromNewZealand’straditionofapoliceforcethatdoes

notroutinelycarryarms.However,anumberofincidents

involvingtheuseoffirearmsagainstpolicehaverenewed

publicdebateonthearmingofpolice.ThePoliceCommis-

sionerisreviewingpoliceaccesstofirearmsandisdueto

reporttotheMinisterofPolicebytheendof2010.

InAugust2008,thePoliceCommissionerannounced

thenationwideintroductionoftheTaserX26,following

a12-monthtrial.Whilethetrialevaluationreport96

indicatedsupportfortheintroductionofTasersamong

policeandthepublic,somesignificantconcernswere

raisedbythosewhoopposeditsuse.97BoththeUN

HumanRightsCommitteeandtheCommitteeAgainst

TorturehavecautionedagainsttheuseofTasersandhave

stressedtheimportanceofstrictmonitoringoftheiruse.

Inthefourmonthsfollowingtheirnationwideintroduc-

tion,648TasershadbeendeployedandTasershadbeen

discharged29times.98

Anumberofothernewrestraintsandtechnologieshave

beenrecentlyintroduced,includingrestraintboards,

94 PaulinJandCarswellC(2010),Evaluation of the Mental Health/ Alcohol and Other Drug Watch-house Nurse Pilot Initiative(Wellington:NZPolice)

95 PaulinJandCarswellC(2008),Evaluation of the Mental Health Initiative at the Rotorua Police Station (Wellington:NZPolice)

96 NewZealandPolice(2008),OperationalEvaluationoftheNewZealandTaserTrial(Wellington:NewZealandPolice)

97 See,forexample,AucklandDistrictLawSocietyPublicIssuesCommittee,‘ThinkTwiceaboutTasers’,14December2007;CampaignAgainsttheTaser(2007),Stun guns in Aotearoa New Zealand? The Shocking Trial (Wellington:CAT).Accessibleonlineathttp://www.converge.org.nz/pma/tasertrial.pdfTheseconcernswereborneouttosomeextentbythetrialdata,whichindicatedthat21percentofincidentsinvolvedpeoplewithmentalhealthissuesand58percentinvolvedMäoriorPacificpeople.

98 CollinsJ,‘SpeechnotestoNationalPartyConference’,18July2010.Accessibleonlineat:http://www.beehive.govt.nz/speech/speech+notes+national+party+conference


spittinghoodsandlegrestraints.Restraintboardsare

availablein27overnightholdingfacilities,forthepurpose

ofrestrainingpeoplewhoareathighriskofviolenceand

self-harm.

detentIon of PeoPle wItH dIsabIlItIes

compulsory treatment

Inthe2008calendaryear,6424patientsspenttime

inNewZealandadultmental-healthunits,and3921

compulsorytreatmentorders(orextensionstoa

compulsorytreatmentorder)wereissued.99

TheCommission’s2004reportnotedtheneedfor

published,accessibledatatobeavailableonaregular

basisonpeopledetainedundermental-healthlegislation.

Since2005,theOfficeoftheDirectorofMentalHealth

hasreleasedannualreportscontainingdataregarding

compulsorytreatmentandtheuseofseclusionand

electroconvulsivetherapy(ECT).Datacollectionand

availabilityhasalsobeenimprovedthroughtheMental

HealthInformationNationalCollection.Aprogrammefor

theintegrationofmental-healthdata,underdevelopment

bytheMinistryofHealth,willcreateasinglenational

databaseofmental-healthservicesandoutcomes.

Monitoring

Inadditiontotheroleprovidedbydistrictinspectors,

theintroductionoftheOPCATmonitoringsystemhas

strengthenedindependentmonitoringofpeopledetained

underhealthanddisabilitylegislation.TheOmbudsmen

haveresponsibilityformonitoringhealthanddisability

facilities.

Inthecourseofthesemonitoringactivities,theOmbuds-

menhaveidentifiedsomespecificsituationsinvolving

patientssubjecttoexcessiveperiodsofseclusion.Other

issuesraisedbytheOmbudsmenhaveincludedlackof

validdocumentationfordetention;andsomepatients

beingheldinsecurecareforlongerthannecessary

becauseofashortageofsuitablecommunity-based

accommodation.

capacity

Theissueofcapacityandthetensionbetweencompul-

sorytreatmentandtherighttorefusemental-health

treatment,tomakeaninformedchoiceandtogive

informedconsentwerealsoidentifiedintheCommission’s

2004report.

TheCRPDprovidesthatstatesmustrecognisethatpeople

withdisabilitiesenjoylegalcapacityonanequalbasis

withothersinallaspectsoflife,andthatappropriate

measuresshouldbetakentoprovideaccesstosupport

theminexercisingtheirlegalcapacity.100Safeguards

shouldensurethatmeasuresrelatingtotheexerciseof

legalcapacityrespecttherights,willandpreferences

oftheperson,arefreeofconflictofinterestandundue

influence,areproportionalandtailoredtotheperson’s

circumstances,applyfortheshortesttimepossibleand

aresubjecttoregularreview.101

TheMH(CAT)Actitselfwasdesignedtocomplywiththe

UNPrinciplesfortheProtectionofPersonswithMental

IllnessandfortheImprovementofMentalHealthCare

(MIPrinciples).Forthemostpart,itmeetsthenecessary

standards.

Thelegislationissilentontheissueofcapacity.Asthe

admissioncriteriaundertheMH(CAT)Actdoesnot

differentiatebetweenpeoplewhohavecapacityand

thosewhodonot,peoplewithamentaldisordermay

betreatedagainsttheirwilldespiteretainingdecision-

makingcapacity.102Whiletheclinicianmaychoosenot

totreatacompetentpersonwithouttheirconsent,no

directlinkisestablishedundertheMH(CAT)Actbetween

aperson’sdecision-makingcapacityandtheirrightto

refusetreatment.

99 MinistryofHealth(2009),Office of the Director of Mental Health: Annual Report 2008(Wellington:MoH),pp.17,21.Ofthese,1808werecompulsorycommunitytreatmentordersand1397werecompulsoryinpatienttreatmentorders–requiringapersontobedetainedinahospital.Acombinationofcompulsorycommunityandcompulsoryinpatienttreatmentordersweremadefor99cases.

100CRPD,Article12(2)and(3)

101CRPD,Article12(4)

102Part5oftheactaffirmsthebasicprinciplethatapatientcanrefuseconsenttotreatmentformentaldisorder(section57),andnotaccepttreatment(section59).However,theactthengoesontolimittheserights(sections57,59),effectivelydeprivingapersonofanypowertorefusetreatmentwithinthefirstmonthofcompulsorytreatment.Whilethereisadutyontheresponsiblecliniciantoseektoobtaintheconsentofthepersontoanytreatment“whereverpracticable”(section59(4)),ifconsentisnotforthcoming,theresponsibleclinicianmaystillauthorisethetreatment.


AnexaminationbytheHumanRightsCommission103

oftheissueofcapacityasacriterionforcompulsory

treatmentfoundthattheMH(CAT)Actispotentially

discriminatoryinthatitsinglesoutpeoplewithmental

disorderandallowsthemtobetreateddifferently.The

legislationallowsmentallydisorderedindividualsto

bedetainedandtreatedonthebasisof‘riskofharm’,

regardlessoftheircapacity,whilemembersofother

groupsarenotsubjecttosuchcontrolsuntiltheybreach

criminallaw.IthasbeensuggestedthattheMH(CAT)

Actshouldbeamendedtoensurethatitrecognisesthat

peoplewithmentaldisorderdonotautomaticallylose

theircapacitytoconsenttotreatment.

Seclusion

IntheCommission’s2004report,anissueofconcernwas

theuseofseclusion–inparticular,indicationsthatmany

serviceuserswereheldforlengthyperiodswithlimited

freedomofmovement,isolatedfromothersandsubjected

tosensorydeprivation.

AreportbytheMentalHealthCommissionin2004also

raisedconcernsaboutseclusionpracticeinNewZealand

andrecommendedthatitbereduced,withaviewtoits

eventualelimination.104

In2008,theHumanRightsCommissionandMental

HealthCommissionpublishedHuman Rights and Seclusion

in Mental Health Services.105Thereportemphasised

that,giventhepotentialforabuseofhumanrights,the

useofseclusionshouldberestrictedtoverylimited,

clearlyspecifiedcircumstances.Itnotedthatalthoughthe

wordingintheMH(CAT)Actimpliesthatseclusionmaybe

justifiedasaformoftreatment,internationalcomment

suggeststhatitlackstherapeuticvalue.Therefore,if

seclusionisusedfortreatmentatall,thisshouldbeonly

wherethereisstrongevidenceoftherapeuticbenefit,

andinothercasesonlywherethereisasignificantthreat

tothepatient’sorothers’safety.Italsonotedtheneed

toincreaseunderstandingoftherelevanthumanrights

issuesandstandards.

RevisedMinistryofHealthguidelinesonseclusionwere

issuedin2010aspartofitsongoingcommitmentto

achievingadecreaseinitsuse.Theguidelinesidentify

bestpracticemethodsforusingseclusion,inlinewiththe

NewZealandHealthandDisabilityServicesStandards.106

Theguidelinesnotethatseclusionshouldbeusedforas

shortatimeaspossible,andthatthedecisiontoseclude

shouldbeanuncommonevent,subjecttostrictreview.

Instancesofseclusionarenowroutinelyreportedon

byDHBs,followingtheintroductionofanewreporting

templatein2006.Nationalseclusionstatisticsarenow

annuallyreportedbytheDirectorofMentalHealth.The

2006–08statisticsshowaslightdeclineinoveralluseof

seclusion.107

In2008,1023patientsinmental-healthunitswere

secluded,involving2946seclusionevents.108In

addition,179peopleweresecludedinforensicunits

(1366seclusionevents).Durationofseclusionevents

rangedfromtwominutesto365days,withaverage

durationvaryingacrossDHBsfrom21to50hours.Useof

seclusionvariedconsiderablyacrossdifferentDHBs,with

thehighestuse13timesthelowest.Whiletherehasbeen

anoveralldecreaseintheincidenceofseclusion,there

isalsosomeevidencethatforaverysmallnumberof

patients,thedurationofseclusionhasincreased.

Therehavebeenincreasingeffortstoreducetheuseof

seclusionandrestraint.Aprojectaimedatreducingthe

useofseclusionhasproducedcasestudieshighlighting

implementingtoolsandapproachesthatcanreducethe

useofseclusion.109Oneoftheaimsoftheprojectisto

workcollaborativelywithDHBstosupport,pilotandtest

103HumanRightsCommission(2008),Capacity and the Right to Refuse Psychiatric Treatment: A non-discriminatory approach(Unpublishedpaper)

104MentalHealthCommission(2004), Seclusion in New Zealand Mental Health Services(Wellington:MHC)

105HumanRightsCommission(2008),Human Rights and Seclusion in Mental Health Services(Wellington:HRC)

106MinistryofHealth(2010),SeclusionundertheMentalHealth(CompulsoryAssessmentandTreatment)Act1992(Wellington:MoH)

107MinistryofHealth(2009)

108ibid

109Formoreinformation,visitthecasestudysite,accessibleonlineathttp://www.tepou.co.nz/page/398-Our-projects+Seclusion-Time-for-change


ideasandpracticesthatreducetheuseofseclusion.It

alsohasasignificantfocusontraining.

Electroconvulsive therapy

Electroconvulsivetherapy(ECT)isusedfortherapeutic

purposesinNewZealand.Theconditionsunderwhichit

canbeadministeredarefoundintheMH(CAT)Act.Under

section60(a),ECTmaybegivenwiththeperson’swritten

consent.Ifthepersondoesnotconsent,ECTmaystillbe

administeredifitisconsideredtobeintheirinterestby

apsychiatristappointedbytheReviewTribunal.110The

independenceofthissecondopinionprocessisintended

toprovideprotectionforthepatient.However,concerns

havebeenraisedabouthoweffectivethisprocessis

inpractice,andwhethermorestringentcontrolsare

required.111

TherehavebeentworeviewsoftheadministrationofECT,

in2004and2007.112Theirrecommendationsincluded

thatECTshouldnotbeadministeredtoacompetent

personwhoobjectstoit;strengtheningguidelinesand

standards;restrictingtheuseofECTastreatmentoflast

resort;andensuringthatECTisadministeredonlywith

consentoronthebasisofatrulyindependentsecond

opinion.

Whilenotalloftheserecommendationswereacceptedby

theGovernment,actionstakeninresponsetothereviews

haveincludedpublicationofannualreportsontheuseof

ECT;amendedguidelinestorecognise‘advancedirectives’;

publicationofaninformationresourceforconsumers

andtheirfamilies,dealingwithwhatECTisandwhyit

isrecommendedasatreatmentoption;theinformed

consentprocess;andtreatmentsthatmaybealternatives

toECT.113Thesecondopinionrequiredwhereapatient

refusesconsenttotheadministrationofECTmustnowbe

obtainedfromaspecialistwhopractisesindependentlyof

theclinicalteamprovidingthetreatment.

Atotalof203peoplereceivedECTduringtheyear

endingJune2008(arateoffiveper100,000population).

Thisrepresentsacontinuedreductionfrom2005and

2006.114

Monitoring and review of IDccR

Since2004,areportingmechanismhasbeenestablished

wherebytheDirectorIDCCR/ChiefAdvisorDisability

Serviceshasaresponsibilitytomonitorandreportonthe

IDCCRAct.Districtinspectorsappointedundertheact

visitallfacilitiesandreporttotheDirectorIDCCRona

quarterlybasis.

TheCommission’s2004reportnotedthatundertheAct,

itispossibletoimposeindefinitedetentionforrelatively

minoroffences,ongroundsthatwouldnotnormally

beconsideredrelevantindeterminingthelengthofa

sentence.Theactiscurrentlythesubjectoflitigation

inrelationtotheadequacyofstatutorydirectionabout

whatcriteriawilljustifyextendinganorderunderthe

act.115

Whilethismayprovideanopportunitytoexamineand

clarifyaspectsoftheIDCCR,theIHChascalledfora

morecomprehensivereviewofhowtheactisworkingin

practice.

detentIon of cHIldren and young PeoPle

Inaccordancewithinternationalstandards,theguiding

principlesoftheCYPFActemphasisethat:

110MH(CAT)Act,section60(b)

111MentalHealthFoundation(2008),SubmissiontotheUniversalPeriodicReviewrelatingtothesituationinNewZealandofpeoplelivingwithmentalillness,10November.Accessibleonlineathttp://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:5Ydt3vhoiM4J:www.mentalhealth.org.nz/file/Policy-Advocacy-etc/Documents/Submission-Universal-Periodic-Review-10-November-2008.doc+Health+Select+Committee+on+Electroconvulsive+Treatment+in+2007&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=nz

112MinistryofHealth(December2004),Use of Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) in New Zealand: A Review of the Efficacy, Safety and Regulatory Controls(Wellington:MOH);andaninquirybytheHealthSelectCommitteeonElectroconvulsiveTreatmentin2007.HealthCommittee(2007),Petition2007/162ofHelenSmith–ReportoftheHealthCommittee,27November.Accessibleathttp://www.parliament.nz/NR/rdonlyres/ECAACD9B-EDAC-49C4-B8AA-5DA1B263C398/69774/DBSCH_SCR_3911_5618.pdf

113MinistryofHealth,Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) in New Zealand: What you and your family and whänau need to know(Wellington:MoH).Accessibleonlineat:http://www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/indexmh/ect-in-new-zealand

114MinistryofHealth(2009)

115VMvRIDCACentralHCWNCIV-2009-485-541[8December2009]


• wherepublicinterestallows,criminalproceedings

shouldnotbeusedifthereisanalternativemeansof

dealingwiththematter

• youngpeopleshouldbekeptinthecommunity

• sanctionsshouldbetheleastrestrictivepossibleand

shouldpromotethedevelopmentofthechildinthe

family.

TheCYPFActhasplayedaroleinincreasingdiversion,

decreasingthenumbersofYouthCourtcases,and

decreasingtheratesofincarcerationforyoungpeople.

Themajorityofyoungoffenders(approximately80per

cent)aredivertedfromtheformalcourtsystem.116

Therehasbeenongoingconcernabouttheunder-

utilisationof‘supervisionwithactivity’orders,117which

areanalternativetocustodialplacementatayouth

justiceresidence.In2008,81youngpeoplereceived

supervisionwithactivity,while152receivedsupervision

withresidence.118Onereasonforthishasbeenthe

unavailabilityofsuitableprogrammes.However,CYF

haverecentlyconfirmedfundingfor125‘supervisionwith

activity’placesforthenextfouryears.119Thecontinued

developmentofrehabilitationprogrammeshasbeen

welcomedbythePrincipalYouthCourtJudge,whonoted:

“Thesearetheprogrammesthatcanformthebasisofthe

historicallyunderusedsupervisionwithactivitysentence.

Itisthehopeofallwithinthesystemthatsupervision

withactivityordersincreasewithaconsequentreduction

inthenumbersofsupervisionwithresidenceorders.”120

TheChildren,YoungPersonsandTheirFamilies(Youth

CourtsJurisdictionandOrders)AmendmentAct2010also

providedforanumberofnewand/orexpandedorders

thatmaybeimposedbytheYouthCourt.Theseinclude

mentoringorrehabilitationprogrammes.

Theintroductionofmilitary-stylecampprogrammes

amongthenewsentencingoptionsattractedcriticism,in

thelightofevidenceonthelimitedeffectivenessofsuch

programmes,andconcernthattheyrepresentamove

towardsamorepunitiveapproachtodealingwithyoung

offenders.

Thereisagrowingbodyofinformationonwhatworks

toaddressoffendingandreducereoffending.Evidence

showsthatearlyintervention,wrap-aroundservicesand

restorativeapproachesaremorelikelytoeffectively

addressoffendingbyyoungpeople,andshouldremain

thefocusofNewZealand’syouthjusticesystem.121

Arangeofpositiveinitiatives,suchasTeKootiRangatahi

/TheRangatahiCourt,theChristchurchYouthDrug

Court,andtheIntensiveMonitoringGroupoperatingin

Auckland,appeartobeworkingwell.

Particulargapshavebeenidentifiedintheprovisionof

mental-healthservices,forensic,residentialplacement,

andalcohol-and-drugsservicesforchildrenandyoung

people.122Recentresearchnotesimprovementsin

funding,staffingandaccesstomental-healthservices.

Despiteprogress,thereisacontinuedneedtobroaden

therangeofservicesandsupportavailable,andtoreduce

inequalitiesandimproveaccesstoservicesforMäoriand

Pacificpeoples.123

In2010,theChildren’sCommissionerreleasedareporton

thequalityofservicesprovidedtochildreninthecareof

CYF,includingthosedetainedinresidentialfacilities.The

reportcontainsanextensiverangeofrecommendations,

highlightingtheneedforimprovementsinordertobetter

116SturrockFandPreetiCQ(2009),Effectiveness of Youth Court Supervision Orders: Measures of Re-offending(Wellington:MSD),p22

117CYPFAct,section283(m)

118MinistryofJustice(2010), Identifying and Responding to Bias

119BecroftA(2009),SpeechtoLocalGovernmentNewZealandConference.Accessibleonlineathttp://www2.justice.govt.nz/youth/publications/speeches.asp?inline=speeches/local-government-nz-conference.asp

120BecroftA(2010),ChildYouthandFamilyreportonkeyyouthjusticeobjectivesaftertwoyearsofincreasedfunding,CourtintheAct45,February2010,p2.Accessibleonlineathttp://www2.justice.govt.nz/youth/publications/CIA-Issue-45.pdf

121McLarenK(2000),Tough is not Enough – Getting Smart about Youth Crime(Wellington:MinistryofYouthDevelopment).

122OfficeoftheChildren’sCommissioner(2008),Report on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in New Zealand(Wellington:OCC).Accessibleonlineathttp://www.occ.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/6894/OCC_UNCtte_211108.pdf

123TheWerryCentreforChildandAdolescentMentalHealthWorkforceDevelopment(2009), The 2008 Stocktake of Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services in New Zealand.(Auckland:TheWerryCentre,TheUniversityofAuckland)


meetthehealth,education,recreationandculturalneeds

ofchildrenincare.124

Residential capacity

Since2004,threenewresidenceshavebeenopened.

Youthjusticebedshaveincreasedfrom75to140,and

careandprotectionbedsfrom34to50.

Detention in police cells

Therehasbeensignificantimprovementinaddressing

theissueofyoungpeoplebeingheldinpolicecells.In

2006,thesituationwasdescribedasreaching‘crisis

point’.125TheUNCommitteeAgainstTortureexpressed

itscontinuedconcernoverthedetentionofyoungpeople

inpolicecells.

Considerableeffortsmadetoaddressthisissuehave

includedtheincreasedavailabilityofplacesinCYFfacili-

ties,andclosemonitoringbytheChildren’sCommissioner,

thePrincipalYouthCourtJudge,CYFandthepolice.The

useofsupportedbailwasshownintrialstobesuccessful,

particularlywhentherightcommunitysupportswerein

place.126Ithasbeenextendedandisincludedaspartof

the‘FreshStart’package.

TheChildren’sCommissionerhasnotedadeclineinthe

numberanddurationofdetentionsofyoungpeoplein

policecellssince2006.In2009,77youngpeoplewere

detainedinpolicecellsforanaveragedurationof1.9

days.

DifficultiesinobtainingajudgeonaSundaywhena

youngpersonisarrestedonaSaturdayeveningmaybe

afactorinthelengthofdetentioninpolicecellsduring

weekends.TherecentdevelopmentofCYF-runescort

servicestotakeyoungpeoplefromtheirplaceofarrest

tothenearestresidencewillhelptoensurethatyoung

peoplearenotdetainedinpolicecellsduetolackof

transport.127

In2010–11,aspartofOPCATmonitoring,theOfficeof

theChildren’sCommissioner,IPCAandtheHumanRights

Commissionareconductingajointreviewofpolicyand

practiceinrelationtotheholdingofyoungpeoplein

policedetention.

Therehavealsobeenimprovementsinrelationto

preventingagemixinginotherdetentioncontexts,partic-

ularlyinprisons,attheborder,undermilitarylawandin

mental-healthfacilities.Lackofspecialisedyouthfacilities

forgirlsinprisonandagemixinginpolicecustodyare

amongthechallengesthatneedtobeaddressed.

Conclusion Whakamutunga

Since2004therehavebeensomenotabledevelopments

whichprovideimprovedprotectionsforthehumanrights

ofpeopleindetention.

Legislationandpolicyiswelldevelopedandgenerally

consistentwithinternationalstandards,andrecent

reviewshavestrengthenedhumanrightsprotectionsin

correctionsandpolicinglegislation.

Ratificationandimplementationofthepreventive

monitoringsystemundertheOPCATprovidefurther

nationalandinternationalscrutinyofplacesofdetention.

Thepreventivemonitoringinvolvesaproactive,collabo-

rativeapproachandhasresultedinanumberofpractical

improvements.EstablishmentofthepostofInspector

ofServicePenalEstablishmentstomonitormilitary

detentionfacilitieshasbeenasignificantdevelopment,

asmilitaryfacilitieshadnotpreviouslybeensubjectto

regularexternalmonitoringorreview.

prisons

Therehavebeenarangeofimprovementsandpositive

initiativessince2004.Thelegalframeworkhasbeen

furtherstrengthenedwiththeenactmentofthe

CorrectionsActandRegulations.Therehavebeen

considerableadvancesintheprovisionoftraining

andemployment,rehabilitationanddrug-and-alcohol

treatment.Otherpositiveinitiativesinthisperiod–such

124AtwoolA(2010),Children in Care: A report into the quality of services provided to children in care (Wellington:OCC).Accessibleonlineathttp://www.occ.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/7693/CC_ChildreninCare_09.09.2010.pdf

125BecroftA,‘PoliceCellRemandsReachCrisisPoint’,Court in the Act 19,November2006

126MossmanE(2007), Supported Bail Pilot Programme: Final Research Report (Wellington:CYF)

127Children’sCommissioner(2010),Report of the New Zealand Children’s Commissioner to the United Nations Committee On The Rights Of The Child 2010 (Wellington:OCC).Accessibleonlineathttp://www.occ.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/7682/CC_UNCROCREPORT_02.09.10.pdf


asthe‘MotherswithBabies’legislationandamental-

healthscreeningtool–willsoonbefullyimplemented.

NewZealand’simprisonmentrateishighbyinternational

standards.Ongoinggrowthintheimprisonmentrateisa

significanthumanrightsissue,sinceriskstohumanrights

areraisedinenvironmentswherethereisovercrowding,

stretchedresourcesandservices,orwherestaffare

overloaded.

Thecontinuedgrowthoftheprisonpopulationhasthe

potentialtoundermineadvancesthathavebeenmade.

Severalpiecesofnewlegislationhavemadecustodymore

probable.

TheDriversofCrimeinitiativesignalsamoreholistic

approachtotryingtoreduceoffending.Theneedto

reducetherateofMäoriimprisonmentisrecognised,

andisafocusofDriversofCrimeandanumberofother

initiatives.

Peopleindetentionoftencomefromvulnerablesectors

ofsociety.Realisationoftheirrightshasnotoftenbeen

arealitypriortotheirdetention.Oncetheyaredetained,

thenatureofthecustodialenvironmentandpressures

onresources,servicesandstaffposefurtherrisksto

theenjoymentofthesebasichumanrights.Thereis

anopportunity,however,toaddresstheseissues.Itis

incumbentupontheStatenotonlytoensureminimum

standardsaremet–prisonersaretreatedwithhumanity

anddignityandareprotectedfromharm–butalsoto

takeadditionalstepstoaddressthedisparitiesinthe

enjoymentofrights,suchastherighttohealth,education

andwork.

Otherissuesinclude:

• Despiteeffortstoupgradeanddeveloptheprison

estate,growthintheprisonerpopulationhasplaced

continueddemandforfacilitiesandhasmeantthatold,

obsoleteorinadequatefacilitiescontinuetobeused.

• Measuressuchasdouble-bunkingandlonglock-down

hourshavethepotentialtoexacerbatethenegative

effectsofpoorconditions,andrequiresafeguardsand

continuedcarefulmonitoring.

• Thereisaneedforcontinuingeffortstoensurethe

well-beingandsafetyofprisonersandstaff.

• Therehavebeenconsiderableeffortstoincreaseaccess

toemploymentandtrainingopportunities,openingof

newdrug-treatmentunitsandexpansionofrehabilita-

tionprogrammes.Despitethesegains,thereisstill

scopeforfurtherimprovementandexpansion,including

byidentifyingandaddressingpotentialbarriersto

access.

• Inthelightofprisoners’poorhealthstatusonentryto

prisonandtheirhighneeds,thereisaparticularneed

tofurtherdevelopprisoneraccesstohealthcareand

mental-healthservices.

police detention

Thereviewofpolicinglegislationandexpansionofthe

roleoftheIPCAhavestrengthenedprotectionsforthose

detainedinpolicecustody.

Policecellsprovideminimumaccommodationforpeople

awaitingacourthearingandaremand.Theyaresuitable

foraveryshortperiodonly.Thenatureandstandardof

facilitiesvarieswidely.

Somepositiveinitiativestoassistpolicetodealwith

detaineeswithmental-healthissuesanddrugoralcohol

problemsappeartobesuccessful.

Anumberofnewrestraintsandtechnologieshavebeen

madeavailabletopolice;theseshouldbesubjectto

monitoringwithregardtotheiruseandeffects.

Health and disability detention

Therehavebeenimprovementsinreportingandtranspar-

ency,includingclosermonitoringandregularpublication

ofdataontheuseofECTandseclusion.

Newguidelinesarepartofongoingeffortstoreduce

theuseofseclusion.Therehasbeenadecreaseinthe

incidenceofseclusion,althoughtherearestillindications

thatasmallnumberofpatientsaresecludedforlengthy

periods.Therearealsosomeconcernsthatsafeguards

aroundtheuseofECTcouldbefurtherstrengthened.

Whilemental-healthlegislationwasdevelopedtocomply

withhumanrightsstandards,therearesomeareasthat

requirereviewtoensurethatitfullyreflectstheCRPD.

Therearealsoissuestoberesolvedregardingtheconcept

ofcapacity,andthecriteriaforcontinueddetentionunder

theIDCCR.

Detention of children and young people

NewZealandlegislationrelatingtowhenchildrenand

youngpeoplecanbedetainedisgenerallyconsistentwith


internationalstandards,includingUNCROC.However,

furtherreductionoftheminimumageofcriminalrespon-

sibilityduringthisperiodrepresentsaretrogressivestep.

Someremaininginconsistencies–suchastheconsistent

definitionofachildasbeingunder18yearsofage,and

agemixing–needtobeaddressed.

TheCYPFActhasbeensuccessfultoalargedegreein

steeringchildrenandyoungpeopleawayfromcustody

andthecriminaljusticesystem.Thereareindicationsof

anincreasingfocusonadoptinga‘therapeutic’approach

todealingwithchildrenandyoungpeoplewhooffend.

Thereisagrowingbodyofinformationregarding‘what

works’toreduceyouthoffending,andmanypositive

initiatives–includingTeKootiRangatahi/TheRangatahi

Court,theChristchurchYouthDrugCourt,andthe

IntensiveMonitoringGroupoperatinginAuckland.There

isevidencethatearlyintervention,wrap-aroundservices

andrestorativeapproachesaremorelikelytoeffectively

addressoffendingbyyoungpeopleandshouldremainthe

focusofNewZealand’syouthjusticesystem.Anongoing

issuehasbeentheavailabilityofappropriatefacilitiesand

treatmentforyoungpeople.

Therehavebeensignificantimprovementsinterms

ofreducingdetentionofyoungpeopleinpolicecells.

However,thisisanissuethatrequirescontinuedattention

andmonitoringtoensurethatyoungpeople’srightsand

bestinterestsareprotected.

TheCommissionconsultedwithinterestedstakeholders

andmembersofthepubliconthedraftofthischapter.

TheCommissionhasidentifiedthefollowingareasfor

actiontoadvancetherightsofpeoplewhoaredetained:

Rate of imprisonment

Committingtoareductionintherateofimprisonment

andaddressingthedriversofcrime.

Mäori imprisonment

Committingtospecifictargetsandtimelinesforreducing

thedisproportionatenumberofMäoriinprison.There

alsoneedstobeasystematic,comprehensive,long-term

approachtoaddressingentrenchedinequalitieswith

explicittargetsandclearindicatorsofprogressmade.

Young people

Increasingtheavailabilityofandaccesstoappropriate

mentalhealth,drugandalcoholtreatmentandservices

forchildrenandyoungpeople.

Legislation

Ensuringinternationalhumanrightsstandardsare

adequatelyreflectedinmental-healthlegislation,and

resolvinguncertaintyaroundthecriteriaforcontinued

detentionundertheIntellectualDisability(Compulsory

CareandRehabilitation)Act2003.