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STRUCTURE DEFENSE
Captain Tracy Connelly
Division Supervisor - Great Basin Team 4
FORWARD
The following presentation is just a general overview and refresher of Structure Defense. It follows and uses information from Firescope, Cal Fire, USSF, 2018 NWCG IRPG and East Fork’s own Concepts of Operations Plan
Some information is from real life cases of things that work well and things that can be improved on
Concept of Operations http://eastforkfire.org/AdminEF/Documents/Operations/2019%20Wildland%20Fire%20Concept%20of%20Operations.pdf
Near Miss and Fallen Firefighters to
Remember – Structure Defense CEDAR FIRE 2003
Engineer - Steve Rucker
https://www.wildfirelessons.net/orphans/viewincident?DocumentKey=bbbcc306-0c1f-4963-84bb-e2dfb54188d2
ESPERANZA FIRE 2006
Captain - Mark Loutzenhiser
Fire Engine Operator - Jess "Gus" McLean,
Assistant Fire Engine Operator - Jason McKay
Firefighter - Pablo Cerda
Firefighter - Daniel Hoover/Najera
https://www.wildfirelessons.net/orphans/viewincident?DocumentKey=97859081-944b-473d-a5d4-6e5350e5ca74
Multiple near misses – Calabasas
https://www.wildfirelessons.net/orphans/viewincident?DocumentKey=8cfa6846-9772-457f-a7de-eb86c3cd569a
OBJECTIVES
Overview Structure “Defense”
Review Terminology
Review LCES
Triage Considerations
Review Triage Categories
Review Tactical Categories
Safety Considerations
WUI Watchouts
Engine Considerations
Other Considerations
STRUCTURE DEFENSE DEFINITION
Actions taken in advance of a fire reaching
Structures or other improvements (Values) are
intended to safely prevent the fire from damaging or
destroying these Values at Risk. Structure Defense
involves the use of standard Wildland Fire
suppression tactics and control methods; including
the use of standard equipment, fire control lines,
and the extinguishing of spot fires near or on the
Structures (Values) when safe and practical
TERMINOLOGY LCES
Temporary Refuge Area (TRA)
Escape Route
Safety Zones (SZ)
Situational Awareness (S.A.)
Management Action Point/Trigger Point
Fire Behavior
Deployment Zone
Structure Defense Catagories
Structure Defense Tactics
LCES Lookout(s)
Experienced, competent, trusted
Enough lookouts at good vantage
points
Knowledge of crew locations
Knowledge of escape and safety
locations
Knowledge of trigger points
Map, weather kit, watch, IAP
Communication(s)
Radio frequencies confirmed
Backup procedures and check-in
times established
Provide updates on any situation
change
Sound alarm early, not late
Escape Route(s)
More than one escape route
Avoid steep uphill escape routes
Scouted for loose soils, rocks, vegetation
Timed considering slowest person, fatigue, and temperature factors
Marked for day or night
Evaluate escape time vs. rate of spread
Vehicles parked for escape
Safety Zone(s)
Survivable without a fire shelter
Back into clean burn
Natural features (rock areas, water, meadows)
Constructed sites (clear-cuts, roads, helispots)
Scouted for size and hazards
Upslope? Downwind? Heavy Fuels? Each means more heat impact meaning larger safety zone.
LCES Who is responsible for LCES briefing?
Who is assigned as the lookout?
What is our primary tactical channel in our district for wildland fires?
Which member of the crew is the escape route based on?
How do we mark an escape route?
How big should your safety zone be?
A safety zone should be large enough so that the distance between the Firefighters and flames is at least four X’s the maximum flame height.
SAFETY ZONE Area in acres is calculated to
allow for distance separation on all sides for a 3-person engine crew (1 acre is approximately the size of a football field, or 208 feet by 208 feet). Calculations are based on radiant heat only and do not account for convective heat from wind and/or terrain influences. Since calculations assume no wind and no slope, safety zones downwind or upslope from the fire will require larger separation distances
Flame Length:
Is the distance measured from the average flame tip to the middle of the
flaming zone at the base of the fire. It is measured on a slant when the
flames are tilted due to effects of wind and slope. Flame length is an
indicator of fireline intensity.
Flame Height:
Is the average height of flames as measured vertically, up and down. It may
be less than flame length if the flames are angled in the horizontal direction,
backward or forward
SITUATIONAL AWARNESS
An on-going process of gathering information by
observation and by communication with others. This
information is integrated to create an individual's
perception of a given situation.
What are some examples of attention traps while on the
fireline? How can we mitigate these?
How does group interaction and communication help you
to think critically about the situation you are faced with?
How can you participate in the group sensemaking
process?
How can you be ready to adapt your plan when faced
with a changing situation?
TEMPORARY REFUGE AREA
Temporary Refuge Area (TRA) – Is a preplanned area
where Firefighters can immediately take refuge for
temporary shelter and short-term relief without
using a fire shelter in the event that emergency
egress to an established Safety Zone is
compromised.
Examples: lee side of structure, inside of structure,
large lawn or parking area, cab of apparatus
SITUATIONAL AWARNESS
HUMAN FACTORS• Low Experience Level with Local Factors
• Unfamiliar with the area or the
organizational structure.
• Distraction from Primary Task
• Radio traffic
• Conflict
• Previous errors
• Collateral duties
• Incident within an incident
• Fatigue
• Carbon monoxide
• Dehydration
• Heat stress
• Poor fitness level can reduce resistance to
fatigue
• 24 hours awake affects your decision
making capability like .10 blood alcohol
content
Stress Reactions
Communication deteriorates or grows tense
Habitual or repetitive behavior
Target fixation – Locking into a course of action; whether it makes sense or not, just try harder
Action tunneling – Focusing on small tasks, but ignoring the big picture
Escalation of commitment – Accepting increased risk as completion of task gets near
Hazardous Attitudes
Invulnerable – That can’t happen to us
Anti-authority – Disregard of the team effort
Impulsive – Do something even if it’s wrong
Macho – Trying to impress or prove something
Complacent – Just another routine fire
Resigned – We can’t make a difference
Group Think – Afraid to speak up or disagree
MANAGEMENT ACTION POINTS
TRIGGER POINTS
Management Action Points (MAPs): Geographic
points on the ground or specific points in time where
an escalation of management actions, or an
alternative management action, is warranted. These
points are defined, and the management actions to
be taken are clearly described, in approved fire
management or land management plans.
TRIAGE CONSIDERATIONS
Structure or Value at risk
Access and egress
Construction type and exterior building material
Defensible Space
Haz-Mat
Water source?
SZ’s, TRA’s and Escape Routes in the area
Fuel Type’s
Fire Behavior both current and predicted at time of impact
Available Resources
Skills, knowledge and abilities of crew
Other values and lives at risk in area – Risk vs. Gain
A structure’s ability to withstand fire – short term or long term
UNDEFENDABLE
Inadequate Defensible Space
No SZ’s, TRA’s or adequate Escape Routes Available
Significant Sustained Fire Runs
Extreme Fire Behavior
Frequent Spotting
25% Involvement or ¼ roof Involvement
Topography location
STRUCTURE TRIAGE CATAGORIES
STRUCTURE DEFENSE TRIAGE CATIGORIES
Not Threatened
Threatened Defendable
Threatened Non-Defendable
NOT THREATENED• SZ’s and TRA’s are present and construction
features and/or defensible space make it unlikelythat the structure will ignite during initial fire front impact
THREATENED DEFENDABLE
• SZ’s and TRA’s are present but construction, lack of defensible space, or other challenges require firefighters to provide structure defense tactics.
TREATENED NON-DEFENDABLE• No SZ’s or TRA’s are present
• Structure has challenges that does not allow firefighters to commit to stay and protect the structure or value
STRUCTURE DEFENSE TACTICS
Primary tactical actions: Check and Go
Prep and Go
Prep and Defend
Secondary Tactical actions: Fire Front Following
Bump and Run
Anchor and Hold
Connect the Dots
Tactical Patrol
CHECK and GO
Rapid Evaluation
Defendable or not Check for Occupants Extreme Fire Behavior, compressed time,
inadequate defensible space or lack of resources prohibit safe Structure Defense actions
NO TRA’s or SZ available Structure Triage category: Threatened Non-
defendable
STEN/TFLD familiarize with area, map area, assign resources
Stay mobile for rapid withdrawal
Leave area before fire cuts off escape routes
PREP and GO
Some preparation of the structure may be safely
completed prior to resources leaving the area
Structure triage category: Threatened defensible or
threatened-non defensible
NO TRA OR SAFETY ZONES
Leave before escape routes are compromised
PREP and DEFEND
A tactic used when Safety zones, escape routes and
TRA’s are present and adequate time exists to safely
prepare a structure for defense prior to fire front
impact.
Structure triage category: Non Threatened or
Threatened defensible
Remember – Non Threatened homes do not need
an engine protecting them
Prep and Defend
FIRE FRONT FOLLOWING
A defensive tactic utilized as the fire front passes
through an area allowing resources to defend
structures while staying behind the fire front
Typically used under extreme fire conditions when
resources can’t work in front of the fire
Resources engage in perimeter control, extinguish
hot spots and spot fires and search for and assist
victims
Fire Front Following
BUMP and RUN
Resources move ahead of the fire front in the spotting
zone to extinguish spot fires, hot spots and defend
structures
Defensive tactic when fire front impact is imminent
Offensive tactic when resources are steering the fire to
an established end point
May involve direct attack with hand lines and firing
operations.
Bump and Run
ANCHOR and HOLD
A tactic we seldom use
For more of an urban setting (Urban Conflation)
Tactic utilizing control lines and large water streams from
fixed water supplies
Primary mechanism of fire spread is STRUCTURE TO
STRUCTURE in common neighborhoods or commercial
areas
Goal is to defend exposures, stop structure to structure
ignitions, reduce ember production, and extinguish
structure fires
Anchor and Hold
TACTICAL PATROL
On many incidents, 50-80% of structure loss occurs after
the fire front passes and resources move on.
Tactical patrol is used when a threat remains to
structures after fire front passage due to residual
burning, ember cast, and islands of unburned vegetation
Crews MUST thoroughly check areas around structures
and values for any heat or hazards that could cause
further damage and mitigate them
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Full PPE
Parking
Keep engine running
Keep lights on when driving in smoky conditions
Don’t operate under power lines
Watch clearances
Retardant drops and helicopter bucket work
Stay out of:• Saddles• Chimneys• Chutes• Box canyons• Heavy Fuels
WUI Watch Outs Poor access and egress
Poor roads conditions
Bridge load limits
Wooden siding and Shake roofs
Inadequate Water Supply
Strong Winds
Extreme Fire Behavior
Power lines
Propane tanks and HazMat threat
Natural fuels within 30ft. or closer to structures or values
Structures or values in chimneys, box canyons, narrow canyons, or on steep slopes
Panic during an evacuation
ENGINE CONSIDERATOINS
Engine Captain must do a 360 walk around (whole crew)
This is not for time!!
Recon and deploy only if needed
Back into position when possible
Keep windows rolled up and doors closed
Use the structure or value as a barrier
Always maintain ¼ tank of water
Keep an Engine protection line when possible
Top off tank whenever possible
Throw a ladder whenever possible (homeowners)
CONSIDERATIONS STAY MOBILE!!
Structures and values are just another fuel type
Bump an Run works the best during IA
Simply put, it’s like “Herding” or “Pushing” fire through and/or around Values and moving to the next
If you are going to burn, take small bites to create a buffer between you and the fire front
Good fuels modification and other small things can make a huge difference
Be offensive don’t just sit and wait
Crews work great for numerous options
Dozers are awesome
Helos work well for hot spotting and recon
Fixed wing can buy time
Sprinklers can work wonders for numerous reasons
CONSIDERATIONS
Divisions are responsible for all Values at Risk within the Division even after structure groups/branches are established
Do not engage Structures that are more than a ¼ roof involvement or 25% total involvement
Re-engage as soon as you can when using fire front following, you can get back in the fight sooner than you think
If time allows create you own signage, include number of primary an secondary buildings and hazards
Identify and label access and egress routes
Have we mentioned STAY MOBILE!!