SEFIRA · 2014. 11. 11. · 2. To be cited as: Torrisi Giovanni, Sergi, Vittorio and Barratt, Benjamin (2014) (eds) SEFIRA Interdisciplinary Glossary – FP7 Coordination Project

SEFIRA Socio Economic Implications For Individual

Responses to Air Pollution policies in EU+27

COMMON GLOSSARY

Work package 5: Integration and Policy guidelines

Deliverable nr.: D 5.1

Lead partner: Partner 1 (UNIURB)

Authors: Giovanni Torrisi, Vittorio Sergi, Benjamin Barratt (eds)

Nature: Report

Dissemination level: Public

Status: Final

Date: 24 October 2014

This project is funded by the European Union under the 7th Framework Programme; Theme: ENV 2013.6.5-2[ENV.2013.6.5-2 Mobilising environmental knowledge for policy and society Grant agreement: 603941

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To be cited as: Torrisi Giovanni, Sergi, Vittorio and Barratt, Benjamin (2014) (eds) SEFIRA

Interdisciplinary Glossary – FP7 Coordination Project Sefira, Urbino: University of Urbino Carlo Bo.

This report has been put together by the authors, and revised on the basis of the valuable comments,

suggestions, and contributions of all SEFIRA partners.

The views expressed in this report are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily

reflect the views of European Commission.

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INTERDISCIPLINARY GLOSSARY

Table of Contents 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 4 2. Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 5 3. Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... 6 4. Authors ........................................................................................................................................ 7

Acceptability .......................................................................................................................... 8 Air quality .............................................................................................................................. 9 Behaviour ............................................................................................................................ 10 Climate change .................................................................................................................... 11 Cost ...................................................................................................................................... 12 Discrete choice model ......................................................................................................... 13 Equity ................................................................................................................................... 14 Health .................................................................................................................................. 15 Impact .................................................................................................................................. 16 Justice / Fairness ................................................................................................................. 17 Lifestyle ............................................................................................................................... 18 Low emission zone .............................................................................................................. 19 Measure ............................................................................................................................... 20 Measurement ...................................................................................................................... 21 Mobility ............................................................................................................................... 22 Policy ................................................................................................................................... 23 Pollutants ............................................................................................................................. 24 Pollution (air and noise) ...................................................................................................... 25 Predictive Model ................................................................................................................. 26 Risk ...................................................................................................................................... 27 Social norms ........................................................................................................................ 28 Sound/Noise ........................................................................................................................ 29

5. References ................................................................................................................................. 30

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1. Introduction

This glossary is meant to devise a multidisciplinary description of the most important terms

and concepts in the air pollution policies field, in order to form a basis for the assessment of

the socio-economic implications of these policies. Integration of different disciplines requires

a common understanding of technical terms, but also a multidisciplinary pool of knowledge

about the different uses of terms and concepts by disciplines that are relevant in the policy

making process. The growing complexity of technical and scientific background of

environmental decision-making points out the importance of improving integration between

disciplinary fields and the basic pool of knowledges both of researchers and policy makers at

all levels. Socio-technical integration has become a growing trend in the European Union

funded research that reflects more global trends in the research and development field. Socio-

technical integration is often framed by policy makers as a legitimizing resource that is

intended to facilitate the societal uptake of scientific-technological innovation1. Nevertheless

this integration can be also considered as a necessary upgrade of knowledge by a part of the

scientific community and of the policy makers concerned by the social impacts of policies

expecially in the field of publich health and social equity. Science and technical knowledge

have been extensively studied in their social implications within our society in order to

overcome a dualist approach between scientific and social knowledge2.

In contemporary society, because of their growing value in terms of social power and

legitimacy, technical and scientific knowledge are often a field of misunderstandings,

exchanges and conflicts 3. At the same time it is an actual debate how policy outcomes are

also influenced by the level of understanding of the key scientific fields by policy makers and

by experts themselves4.

One of the added values of Sefira project is in fact the effort to coordinate and share the

expertises from different fields toward the common objective of improving air quality in

1 Cfr. Rodríguez H.,Fisher E., Schuurbiers D., (2013) Integrating science and society in European Framework Programmes: Trends in project-level solicitations. Research Policy 42 (2013) 1126– 1137. 2 Cfr. Latour B., (1994) On technical mediation. Common Knowledge. 3, n. 2. P. 29-64 3 Cfr. Pellizzoni L.,Ylönen M., (2012) Neoliberalism and technosciences: Critical assessments. London: Ashgate. 4 Cfr. Ambrus M., Arts K., Hey E., Raulus H., (2014) The Role of ‘Experts' in International and European Decision-Making Processes: Advisors, Decision Makers or Irrelevant Actors? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press.

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Europe. This document is aimed to the academic community but also to expert pratictioners

and policy makers that want to update their knowledge in this specific field.

2. Methodology

Scientific and technical glossaries are common in the international literature and can provide

various levels of detail and specialization. This work has not the ambition to clear nor to

overcome the wide debates that exist in every disciplinary field about the definition of every

concept by different schools of research and application. The originality of our effort is to

provide a coordinated and edited overview with easy to manage definitions from different but

complementary disciplinary fields.

We have identified four main fields of knowledge that are strictly connected with the expertise

of the Sefira Consortium partners. They have been described as Natural Sciences, Economics,

Social Sciences and Policies. Then we selected twenty-two relevant terms that have been

central in the Sefira preliminary research assessments and in the redaction of the first Policy

Brief and Integrated Multidisciplinary Reports (D 5.4 and D 5.2). This selection cannot pretend

to be exhaustive of any of the knowledge fields, but it can be a contribution to further research

in this field.

For each term we asked to the researchers that appear as authors, with a specific expertise in

each field, to provide a synthetic description in one of the four selected fields. For every term

we selected a leading author that drafted the first definition and overviewed the integration

of the following definitions from the other complementary disciplinary fields. The leading

definition is printed in bold within each page. For each term bibliographic information and

hyperlinks to basic resources for further study are provided at the end of this document.

This preliminary work, is part of the Working Package 5 “Integration and Policy Guidelines”

that has the objective of producing specific documentation for the research and policy making

audience working on air quality policies in Europe. The challenge of disciplinary dialogue and

integration will continue from and beyond this deliverable in the next Integrated

Multidisciplinary Reports, Policy Briefs and the Scientific Integration Paper (D.5.8) that will

develop and summarize the knowledge integration activities within the Sefira project.

This document has been reviewed and edited by the Working Package leader partner of King’s

College of London and by the University of Urbino coordination unit of the project.

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We also have to thank all the authors of the specific definitions for their valuable contribution

to this collective effort.

3. Acknowledgements

The research on which this paper is based, was financially supported by the European Union’s

Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2012-2016) under grant agreement n° 603941 (project

title: SEFIRA). The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not

necessarily correspond to those of the European Commission or their home institutions. The

usual disclaimer applies.

2014-10-16 © Giovanni Torrisi, Vittorio Sergi, Benjamin Barratt (eds)

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4. Authors

Barratt Benjamin – King’s College London, Atmospheric Science, UK. Terms defined in Natural Sciences: Behaviour, Cost, Discrete choice model, Impact, Justice/Fairness, Lifestyle, Low emission zone, Mobility, Policy, Sound/Noise // For Policies: Discrete choice model.

Giardullo Paolo – University of Urbino, Social Sciences, Italy. Terms defined in Policies: Air quality, Low emission zone, Measure, Measurement, Mobility, Pollutants, Pollution (air and noise)

Kenis Anneleen – KU Leuven, Human Geography, Belgium. Terms defined in Social Sciences: Acceptability, Air quality, Behaviour, Equity, Health, Justice / Fairness, Lifestyle, Low emission zone, Mobility, Social norms

Kobus Dominik - Institute of Environmental Protection - National Research Institute, Poland. Terms defined in Policies: Acceptability, Cost, Justice / Fairness, Predictive Model, Sound/Noise

Lo Vullo Eleonora – University of Urbino, Atmospheric Science, Italy. Terms defined in Natural Sciences: Measure, Measurement, Pollutants

Maione Michela – University of Urbino, Atmospheric Science, Italy. Terms defined in Natural Sciences: Air quality, Climate change, Pollution (air and noise), Predictive Model

Polidori Paolo, University of Urbino, Economics, Italy. Terms defined in Economics: Acceptability, Air quality, Behaviour, Climate change, Cost, Equity, Health, Impact, Justice / Fairness, Lifestyle, Measure, Measurement, Mobility, Policy, Pollutants, Pollution (air and noise), Predictive Model, Risk, Social norms, Sound/Noise

Pollini Francesca, - Centro Nazionale Ricerche, Istituto di Scienze dell'Atmosfera e del Clima, Italy. Terms defined in Policies: Health, Lifestyle

Sergi Vittorio – University of Urbino, Social Sciences, Italy. Terms defined in Social Sciences: Climate change, Cost, Discrete choice model, Measure, Measurement, Predictive Model, Risk, Sound/Noise Terms defined in Policies: Behaviour

Skotak Krzysztof - Institute of Environmental Protection - National Research Institute, Poland. Terms defined in Policies: Climate change, Impact, Policy, Risk

Torrisi Giovanni – University of Urbino, Social Sciences, Italy. Terms defined in Social Sciences: Impact, Policy, Pollutants, Pollution (air and noise) Terms defined in Policies: Equity, Social norms, Sound/Noise Terms defined in Economics: Measure

Valeri Eva – University of Urbino, Economics, Italy. Terms defined in Economics: Discrete choice model, Low emission zone

Williams Martin – King’s College London, Athmosferic Science, UK. Terms defined in Natural Sciences: Acceptability, Equity, Social norms

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Natural Sciences by Martin Williams

In the context of air quality, ‘acceptability’ would most commonly be used to refer to the quality of measured data on air pollutants. Such measurements are not straightforward and generally involve sophisticated measuring instruments. There are many possible sources of error or uncertainty in these measurements, and systems of quality assurance and control are used to ensure the data are of sufficient quality to be considered acceptable. Similarly, the term can also be used to refer to mathematical models of air pollution, which also will have degrees of uncertainty and inaccuracy in their formulation and use. Model output can be scrutinised against certain criteria to assess acceptability for use.

Economics by Paolo Polidori

Acceptability deals with the idea of satisfaction. Individual satisfaction is the settling for what is good enough, rather than the best that is possible. This may occur in any situation in which decision makers are trying to pursue more than one goal at a time. Classical economics and neo classical economics assume that individuals, firms and governments try to achieve the optimum, best possible outcome from their decisions. Satisfaction assumes a level of achievement for each goal that would be good enough, and tries to find a way to achieve all of these sub-optimal goals at once. This approach to decision making is commonplace in behavioural economics. It can be regarded as a realist theory of how decisions are taken. The concept was defined by Herbert Simon (1916-2001), a Nobelprize winning economist, in his book, Models of Man, in 1957.

Social Sciences by Anneleen Kenis

The acceptability of a measure refers to the extent to which this measure is positively or negatively evaluated and thus supported by relevant actors. It is always related to a measure which is planned to be introduced in the future. It thus implies a prospective judgement about something with which people do not have a concrete experience of yet. It can be described by questioning “acceptance of what, through whom, and under which constructions and circumstances?” Acceptability is influenced by the following factors: problem perception, aims, social norms, options, effectiveness, fairness, attribution of responsibility and socio-economic factors.

Policies by Dominik Kobus

Acceptability of policies is a growing concern of policy makers in the environmental field also because of growing public conflictuality and citizen’s expertise in this domain. Acceptability may relate to the international, national, regional or local level of policy, as well to a specific social groups or individuals. Levels of acceptability can be expressed in relation to wide ranging policies (e.g. Climate policy) or specific legal acts or measures. At the level of individual behavoiur, specific measures, sense of justice, assumed efficiency (costs and benefits) and personal norms can all affect acceptability.

Acceptability

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Natural Sciences by Michela Maione

Air Quality defines the degree to which the air in a particular place is free from pollution from natural and/or anthropogenic emissions of gases and particles that exist in concentrations sufficiently high to cause direct or indirect damage to health, ecosystems, heritage and/or climate. It is normally referred to on the local or regional scale. However, the long-range transport of pollutants emitted from strong source areas can give rise to global air quality issues. Global air quality exists only in regard to those pollutants whose atmospheric lifetime is long enough for them to be transported at least to another continent (typically one week). Although air quality is a measure of the anthropogenic perturbation of the “natural” atmospheric state, interactions with biogenic and other natural emissions mean that it cannot be considered in isolation from other planetary processes.


Air quality can be defined as a measure of the condition of air relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species or to any human need or purpose. Concerning economics, there are no significant differences from the standard (Natural Sciences) definition. Air quality is a function of anthropogenic activities, therefore, the role played by human preferences and human willingness is a crucial component for the relationship between economics and air quality. Economic analisys is usually applied with various techniques for the evaluation of economic impacts of air pollution.


Air quality refers to the condition of the air in a particular place and time. Air pollutants can reduce air quality to such an extent that it generates negative consequences, including on the health, welfare and well-being of people, plants and animals. Societies and individuals will have different thresholds of what is considered acceptable air quality. This level will be guided by evidence of the impacts of these pollutants on society and the natural ecosystem.

Policies by Paolo Giardullo

In policy terms, air quality is a general environmental resource that requires maintenance, protection or improvement when defined standards are not met. Poor air quality can affect citizens’ health as well as functioning ecosystems, generating heavy consequences on welfare, health systems and land use. Air quality has been the object of EU policy-making since Directive 85/203/CEE, in which air pollution concentration standards were established. Since then, nine directives have followed re-ordering and updating both strategies and thresholds for emissions and concentrations of pollutants. In particular, the 2005 Thematic Strategy set up specific goals estimated to be reached by 2020.

Air quality

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Natural Sciences by Benjamin Barratt

Behaviour relates to the actions exhibited by a gas, particle or other pollutant in response to its environment. For example, gas emitted from a vehicle exhaust will behave differently to gas emitted from a chimney. All pollutants transform and disperse in the atmosphere between being emitted and being breathed. Understanding this behaviour is essential if pollutants are to be controlled in an effective and efficient way, without unintended consequences. In this context, a “behavioural model” attempts to replicate/simulate nature using chemical and/or physical computations. Such models can be used to test policy scenarios and describe human exposure to air pollution.


In order to understand the behaviour of people or businesses, economists look at the incentives being faced. In describing an individual’s behaviour, it is standard to assume rationality. However, the field of Behavioural Economics also analyses the effects of psychological, social, cognitive, and emotional factors on the economic decisions of individuals, and their consequences for market prices and resource allocation.


Behaviour is often used as a synonym for action or conduct. However, it is useful to differentiate between the precise meanings of these terms. While action requires a conscious making up of one’s mind, this is not necessarily the case for behaviour. Most behaviours are conducted in a (semi)-automatic way, as they are the result of habits, and are strongly influenced by social expectations and norms. Therefore, behaviour change can be realised through advertisement campaigns or social pressure. Action, in contrast, is always intentional and purposeful. While one can easily think of extreme cases of both, much social conduct is more ambiguous and is situated in-between these two categories.

Policies by Vittorio Sergi

Policy has a strong relationship with individual and collective behaviour. It can be directed to its control, interdiction or production. Policy studies literature identifies “push” measures as those actions from power agencies directed to impose a target behaviour: bans, technical measures, physical boundaries are typical instruments of this kind of policy. Otherwise “pull” measures have the objective of producing individual or collective motivation and choices toward a stated behaviour: among its tools we find financial incentives, rewards and communication campaigns. Air quality policies in the EU are based on a mix of “push” and “pull” measures. Growing evidences show that policy implementation and success is strictly connected with behavioural as well with socio-economic outcomes.

Behaviour

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There are two main definitions for climate change: i) The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity; ii) The UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), refers to a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. The changes of the composition of the atmosphere responsible for climate change concerns a number of radiatively active species including the stable long lived (well mixed) greenhouse gases as well as the reactive short-lived species (gas and aerosols).


In terms of economic analysis, greenhouse gas emissions, which cause planetary climate changes, represent both an environmental externality and the overuse of a common property resource (atmosphere). The atmosphere is a global commons into which individuals and industries can release pollution. The negative impacts of global pollution are borne by all as it is a negative externality with a wide impact. In these situations, in economic terminology, the negative externalities associated with local and regional pollutants are the cost of climate change that have to be internalized. The economic impact of climate change is object of study both considering the estimation of costs that damages to ecosystems represent and describing the new businness and financial markets opened by climate change related policies as Carbon Markets and Mitigation Policies.

Social Sciences by Vittorio Sergi

The alteration of global atmosphere is influenced by many products of human activity and a considerable part of them has also negative effects on the quality of air that circulates in the troposphere and that is essential to all forms of life, human beings included. Climate change can be analysed as an effect of human activities as well as an actor itself that creates new social and power relationships between humans and the natural and constructed environment. Climate change has gained a primary role as a political and social issue in the EU and in the whole world (Wurzel and Connely 2010) and is generating a wide and complex multiplicity of social facts, objects and meanings that involve the field of human geography, politics, ethics, psychology, sociology, anthropology and education

Policies by Krzysztof Skotak

Climate can be viewed as a “public good” issue, requiring collaborative action as long as is complex anthropogenic process. EU Climate change policy therefore has to balance the current and future global impacts of climate change against local economic vitality. The European Commission launched its climate change policy programme in June 2000, to identify and develop all the necessary elements of a EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol. Mitigation, adaptation and cut of emissions by developping a “green economy” are the main EU fields of policy intervention against climate change.

Climate change

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Cost refers to an estimated quantification of the actual or potential impact of an action or activity on natural assets. This quantification may not be in economic terms, although this is often the case to aid decision making. The term costs in natural sciences can be applied to a wide range of outcomes from environmental diversity to human health.


Cost, in the widest sense, is the measure of the value of what has to be given up in order to achieve a particular objective. In everyday language – at least in market-dominated societies, cost is synonymous with the total money paid out to achieve the objective. However, economists are concerned with rational choice decision making, and the rational decision-maker needs to estimate in advance the full range of consequences of each of the various uses of the time and resources available, not just the portion of the costs accounted for by monetary outlays. Cost of air pollution is currently estimated in monetary terms.


Evaluation of cost is used in cost-benefit decision making, which is based on the analysis and weighing of the costs and benefits of a decision. Costs are not referred only to monetary and countable values but also to symbolic and immaterial exchanges between individuals and social groups. In this way the evaluation of cost includes an temporal and spatial appraisal of an action in order to evaluate the intensity and extension of its effects over a determined object. Economic costs are evaluated in order to assess a form of value that is always socially constructed and determined by historical and cultural definition.


The term cost in environmental policy applies to the direct or indirect costs connected with implementing and enforcing new regulations or measures to bring compliance with standards. Different types of costs depend on the stages of policy implementation and affect different actors: (i) regulated entities level (private decision-makers), (ii) households and private companies (i.e. costs related to the implementation, like investment in new technologies), (iii) regulator level (policy making institutions that face costs related to the implementation and monitoring of measures) and (iv) whole economy level (direct and indirect socio-economic costs, such as welfare losses, distributional and employment effects).

Cost

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Discrete choice models are a statistical tool that have application in specific disciplines such as biology to study animal behaviour. However, such models can be used to test anthropogenic interactions between humans and the natural world. However, the application of economic models such as willingness to pay, to natural resources is seen by many as controversial, as individuals often struggle to put value on something so rarely bought.

Economics by Eva Valeri

Discrete Choice Models (DCMs) are statistical and econometric models used to analyse and predict preferences (‘choices’) made by individuals between two or more discrete alternatives (e.g. product choice, transport mode choice, heating system choice, etc.). Each respondent chooses between different choice profiles (alternatives). Each alternative is characterized by a series of attributes, which in turn are characterised by a range of attribute-levels. The models estimate the probability that a person chooses a particular alternative. DCMs investigate the underlying influences on an individual´s choice behaviour, estimating the attributes-levels´ trade-offs. The models are often used in understanding the role and weight of the attributes on the choice of a specific issue, for forecasting and scenario analysis, for willingness to pay/ willingness to accept and value of time estimations.


A Discrete Choice Model is a quantitative model applied in social sciences with the objective to organize large volumes of quantitative data in order to refine the description of trends and to elaborate projections and forecasts. DCMs build the individual choice modelling on discrete outcomes such as purchase decisions and voting behaviour. In DCM, the “dependent variable” is an indicator of whether or not some outcome occurs. The DCM technique has seen a number of applications in health economics, medical research, marketing research, transport research and environmental studies. In social sciences DCMs have been used in social network analysis and in the evaluation of the economic performances of public policies and other collective fields of choice (Durlauf 2011)

Policies by Benjamin Barratt

Once appropriately interpreted, the outputs of discrete choice models provide policy makers with a quantified assessment of the public acceptability of policy options. As the most acceptable policies are not always the most effective, DCMs utilise attribute-levels to establish the point at which effectiveness is in balance with the desired level of acceptability. DCMs become particularly important when policies target public behavioural change, rather than legislatively enforced technological improvements. The impact of such policies can be difficult to forecast without some indication of public acceptability and preferential choice.

Discrete choice model

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Exposure to air pollution is by its nature not equitable. The Second Law of Thermodynamics ensures that pollution concentrations are always greater near the source of air pollution than they are further away. Wind directions also influence which areas of cities are more polluted than others; in some European cities, because of the prevailing westerly/south-westerly winds industries were located in their east side and also accommodated the poorer population, while the western parts are more expensive. With the decreasing trend in highly polluting fuels such as coal in domestic and commercial uses, these inequities increasingly revolve around proximity to busy roads. There is a considerable literature relating high pollution levels to the more deprived sectors of society.


Equity, often referred to as economic equality, is the concept of social fairness in economics, particularly in regard to taxation or welfare economics. More specifically, when referring to equity concerns, economists focus on two points: horizontal equity, the notion that individuals who are in identical or similar situations should pay identical or similar taxes, and vertical equity, the notion that people who are better off should contribute proportionately more to support the government to increase funds and commitment for redistribution. It is one of the basic reasons why government intervene in the economy; to pursue the goal of promoting equal life chances to provide all citizens with a basic and equal minimum of income, goods, and services to survive at a standard of living that is viewed as socially acceptable.


Equity is associated with the notions of equality, justice and fairness. Equity is concerned with the distribution of goods and services between different people or groups. The basic idea behind equity is that what people get should be in accordance with their contribution. In other words, someone who has invested a lot of time, energy or money is expected to get more in the end than someone who has invested little. Equity is thus a kind of equality, but then relative to individual contributions. The difference with equality is that in the latter case, everyone gets the same regardless of their input.

Policies by Giovanni Torrisi

Equity means that there should be a minimum level of income and environmental quality below which nobody falls. It also means that everyone should have equal access to community resources and opportunities, and that no individuals or groups of people should be asked to carry a greater environmental burden than the rest of the community as a result of policies (Beder, 2000). It is generally agreed that equity implies a need for fairness (not necessarily equality) in the distribution of gains and losses, and the entitlement of everyone to an acceptable quality and standard of living. Social equity is one of the 3 elements of sustainable development - balancing economic, environmental and social equity. Social equity implies fair access to clean environment, livelihood, education and resources; full participation in the political and cultural life of the Com-munity; self-determination in meeting Fundamental Needs. Increased equity results also in decreased spending on prisons, security enforcement, welfare, and social services.

Equity

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Natural Sciences by Krzysztof Skotak

Health is a state of dynamic equilibrium between an organism and its environment in which all functions of mind and body are normal. Health is the avoidance of disease and injury and the promotion of normality through efficient use of the environment, a properly functioning society, and an inner sense of well-being. Environmental health includes both the direct pathological effects of chemicals, radiation and some biological agents, and the effects (often indirect) on health and well-being of the broad physical, psychological, social and aesthetic environment, which includes housing, urban development, land use and transport. Health effects (diseases among which cancers, birth defects, genetic effects and death) are a result of exposure to substances (e.g. air pollution) and energy (e.g. noise or radiation) that cause any harm to a person's health.


Health economics is a branch of economics concerned with issues related to efficiency, effectiveness, value and behaviour in the production and consumption of health and health care. In broad terms, health economists study the functioning of health care systems and health-affecting behaviours such as smoking. Health economists evaluate multiple types of financial information: costs, charges and expenditures. Uncertainty is intrinsic to health, both in patient outcomes and financial concerns. The knowledge gap that exists between a physician and a patient creates a situation of distinct advantage for the physician, which is called asymmetric information. Externalities arise frequently when considering health and health care, notably in the context of infectious disease. For example, making an effort to avoid catching the common cold affects people other than the decision maker.


To understand health from a social perspective, it is crucial to locate human beings and their health within a social context. First, this means looking to the whole of the person, rather than to separate bodily phenomena; and thus drawing attention to the holistic and socially constructed aspects of health. Second, this means recognising that health is socially patterned through factors such as age, gender, race and class, as well as education. Behaviour variables also play a role in conditioning people’s vulnerability to illness, and their chances of a healthy life. Prevention and behaviour change are important objectives of health care systems that are embodied by practices studied by sociology and ethnograpy.

Policies by Francesca Pollini

Health is defined in its broader sense by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health, environment and factors such as clean water and air, adequate housing, and safe communities and roads all have been found to contribute to good health. This suggests that the positive health benefits of low air pollution levels should be taken into account in public policy. WHO Health Guidelines form the basis of EU Air Quality Directives, ensuring that policies are based on robust health-based evidence. National judicial systems guarantee good health level for citizens; this mandate further compels single States to take action in this direction.

Health

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Impact can be defined as changes to the environment that can be directly or indirectly related to a policy or other action. The US Health Effects Institute describes a ‘chain of accountability’, where the impact of a policy is traced through to the health of a population, via its impact on pollutant emissions, ambient air quality and human exposure. Impacts can be assessed using modelling or monitoring. Modelled impacts are typically derived by translating policy outcomes into an environmental impact using theoretical models. Monitored impacts utilise ambient pollution monitoring in the affected area. Monitoring has the advantage of producing real world evidence and can identify unexpected side effects of policies, but separating the measured influence of an action from unrelated influences can be difficult.


Impact may be viewed in terms of: (1) business output (or sales volume), (2) value added (or gross regional product), (3) wealth, (4) personal income, or (5) jobs. Any of these measures can be an indicator of improvement in the economic well-being of area residents, which is usually the major goal of economic development efforts. Economic impacts are different from the valuation of individual user benefits of a particular facility or service, and they are also different from broader social impacts. User benefits and social impacts may include the valuation of changes in amenity or quality of life factors. While these various types of benefits and impacts may be valued in economic (money) terms, through studies of individuals' or society's "willingness to pay" for improving them, they are not economic impacts (as defined above) except insofar as they also affect an area's level of economic activity.

Social Sciences by Giovanni Torrisi

Legal sociology is the branch of sociology that studies the impact on society of certain policies or legislation. Nevertheless, the impacts are circular and not always straightforward. They are circular because as soon as legal norms have impact on society, the latter makes an impact back on legislation, forming a feedback loop. They are not always straightforward because legal norms can have explicit, latent and unforeseen impacts. Explicit impacts are those programmed by the legislator. Latent impacts are not explicitly written in the objective of the policies but they are nonetheless intended by the legislator. Unforeseen impacts are fortuitous events not wanted nor expected by the legislation. It is of pivotal importance to understand the impacts on society of an environmental policy in order to better its actual results.


Impact is the ultimate effect, whether adverse or beneficial, caused or induced by policy decisions, activity or actions, direct or indirect, on environmental conditions, population, society's problems or economic conditions. In policy terms, impact means the analysis and judgments of the effects (both temporary and permanent) of a significant project or legislative procedure, considered consequences and alternative actions. Impact very often has an integrated sense, which brings together various components of impact assessment in an attempt to incorporate an exploration of all spheres of impact.

Impact

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Justice/Fairness is linked to the natural sciences through “environmental inequalities”, where specific communities, such as the most deprived, experience a poorer environmental quality. The relationship between air quality and social deprivation is complex. In Europe, the most deprived areas are often in urban centres, where a high density of vehicles can cause poor air quality compared to more affluent, greener suburbs. However, this pattern can be reversed where high property prices dominate city centres. Inequalities may also occur within building stock, as those on lower incomes may not be able to afford home or office improvements to reduce infiltration of noise and pollution.


Economic justice, which touches the individual person as well as the social order, encompasses the moral principles which guide us in designing our economic institutions. There are three essential and interdependent principles: Participative Justice (the input principle), Distributive Justice (the output principle), and Social Justice (the feedback principle). Like the legs of a three-legged stool, if any of these principles is weakened or missing, the system of economic justice will collapse.The institutions determine how each person earns a living, enters into contracts, exchanges goods and services with others and otherwise produces an independent material foundation for his or her economic sustenance. The ultimate purpose of economic justice is to free each person to engage creatively in the unlimited work beyond economics, that of the mind and the spirit. Economic justice involves harmony or balance between input and output.


Justice is a term with many meanings, related to different philosophical frameworks. A distinction should be made between (i) corrective justice, which refers to the attempt to balance an injustice by rectifying the situation and (ii) distributive justice, which is about the principles that ought to govern the equitable distribution of obligations, benefits and burdens within a group and wider society. In other words, distributive justice is about giving everyone her or his due. Justice as fairness is a notion coined by John Rawls. It means that inequalities which result from society’s basic institutions can only be justified if they benefit the least favoured members of society. The definition of social justice has strong cultural and historical connotations.


Justice/Fairness refers to the distribution of resources, costs and benefits arising from the introduction of an environmental policy and measure between persons, communities and countries. It is an important criterion for assessing policy value; a policy cannot be fully accepted and supported by the public if it is deemed to be unfair. Therefore public participation in policy development and implementation is essential. It can be distinguished between intragenerational justice (applied across communities within one generation) and intergenerational justice (not reducing the ability of future generations to meet their needs).

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The way we live our lives influences ambient air quality. This may be direct – such as how much and what vehicle we chose to drive – or indirect – how much electricity we use or red meat we eat. In order to make lifestyle decisions, it is important that society understands how individual actions contribute to air pollution emissions and exposure to poor air quality. Research has shown that lifestyle/behavioural change is more readily accepted when the impacts of air pollution are presented in terms of personal or family health.


Lifestyle Economics has the purpose of researching and promoting public discussion of the increa-singly heavy regulation and taxation of controversial life-style products. Lifestyle economics is in favour of liberalism and against lifestyle regulation. Over the past 20 years there has been a steadily growing body of regulation and tax targeted at products which are considered, or proven, to pose health risks to those who use them. Lifestyle Economics aims to provide academic studies on the meaning of regulating the use of controversial lifestyle products such as alcohol, tobacco, gambling, sugar, fat or soft drinks. Lifestyle regulation can also focus on the challenges and opportunities in regulating lifestyles to tackle non‐communicable diseases such as diabetes, heart disease and cancers due to well identified styles of life.


Lifestyle refers to relatively distinctive patterns of behaviour, culture and norms that distinguish social groups from each other. Some lifestyles are more socially accepted, or are socially ranked at a higher level, than others. Specific cultural markers are deployed to establish clear boundaries between one social group and its particular lifestyle, and others. Therefore, understanding lifestyles requires situating them within the wider society, and looking at the specific power relations by which they are shaped. In current consumer society, the different forms of consumption of material goods constitutes one of the main visible indicators of distinct lifestyles.

Policies by Francesca Pollini

When considered as a way of living that reflects attitudes, values and actions of a person or group, lifestyle can have an impact on both policies and the well-being of people. Social issues are of major importance in the concept of lifestyle, as many of the main environmental and health issues, such as those stemming from air pollution, are related to lifestyle attitudes in consumption (i.e. red meat consumption and heating technology) and mobility (use of private cars, bike, public transport, etc). When common lifestyle affects society in a negative way, public policies may promote lifestyle change, implementing strategies and measures, including those related to public awareness.

Lifestyle

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Low Emission Zones (LEZs) depend on the assumption that newer vehicles with tighter emissions standards emit less pollution into the atmosphere. Their impact on air quality is related to the size of the zone, the proportion of the vehicle fleet affected, the Euro emissions standards defined and compliance rates (usually close to 100%). There is increasingly strong evidence that the Euro emissions standards are not reflected in real world driving conditions, particularly for diesel vehicles. Therefore, LEZs may not always deliver the expected improvements in air quality. The beneficial impacts of LEZs have been shown to be greatest close to busy, congested roads.

Economics by Eva Valeri

In transport economics, a Low Emission Zone is a geographically defined area where the most polluting of vehicles are restricted, deterred or discouraged from access and use. The aim is to reduce the number of more polluting vehicles being used in a particular area (transport demand) by setting particular emission standards or criteria (transport regulation), with the aim of improving air quality. Low Emission Zones tend to be focussed on city and town centres, where land-use is dense, traffic is heavy and population exposure is high. Restricting, discouraging or deterring the use of more polluting vehicles is most effective in these areas.


The goal of a Low Emission Zone is to decrease air pollution levels by removing the most polluting vehicles from a specific geographic area. Low Emission Zones are sometimes combined with a pollution or congestion charge. In this case, non-compliant vehicles can enter the area by paying a fee. LEZs are not always considered as the most socially fair way to reduce emissions, as those who are able to buy new, less polluting, but more expensive cars (or who can pay the fees in case of a congestion charge) can go on driving, while others are forced to change their behaviour. Behaviour change thus becomes dependent upon purchasing power. Much depends on which alternative mobility options exist. LEZs risk lowering the mobility of particular social groups and thereby increasing social inequality.


A Low Emission Zone (LEZ) is a geographical area that limits entry for motorised vehicles that do not meet a specified exhaust emission standard (‘Euro Class’). LEZs are local policy measures that are designed to accelerate EU-level technological emissions control policies relating to motorised vehicles, i.e., increase fleet turnover, by incentivising the replacement of more polluting vehicles with newer, cleaner vehicles. The area of the zone, class of affected vehicle (e.g., heavy and light duty vehicles) and emission standard threshold (e.g., Euro III or Euro IV) is dictated by the local policy makers and often a function of public acceptance. As LEZ only accelerate the natural process of fleet turnover, they require progressive tightening of threshold levels to remain an effective air quality management tool.

Low emission zone

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Natural Sciences by Eleonora Lo Vullo

In natural sciences, measure can refer to the units used in expressing the concentrations of chemical species in the atmosphere. These are expressed either as the ratio of the volume of the pollutant to that of air (volumetric), or as the mass of pollutant per unit volume of air (gravimetric). Volumetric measures are usually expressed as parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), and parts per trillion (ppt). These units express the number of molecules of pollutant found in a million, a billion, or a trillion molecules of air, respectively. Gravimetric (mass) concentrations are usually expressed as microgrammes of a pollutant (10-6 of a gramme) in one cubic metre of air. ‘Measure’ can also be used in natural sciences in the same sense as the definition under ‘Policy’.

Economics by Paolo Polidori & Giovanni Torrisi

A measure in economics is the standard, system, or unit by which something is measured. A measurement is the datum obtained by measuring. Either word can serve as the act of measuring (see ‘measurement’). The measures (plural) used in economics are of three types: (i) physical measures, (ii) nominal price value measures and (ii) fixed price value measures. These three types differ in relationship to the variable they measure: (a) quantity, (b) quality and (c) distribution. In order to focus on a specific type of measure, we can explicitly exclude the others. In the (i) physical measure, we measure (a) quantity while we exclude (b) quality and (c) distribution. In the (ii) fixed price value measure, we measure (a) quantity and (b) quality, while we exclude (c) distribution. In the (iii) nominal price value, we measure all three variables (a, b, c) and exclude none. (Saari, 2006)


A measure is a single administrative decision. Usually it is part of a set of multiple measures that form a more articulated decision process that is described as “policy”. Modern government is usually structured around measures, norms and technical knowledge for planning and decision making, rather than on absolute sovereign power (Foucault, 2004). The evaluation of a policy is also made by the evaluation of the outcomes and performance of targeted measures.


A measure is a tailored intervention implemented by policy-makers in order to achieve a specific goal. For air quality, a measure might be implemented a) within a long term strategy, as for instance a permanent regulatory prescription, or b) within a short term action plan in order to cope with urgent situation such as temporary bans. More recently, communication campaigns and other non-regulatory interventions have begun to augment regulatory measures; according to the last Clean Air Programme for Europe (COM (2013) 918 Final), raising awareness campaigns to reinforce collaboration among citizens and stakeholders is a crucial component of future action.

Measure

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Measurement refers to the numerical quantification of an object’s properties. In air quality terms, it often refers to the mass or volume of pollutants in the atmosphere (see “measure”). Measurements of air pollutants made for regulatory purposes, i.e., for health protection, are made close to the earth's surface. Nevertheless, there can be significant changes in pollutant concentrations even over relatively small distances and short time periods. Thus, reported measurements of air pollutants have to be considered in the context of the measurement location (e.g., roadside, urban or rural) and averaging period (e.g. hourly mean or annual mean). Air pollutant concentration can also be estimated by computer models, and then validated using direct measurements. In order to evaluate trends in air quality, measurements must be carried out continuously over long periods of time in a fixed location or locations.


Measurement in economics is the assignment of numerals to a property of object or events according to a rule with the aim of generating reliable information about these objects or events. The central measurement challenge is the formulation of rules such that the resulting information is as reliable as possible. Measurement in economics is not a unified field of research, but fragmented in various separate fields, for instance econometrics, index theory and national accounts.


Measurement is the assignment of mathematical numbers to objects and events. Measurement in social sciences is linked to the quantitative evaluation of social facts. Measurement definition and regulation is one of the crucial cultural traits of modern scientific expertise. Sociology of knowledge studies the social or existential conditioning of thought (Mannheim 1954). In relation to air quality, measurement has a central role in the social definition of scientific objects and of the constructed environment. Measurement can be influenced by cultural and social aspects of the data collection activity. These have been widely studied by Ethnography (Hess 2001) and Psychology of Science.


Measurement is a key element of air quality assessment. The decision-making processes, both at European and local level, depend on them. In European legislation measurement techniques and tools are strictly regulated in order to assure comparability among EU Member States (EU Directive 50/2008). Measurements are also the basis for the assessment of the quality of air in a certain area; in large urban areas, coordinated networks of measurement sites are used to improve the representativeness of assessments. Measurements provide empirical data on which policy strategic choices are based, the area of implementation and subsequent impact of policy decisions.

Measurement

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Mobility is an important part of a social and healthy lifestyle. However, increased mobility can lead to increased pollutant emissions from motorised transport. Administrators therefore need to plan transport systems that encourage mobility while minimising the impacts on the environment, and therefore on health of the population. Mobility also affects how much air pollution an individual is exposed to. For example, someone travelling in a car, bus or taxi is situated right amongst emissions from vehicles in front and behind, where pollution levels are highest. Conversely, those in trains or walking/cycling in green spaces are usually separated from vehicle emissions and generally breathe lower levels of pollution.


Mobility may have different meanings in economics depending on what it refers to. Intergenerational mobility (also called economic mobility, or social mobility) is the ability of an individual to improve (or lower) his/her economic status — usually measured in income — relative to the previous generation. Labour or worker mobility is the geographical and occupational movement of workers; it may refer to the ability of workers to move from one job to another or to the possibility of individuals to move from one place (region or country) to another. Capital mobility refers to the possibility for capital to move across regions or countries. Mobility may also refer to how easy it is for individuals or goods to move from one location to another.


Mobility refers to the ability to move between and among places, and can be realised through a variety of means (e.g., by foot, aeroplane, bike, wheelchair, train, bus, taxi, private car). Mobility is considered a crucial dimension of human life. It is an indispensable part of human social organisation and facilitates the accommodation of basic human needs. More specifically, it is seen as an essential factor for people’s independence and quality of life. Mobility implies costs in terms of time and money. A crucial factor of concern is therefore the existence of groups or individuals who lack the temporal and/or financial means to be mobile.


Mobility can be defined as the ability of an actor to move, or be moved, freely and easily. In air quality terms, mobility usually relates to the emissions resulting from this movement, depending on the means used to move. Vehicular traffic is presently one of the most important contributors to urban air pollution. European figures[2] indicate that, on average, personal transport choices are mainly oriented towards car use. Interventions, such as Urban Sustainable Mobility Plans, are encouraged in order to address emissions relating to population mobility (COM (2013) 918 Final). Policies targeting such emissions may include enhancement of public transportation systems, creation of Low Emission Zones, as well as economic incentives, such as vehicle scrapping schemes and financial assistance for purchase of low emission vehicles.

Mobility

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The relationship between natural sciences and air quality policies is complex, and often circular. Natural sciences may give to the policy (1) the objectives to accomplish (i.e. a certain level of pollutants) (2) the means to understand if these objectives have been reached (i.e. air quality stations), (3) the technical means to achieve these objective (i.e. euro 6). This means that a wide range of policies can have an impact on air quality, both directly and indirectly. This impact is registered by natural sciences and new objectives for policies are set. Environmental policies may specifically aim to reduce pollutant emissions of a certain type, either locally, nationally or internationally. Indirectly these policies have an impact by stimulating industrial growth or population mobility, or favouring certain technologies over others.


1.1.1.1.1 Policy usually refers in economics to the set of actions taken by a government to influence its economy. Examples of economic policies include governments’ decisions about spending and taxation, the redistribution of income, setting interest rates through a federal reserve, the regulation of economic activity, and many other areas of government intervention in the economy. Environmental policies, and air quality policies in particular, often have a strong direct or indirect economic impact. Some air pollution issues require policies that apply across international boundaries, such as combating long range transport of secondary particulate pollution and ozone precursors. Others require more local policies, such as combating pollutant hotspots in urban centres.


A policy is a set of measures, norms or actions taken by a governmental organization in order to reach certain objectives. The main difference between policy and legislation is to be found both in the recipients and in the sanction administered in case of non-compliance – (i) the recipients: policies can be directed toward specific regions, while legislation is normally directed toward all citizens. (ii) the sanctions: policies usually work with positive sanctions (i.e. economic incentives) while legislation with negative sanctions (i.e. fines).


Policy can be defined as an agreement or consensus on a range of issues, goals and objectives which need to be addressed. Policy is also a set of basic principles by which authorities make decisions at appropriate scale of activity, e.g. environmental resource management. Policy is a high-level statement about decision makers’ requirement designed to influence and determine decisions, actions, and other matters. Policy is usually driven by parliament, the mandate of an oversight body, established statute of institution or the head of an organization.

Policy

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Pollutants are substances that result from anthropogenic activities or natural emission, present at concentrations sufficiently high above their normal ambient levels to produce measurable consequences on humans, animals, vegetation or materials. Pollutants emitted directly are termed “primary pollutants”. Examples of primary pollutants include carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and ammonia (NH3). Secondary pollutants are formed from these primary pollutants by chemical reaction occurring in the atmosphere. Examples include ozone (O3), sulphates and nitrates. Nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter are both primary and secondary pollutants. Atmospheric concentrations of secondary pollutants can only be reduced by controlling their primary precursors. It is wortwhile to stress that for natural sciences CO2 is not to be considered a pollutant.


In general terms, a pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired effects, or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource. A pollutant may cause long- or short-term damage by changing the growth rate of plant or animal species, or by interfering with human amenities, comfort, health, or property values. The definition in economics is strictly related to the notion of cost. Pollutants may be classified by various criteria: (1) By their origin: whether they are natural or man-made (synthetic). (2) By their effect: on an organ, species, or an entire ecosystem. (3) By their properties: mobility, persistence, toxicity. (4) By their controllability: ease or difficulty of removal.


While the definition of pollutants in social sciences does not differ from other disciplines, the method of how to understand, and measure, the consequences of pollutants do. In social sciences, the consequences of pollutants are measured in relation to their social perception. In this way a pollutant can be demonstrably harmful to health, but not considered to be so by individuals because of a lack of knowledge or awareness. Conversely, something very smelly can be considered a pollutant by people even if it is not defined in this way by other disciplines. Social sciences measures and tries to understand these perceptions.


The EU definition of the term indicates any substance spread ‘in ambient air and likely to have harmful effects on human health and/or the environment as a whole’ (EU Directive 50/2008). Since pollutants may reach concentrations capable of producing undesirable effects on society, policy makers are tackling them through specific interventions. In Europe, pollutant concentration thresholds, and their measurement, are firstly regulated by the European Union, while the implementation of interventions is the responsibility of Member States. Tailored interventions for the source types (i.e. traffic, heating systems etc.) are required; these are designed and enacted by the local authority.

Pollutants

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Air pollution is the condition when species, gas and particles, emitted anthropogenically, build up in concentrations sufficiently high to cause direct or indirect damage to human health (e.g. respiratory, cancer, allergies), to the ecosystems (e.g. crop yields, loss of biodiversity), materials and structures (e.g. National heritage buildings) and regional climate (climate forcing of aerosol and ozone). Air pollution is both ambient (outdoor) and household (indoor). Noise pollution is excessive human, animal or machine-created environmental noise. Noise pollution adversely affects human health having been linked to stress related illnesses, high blood pressure, speech interference, hearing loss, sleep disruption, and decline of productivity.


In economics, pollution is any waste that imposes an opportunity cost when it is returned to the natural environment. Pollution is one of the more prevalent examples of an externality cost and market failure. Examples include, but by no means are limited to, car exhaust, municipal sewage, industrial waste, and agricultural chemical runoff from farmland. Pollution waste can be classified as degradable, persistent, or non-degradable, depending on how easily it can be broken down into non-harmful forms by the natural environment. Pollution problems can never be eliminated, but they can be handled with efficiency if the amount of pollution is such that the cost of damages is the same or higher than the cost of clean-up.


In social sciences, air and sound pollution is heavily intertwined with its social perception. For it to be considered real, it needs to be perceived (either seen, or smelled, or somehow known) by the people. When air pollution (as defined by natural sciences) cannot be socially perceived, it simply does not exist . This is one of the main reasons for the lack of efficacy of many air quality policies. The same goes with noise pollution which is not immediately heard by humans but which could have bad influence on health. It could be a good idea to make invisible pollution somehow visible via smartphone apps or new media techniques.


Pollution represents one of the side effects of human development. Emissions are produced by many human activities, which contribute to increased pollution levels. Air pollution has been the subject of specific policy interventions since the second part of the 20th Century; the first two countries in the world that defined an complex plan for air quality were the UK (Clean Air Act 1956) and the USA (Clean Air Act 1963). Emission control schemes have been particularly effective in reducing industrial emissions over the past decades; pollution generated by human development and consumption has now become the major challenge for pollution control. A recent EU Communication (COM(2013)) recommended that environmental policy-makers concentrate their efforts on citizens’ daily life activities and behaviour such as mobility.

Pollution (air and noise)

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Predictive modelling is a statistical technique used to predict future behaviour. In predictive modelling, data are collected, a statistical model is formulated, predictions are made, and the model is validated (or revised) as additional data become available. Air Quality Modelling (AQM) is the mathematical prediction of ambient concentrations of air pollution based on measured inputs. AQM tools typically fall into two broad categories: i) dispersion models that replicate atmospheric conditions, to provide an estimate of the concentration of pollutants as they travel away from the emission source. They can also generate estimates of secondary formation of pollution by incorporating atmospheric chemistry into the model; ii) receptor-based (or source apportionment) models that utilise chemical measurements at an individual monitoring site (the receptor) to calculate the relative contributions from major sources to the pollution at that site. The choice of a model depends on a combination of the available data and the needs of the researcher.


A predictive model is a statistical technique formulated to forecast the probability of an outcome and its dynamics. It describes a mathematical relationship between a target, or “dependent” variable, and various predictors, or “independent” variables, with the goal of measuring future values of those predictors and inserting them into the mathematical relationship to predict future values of the target variable. The model may employ either a simple linear equation or a complex network. Predictive models try to evaluate individuals’ reactions to a given policy as well as the risk or opportunity of different scenarios, in order to guide decision-making processes.


Anticipatory knowledge and the possibility to make predictions about human behaviour have long been an issue of social sciences but with limited and weak methodological bases due to the complexity of human nature and cultural influences. Electoral studies have settled a set of data analysis techniques that support the possibility for making predictions on individual choices (Taagepera 2008). Nevertheless human behaviour is embedded in a multi-causal and complex environment that according to other authors makes predictability very unlikely to be completely attained (Bishop 2007).


A predictive Model is a quantitative or mathematical representation or numerical simulation which attempts to describe the characteristics or relationships of physical events or states in the future, e.g. atmospheric composition, meteorological conditions, pollutants emission, transport etc. Modelling can be carried out on various spatial and temporal scales. Predictive models are often used e.g. in environmental management for assessment of implemented or planned actions, plans, strategies or policies. Prediction of the probability of achieving compliance with air quality standards by implementation specific measures is an example of models application in improvement plans.

Predictive Model

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Natural Sciences by Krzysztof Skotak

Risks are expected losses of lives, persons injured, property damaged and economic activity disruptions due to a particular hazard for a given area and reference period. In mathematical terms, risk is the product of hazard and vulnerability (Wisner, 2004). Risk is a measure of the likelihood or probability of harm to human health, property or the environment resulting from exposure to a potential environmental hazard or posed by the introduction of an undesirable substance into the ecosystem.


Risk refers to possibility of loss or injury. There is risk when future events occur with measurable probability, i.e., unknown outcomes whose odds of happening can be measured or at least learned about. It differs from uncertainty as the latter refers to the case when the likelihood of future events is indefinite or incalculable. Based on risk can be calculated costs and benefits of a certain course of action or policy.


Risk can be described as an individual or social interaction with uncertainty and/or danger. Risk is a subjective judgement with crucial social implications. The social analysis of risk has been articulated mainly in the cultural analysis (Douglas and Wildavsky 1983), the psychometric approach to risk (Slovic 2000) and rational choice theory. Environmental conflicts involve the social and political dimensions of risk perception and management.


Risk policy is a statement about the kinds and extent of risks an actor is willing to take in pursuit of his.her objectives. In the sphere of economic activities, It varies from industry to industry and, within an industry, from firm to firm according to the firm's ability to absorb losses and the rate of return it seeks from its operations. Risk management is an element of the policy process of evaluating alternative regulatory and non-regulatory responses to risk and selecting among them. The selection process necessarily requires the consideration of legal, economic and social factors. Risk policy is based on decisions about whether an assessed risk is sufficiently high to present a public health concern, and appropriate means for control of a risk judged to be significant.

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Social norms impact air quality in that they determine to a large extent the way the majority of the population undertake polluting activities. As an example, the majority of people consider it a ‘norm’ to own and drive a car, rather than not. Equally, in terms of home comfort, it is considered normal to use fuel or electricity as the sole source of keeping warm, rather than wearing more (or warmer) clothes. These and related factors exert a great influence on air quality.


Economics focuses on the role of social norms in explaining a wide range of situations in which individuals act without an immediate material sef-interest, apparently defying the basic “homo economicus” concept. In economics, this concept refer to humans as rational and narrowly self-interested actors who have the ability to make judgments toward their subjectively defined ends.

Nevertheless humans also cooperate and act no rationally. The idea of social norm helps economics to understand the situations in which individuals act not to their immediate material self-interest, or because of a calculated decision based on benefits and costs, but because they have internalized a norm of conduct, a social norm.


Social norms are expectations about appropriate behaviour shared by members of a group, and are thus strongly related to the concept of ‘behaviour’ on the individual level. Social norms serve as common guidelines, as a result of which, human behaviour exhibits certain regularities. While social norms are established by internalization and socialization, deviation of these norms can be punished by social sanctions (such as exclusion from the group). Social norms describe the “habitual institutional patterns” of a group, or even society, and are an important element in explaining group behaviour.

Policies by Giovanni Torrisi

Difference between juridical binding norms and social norms relies in three correlated elements: (a) codification, (b) institutionalization and (c) place of validity. Policies or law are codified (they are written and published in official journals), they are released by legitimised institutions (state, local and regional authorities, EU) and (c) their geographical validity is explicitly limited.

Social Norms, on the contrary, even if they influence people’s normative expectations (Luhmann, 1985), do not require these three conditions to be in action. They are simply rules or standards of behaviour shared by members of a social group. Nevertheless they may use external rewards or punishments, or they may be enforced by positive or negative sanctions from without.

Policies (i.e. EU Air Quality Policies) can heavily influence social norms and normative expectations introducing positive or negative sanctions.

Social norms

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Sound is a vibration that travels through a medium, such as air or water. The sound source vibrates its surrounding medium, causing waves to propagate away from the source. Sounds are heard when they reach a person's ear, where they are perceived by the brain. Sound levels can be reduced by increasing the distance between source and receiver or using barriers. Noise can be referred to as ‘unwanted sound’; sounds may be considered noise by some and not others. Noise or sound pollution can lead to sleep disruption, associated with diverse health problems. It can also affect concentration and quality of life. Environmental noise, such as that from traffic and aircraft, has been linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease, amongst other health outcomes.


Noise is a form and level of environmental sound that is generally considered likely to annoy, distract or even harm other people. Businesses operating industrial plants near residential areas will need to be respectful of others residing within earshot regarding their production of noise pollution. Noise is associated with a wide range of adverse impacts on human health, public amenity, local ecology and productivity. Managing noise effectively and efficiently requires a detailed knowledge of these impacts so that they can be balanced against other considerations. At present, the economic valuation of noise pollution is primarily focused on the amenity impacts, defined as the conscious negative reaction to noise.


Noise describes each unwanted sound that can produce negative effects on perception. The social effects of noise can be described both on psychological and social levels. Murray Schafer (1977) constructed the idea of “soundscapes” as acoustic ecosystems. The acoustic component of the environment, made of sounds, has often been addressed in order to define noise pollution as a disturbance of natural or socially desirables soundscapes. Noise has impacts on crucial social aspects such as health and working activities, which are studied by social psychology (Berglund, Lindvall 1999) and anthropology.

Policies by Dominik Kobus & Giovanni Torrisi

Noise is the subject of specific policy instruments at EU, national and local levels. These establish noise standards and contain provisions to improve the acoustic climate of the cities, including the supervision of acoustic standards for managing roads, trams and railways, airports, industrial plants and other entities responsible for the emission of noiseinto the environment.

The Environmental Noise Directive (2002/49/EC) is the EU instruments to identify noise pollution levels and to promote the necessary policies at Member State level. A first implementation report (COM(2011) 321 final of 1 June 2011) summarises the implementation progress and outlines possible ways forward to improve implementation and enhance effectiveness of EU's environmental noise policy.

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5. References

Acceptability Social Sciences

Soderholm, P. (2013) Environmental Policy and Household Behaviour: Sustainability and Everyday Life. London: Routledge. OECD (2004). Communicating Environmentally Sustainable Transport The Role of Soft Measures: The Role of Soft Measures. Paris: OECD Publishing.

Air Quality Social Sciences

Park, C. and Allaby, M. (2013). A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Behaviour Economics

Stiglitz J.E. and Walsh C.E. (2006) ECONOMICS, Fourth Edition, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, London.

Social Sciences Bruce, S. and Yearley, S. (2006) The Sage Dictionary of Sociology. London: Sage Publications. Jensen, B.B. (2002) Knowledge, Action and Pro-environmental Behaviour. Environmental Education Research. 8(3). p.325-334.

Policy Eriksson, L., Garvill, J., & Nordlund, A. M. (2006). Acceptability of travel demand management measures: The importance of problem awareness, personal norm, freedom, and fairness. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 26(1), 15-26. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2006.05.003

Climate change Economics

Harris, J. M. (2006) Environmental and Natural Resource Economics: A Contemporary Approach, by, Houghton Mifflin.

Social Sciences Wurzel R.K., Connelly J. (2010) (Eds) The European Union as a leader in international climate change politics, Routledge, New York.

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Cost Economics

Johnson, P. M., "A Glossary of Economic Terms", http://www.auburn.edu/~johnspm/gloss/ Mankiw, N. G. (2010) Principles of Economics, 6th ed., South-Western Pub. Varian, H.R. (2009) Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach, 8th ed., Norton.

Policy Öko-Institut e. V. (2012) Ex-post quantification of the effects and costs of policies and measures CLIMA.A.3/SER/2010/0005, Final Report, Berlin. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2007), Assessing Environmental Policies, Policy Brief.

Discrete Choice Model Economics

McFadden, D.L. (1984) Econometric analysis of qualitative response models. Handbook of Econometrics. Volume II. Chapter 24. Elsevier Science Publishers BV. Ben-Akiva, M. and Lerman, S.R. (1985) Discrete Choice Analysis: Theory and Application to Travel Demand. The MIT Press: Cambridge. Massachusetts. Train, K. (2003) Discrete Choice Methods with Simulation, Cambridge University Press

Social Sciences Durlauf S.N. (2011) Complexity, economics and public policy, Politics Philosophy Economics February 2012 vol. 11 n. 1 45-75.

Policy Economics

Cullis, J. and Jones, P. (2009). Public Finance and Public Choice, 3rd Edition, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.

Equity Economics

J.E. Stiglitz and C.E. Walsh (2006) ECONOMICS, 4th ed., W.W. Norton & Company, New York, London. J.E. Stiglitz (2000) Economics of the Public Sector, 3rd ed., Norton.

Social Sciences Turner, B.S. (2006) The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. Scott, J. and Marshall, G. (2009) The Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.

Policy Sharon Beder (2000) 'Costing the Earth: Equity, Sustainable Development and Environmental Economics', New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law, 4, 2000, pp. 227-243

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Health Policy

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air-pollution/en/ Social Science

Bruce, S. and Yearley, S. (2006) The Sage Dictionary of Sociology, Sage Publications, London. Turner, B.S. (2006). The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Impact Natural Sciences

HEI (2003). Assessing Health Impact of Air Quality Regulations: Concepts and Methods for Accountability Research. Communication 11, September 2003. Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA 02129-4533.

Economics Weisbrod, G., Weisbrod, B. (1997). Assessing the economic impact of transportation projects: how to tchoose the appropriate technique for your project, Transportation Research Circular.

Justice / Fairness Economics

Kelso L. O. and Adler Mortimer J. (1958) The Capitalist Manifesto, Center for Economics and Social Justice, Random House, New York, http://www.cesj.org

Policy Sharon Beder (2000) Costing the Earth: Equity, Sustainable Development and Environmental Economics, New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law, 4, pp. 227-243.

Social Sciences Scott, J. and Marshall, G. (2009) The Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Blackburn, S. (1996) The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Lifestyle Economics

Snowdon C. (2014), The Fat Lie, Institute for Economic Affairs. Sulkunen P. (2009), The saturated society: Governing risk & lifestyles in consumer culture, Sage Publications.

Social Sciences Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. and Turner, B.S. (2006) The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology. Penguin Books, London. Turner, B.S. (2006) The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

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Low emission zone Economics

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), Local air quality management, www.defra.gov.uk.

Social Sciences OECD (2013). OECD Environmental Performance Reviews. Italy: OECD Publishing.

Measure Economics

Saari, S. (2006) Productivity. Theory and Measurement in Business. Productivity Handbook , MIDO OY. Natural Sciences

Finlayson-Pitts, B.J., and Jr, J.N.P. (2000). Chapter 1 - Overview of the Chemistry of Polluted and Remote Atmospheres. In Chemistry of the Upper and Lower Atmosphere, B.J. Finlayson-Pitts, and J.N. Pitts, eds., San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 1 – 14. Jacob, D. (1999). Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry, Princeton University Press, http://acmg.seas.harvard.edu/publications/jacobbook/index.html

Social Sciences Foucault M., (2004) Securité, Territoire , Population. Cours au Collège de France, Seuil, Paris.

Measurement Natural Sciences

Brasseur, G.P., Orlando, J.J., and Tyndall, G.S. (1999). Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Change (Oxford University Press). Finlayson-Pitts, B.J., and Jr, J.N.P. (2000). Chapter 1 - Overview of the Chemistry of Polluted and Remote Atmospheres. In Chemistry of the Upper and Lower Atmosphere, B.J. Finlayson-Pitts, and J.N. Pitts, eds.,: San Diego Academic Press, pp. 1 – 14.

Policy Boumans, M. (2007). Measurement in Economics: A Handbook. 1st Ed., Academic Press.

Social Sciences Mannheim, K. (1954) Ideology and Utopia: An Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York. Hess D. (2001) Ethnography and the Development of Science and Technology Studies. In Atkinson P. et. Al (eds) Sage Handbook of Ethnography, Sage, London.

Mobility Economics

Krugman, P., Wells, R. and Graddy, K. (2011). Essentials of Economics, 2nd Edition, Worth Publishers. Policy

Urry, J. 2004 The ‘system’ of automobility, Theory, Culture and Society, 21(4/5), pp. 25–39 http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Transport_statistics_at_regional_level

Social Sciences Gregory, D. et al. (2009). The Dictionary of Human Geography, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.

http://www.defra.gov.uk/

http://acmg.seas.harvard.edu/publications/jacobbook/index.html

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Transport_statistics_at_regional_level

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Pollutants Natural Sciences

Brasseur G.P., Orlando J.J., and Tyndall G.S. (1999) Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Change , Oxford University Press, Oxford. Seinfeld J.N. and Pandis S.N., Wiley J. & Sons (1997) Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change.

Economics http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/pollutant.html

Pollution (air and noise) Economics

Bateman I., Pearce D., Turner K. (1994) Environmental Economics an elementary introduction, Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Predictive Model Economics

Finlay, S. (2014). Predictive Analytics, Data Mining and Big Data. Myths, Misconceptions and Methods, 1st ed., Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Greene, W. (2012). Econometric Analysis, 7th Ed. Prentice Hall, London.

Social Sciences Bishop R. (2007) The Philosophy of the Social Sciences, Continuum, New York Taagepera R. (2008) Making social sciences more scientific. The need for predictive models,: Oxford University Press, New York.

Risk Natural Sciences

Wisner B. (ed) (2004) At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters, Routledge Economics

Frank H. Knight. (1921) Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit. Boston, MA: Hart, Schaffner & Marx; Houghton Mifflin Co. http://www.econlib.org/library/Columns/Teachers/riskuncertainty.html http://www.ritholtz.com/blog/2012/12/defining-risk-versus-uncertainty/

Social Sciences Beck U. (1986) Risikogesellschaft, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt. Douglas M.,Wildavsky A. (1983) Risk and Culture: an Essay on the Selection of Technological and Environmental Dangers, University of California Press, London. Slovic P. (2000) The Perception of Risk, Earthscan, London. Wisner B., Blaikie P., Cannon T. and Davis I. (2004) At Risk; Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters, 2nd edition, Routledge, London.

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/pollutant.html

http://www.ritholtz.com/blog/2012/12/defining-risk-versus-uncertainty/

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Social norms Economics

Guido T. (2008). The Scope of Cooperation: Values and Incentives, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 123(3), pp. 905-950. Bénabou, R. and Tirole, J. (2006) Incentives and Prosocial Behavior. American Economic Review, 96(5), pp. 1652-1678.

Social Sciences Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. and Turner, B.S. (2006) The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, Penguin Books, London. Turner, B.S. (2006). The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Policy Luhmann, N. (1985) A Sociological Theory of Law, Routledge, London.

Sound/Noise Economics

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/noise-pollution.html The Interdepartmental Group on Costs and Benefits Noise Subject Group (IGCB(N)) ( 2010) Noise & Health –Valuing the Human Health Impacts of Environmental Noise Exposure. http://archive.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/noise/igcb/documents/igcn-noise-health-response100707.pdf.

Social Sciences Schafer, M. (1977) The tuning of the world, Knopf, New York. Berglund B., Lindvall T., Schwela D. (1999) Guidelines for community noise, WHO, Geneva.

Documents

SEFIRA · 2014. 11. 11. · 2. To be cited as: Torrisi Giovanni, Sergi, Vittorio and Barratt, Benjamin (2014) (eds) SEFIRA Interdisciplinary Glossary – FP7 Coordination Project