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©2011
John Peter Munafo, Jr
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
NATURAL PRODUCTS CHEMISTRY OF LILIUM LONGIFLORUM:
STRUCTURAL ELUCIDATION, QUANTIFICATION, BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
AND FUNGAL METABOLISM OF STERODAL GLYCOSIDES
by
JOHN PETER MUNAFO JR
A Dissertation submitted to the
Graduate School-New Brunswick
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Program in Plant Biology
written under the direction of
Professor Thomas J. Gianfagna
and approved by
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
New Brunswick, New Jersey
May, 2011
ii
ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION
Natural Products Chemistry of Lilium longiflorum: Structural Elucidation, Quantification,
Biological Activity and Fungal Metabolism of Steroidal Glycosides
By JOHN PETER MUNAFO JR
Dissertation Director:
Professor Thomas J. Gianfagna
The Easter lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb., Liliaceae) has beautiful white flowers
and a delicate aroma and is appreciated worldwide as an attractive ornamental plant. In
addition to its economic importance and popularity in horticulture, lily bulbs are regularly
consumed in Asia, as both food and medicine. The Easter lily is a rich source of steroidal
glycosides, a group of compounds that may be responsible for some of the traditional
medicinal uses of lilies and may play a role in the pant-pathogen interaction. This
research project was designed to: 1) Isolate and characterize new steroidal glycosides
from the bulbs of L. longiflorum, 2) quantify their contents in all of the organs of L.
longiflorum, and 3) perform studies on the antifungal activity and fungal metabolism of
the compounds.
A phytochemical investigation conducted on the bulbs resulted in the discovery of
several novel steroidal glycosides. A novel acetylated steroidal glycoalkaloid and two
novel steroidal furostanol saponins, along with three other steroidal glycosides were
isolated from the bulbs of L. longiflorum for the first time. A LC-MS/MS method
performed in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was developed for the
iii
simultaneous quantitative analysis of the five steroidal glycosides in the different organs
of L. longiflorum. The highest concentrations of total steroidal glycosides were detected
in flower buds, lower stems, and leaves. The steroidal glycoalkaloids were detected in
higher concentrations as compared to the furostanol saponins in all of the plant organs
except for the fibrous and fleshy roots. The proportions of steroidal glycoalkaloids to
furostanol saponins were higher in the plant organs exposed to light and decreased in
proportion from the aboveground organs to the underground organs. The highest
concentrations of the steroidal glycoalkaloids were detected in flower buds, leaves, and
bulbs.
Purified steroidal glycosides were evaluated for fungal growth inhibition activity
against the plant pathogenic fungus, Botrytis cinerea. All of the compounds showed weak
fungal growth inhibition activity; however, the natural acetylation of C-6′′′ of the
terminal glucose in the acetylated steroidal glycoalkaloid, increased the antifungal
activity by inhibiting the rate of metabolism of the compound by the fungus. A model
system was developed to generate fungal metabolites of the steroidal glycoalkaloids and
this system led to the discovery of several new fungal metabolites. The fungal
metabolites characterized from the model system were subsequently identified by LC-MS
and found to naturally occur in Easter lily tissues infected with the fungus.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would acknowledge my major advisor, Professor Thomas Gianfagna, for his
guidance and helpful insight throughout this research. I would also like to thank my
faculty committee members, Professor Richard Merritt and Professor Chee-Kok Chin and
my outside member Dr. John Didzbalis. I would like to acknowledge my collaborators,
colleagues and friends; Professor Leslie Jimenez, Professor Edward Durner, Dr. Ahalya
Ramanthan, Dr. Marshall Bergen, Dr. Christopher Johnson, Dr. Mark Kelm, Dr.
Catherine Kwik-Uribe, Thomas Collins, Jeanne Peters, Nimmi Rajmohan, Dr. Mahdu
Aneja, Bob Carhart, Jadwiga Leonczak, Professor Ilya Raskin, Dr. Slavko Komarnytsky,
and Debroa Esposito. I would like to give a special thanks to my family and especially
my wife, Kristin, for their constant encouragement and support. Most of all, I would like
to thank God, for creating such a wonderful Universe for us to explore and ponder.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION ...................................................................... II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ V
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... X
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ XI
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 1
1.1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION .................................................................................... 2
1.3. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION ......................................................................................... 2
1.4. NATURAL PRODUCTS FROM LILIACEAE ..................................................................... 5
1.5. SAPONINS IN GENERAL .............................................................................................. 6
1.5.1. Steroidal Saponins ............................................................................................. 9
1.5.1.1. Commercially Important Steroidal Saponins ............................................ 12
1.5.1.2. Dietary Sources of Steroidal Saponins ..................................................... 16
1.5.1.3. Steroidal saponins isolated from Lilium ................................................... 18
1.6 STEROIDAL ALKALOIDS ........................................................................................... 27
1.6.1 Steroidal Alkaloids in Liliaceae ....................................................................... 27
1.6.1.1. Classification of Isosteroidal Alkaloids of Liliaceae ................................ 28
1.6.1.2. Classification of Steroidal Alkaloids of Liliaceae .................................... 30
1.6.1.3. Steroidal Alkaloids in Lilium .................................................................... 31
1.6.2. Steroidal Glycoalkaloids ................................................................................. 32
1.6.2.1. Dietary Sources of Steroidal Glycoalkaloids ............................................ 35
vi
1.6.2.2. Steroidal Glycoalkaloids in Lilium ........................................................... 37
1.7. PLANT ORGAN DISTRIBUTION OF STEROIDAL GLYCOSIDES ....................................... 40
1.8. STEROIDAL GLYCOSIDES IN PLANT DEFENSE ............................................................ 42
1.9 DETOXIFICATION OF STEROIDAL GLYCOSIDES .......................................................... 45
CHAPTER 2: ISOLATION AND STRUCTURAL DETERMINATION OF
STEROIDAL GLYCOSIDES FROM THE BULBS OF EASTER LILY (LILIUM
LONGIFLORUM THUNB.) ........................................................................................... 48
2.1. ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... 48
2.2. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 49
2.3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ..................................................................................... 51
2.3.1. Plant Material.................................................................................................. 51
2.3.2. Chemicals. ....................................................................................................... 52
2.3.3. Isolation and Purification of Steroidal Glycosides 1 – 5 from L. longiflorum.53
2.3.3.1. Sequential Solvent Extraction of Lyophilized L. longiflorum Bulbs ........ 53
2.3.3.2. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC) .................................................. 54
2.3.3.3. Semipreparative Reverse-Phase High-Performance Liquid
Chromatography (RP-HPLC) ................................................................................ 56
2.3.4. Structural Elucidation ..................................................................................... 59
2.3.4.1. Acid Hydrolysis of Compounds 1 – 5. ..................................................... 61
2.3.4.2. Aglycone Analysis .................................................................................... 61
2.3.4.3. Sugar Composition Analysis .................................................................... 62
2.3.4.4. Determination of Sugar Absolute Configurations .................................... 62
2.3.4.5. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) ......................................................... 63
vii
2.4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................................... 64
2.4.1 Structure Elucidation of Compounds 1 – 5. ..................................................... 64
2.3.4.1. Structure Elucidation of Compound 1 ...................................................... 67
2.3.4.2. Structure Elucidation of Compound 2 ...................................................... 77
2.3.4.3. Structure Elucidation of Compound 3 ...................................................... 84
2.3.4.3. Structure Elucidation of Compound 4 ...................................................... 93
2.3.4.4. Structure Elucidation of Compound 5 .................................................... 102
2.5. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 109
CHAPTER 3: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF STEROIDAL GLYCOSIDES IN
DIFFERENT ORGANS OF EASTER LILY (LILIUM LONGIFLORUM THUNB.)
BY LC-MS/MS .............................................................................................................. 114
3.1. ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. 114
3.3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................................... 120
3.3.1. Plant material. ............................................................................................... 120
3.3.2. Chemicals ...................................................................................................... 123
3.3.3. Histology and Microscopy. ............................................................................ 123
3.3.4. Purification and Confirmation of Analytical Standards................................ 124
3.3.4.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR). ............................. 126
3.3.5. Quantitative Analysis of Steroidal Glycosides in Lilium longiflorum. .......... 126
3.3.5.1. Sample Preparation ................................................................................. 126
3.3.5.2. Analytical Standard Preparation ............................................................. 127
3.3.5.3. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). .................. 127
3.3.5.4. Recovery ................................................................................................. 132
viii
3.3.5.5. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC). ...................................................... 132
3.3.5.6. Statistical Analysis. ................................................................................. 133
3.4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 133
3.4.1. Quantification of steroidal glycosides in the different organs of L. longiflorum.
................................................................................................................................. 133
3.4.2. Histological visualization of furostanol localization in bulb scale sections of L.
longiflorum. ............................................................................................................. 152
3.4.3. Quantification of steroidal glycosides within bulb scales of L. longiflorum. 156
3.5. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 160
CHAPTER 4: ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY AND FUNGAL METABOLISM OF
STEROIDAL GLYCOSIDES OF EASTER LILY (LILIUM LONGIFLORUM) BY
THE PLANT PATHOGENIC FUNGUS, BOTRYTIS CINEREA ............................ 163
4.1. ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. 163
4.2. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 164
4.3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................................... 168
4.3.1. Plant material. ............................................................................................... 168
4.3.2. Fungal cultures. ............................................................................................. 169
4.3.3. Chemicals. ..................................................................................................... 169
4.3.4. Isolation and Purification of Steroidal Glycosides 1 – 5 from Lilium
longiflorum. ............................................................................................................. 170
4.3.4.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR). ............................. 171
4.3.4.2. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS). ........................ 171
4.3.4.3. Partial acid hydrolysis of compound 1. .................................................. 172
ix
4.3.5. B. cinerea growth inhibition assay. ............................................................... 173
4.3.6. In vitro fungal metabolism of compounds 1 and 2. ....................................... 174
4.3.7. Scale-up fungal metabolism of compound 1. ................................................. 175
4.3.7.1. Semi-preparative RP-HPLC isolation of the fungal metabolites of
compound 1. ......................................................................................................... 180
4.3.8. Isolation and Purification of Compound 6 from Lilium longiflorum bulbs. . 183
4.3.8.1. Sequential Solvent Extraction of Lyophilized L. longiflorum Bulbs. ...... 183
4.3.8.2. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC). .............................................. 184
4.3.9. Infection of L. Longiflorum tissue and sample preparation for LC-MS analysis.
................................................................................................................................. 188
4.3.10. Statistical Analysis. ...................................................................................... 188
4.4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 189
4.4.1. Fungal growth inhibition assay. .................................................................... 189
4.4.2. Metabolism of compound 1 and 2 by B. cinerea. .......................................... 193
4.4.3. In planta identification of compounds 6 – 10 by LC-MS. .............................. 208
4.4.4. Isolation and identification of compound 6 from L. Longiflorum bulbs. ...... 214
4.5. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 215
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ....................................................... 216
LITERATURE CITED ................................................................................................ 220
CURRICULUM VITA………………………………………………………………..238
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1. Steroidal saponins found in Lilium…………………………………………..19
Table 2.1. 13
C NMR spectral data of compounds 1 – 5 in pryridine-d5…………….…..113
Table 3.1. ANOVA for concentrations of compounds 1 – 5 in the different
organs of L. longiflorum………………………………………………………………..140
Table 3.2. Concentrations of compounds 1 – 5 in the different
organs of L. longiflorum………………………………………………………………..141
Table 3.3. Concentrations of compounds 1 – 5 in whole bulb scale,
bulb epidermis, and bulb mesophyll……………………………………………….…...157
Table 4.1. ANOVA for treatment, rate, and the interaction between
treatment and rate…………………………………………………………………….…189
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Image of L. longiflorum in full bloom…………………………………….4
Figure 1.2. Structures of 2,3-oxidosqualene, a triterpenoid sapogenin
(quillaic acid), and a steroidal sapogenin (diosgenin)…………………………….7
Figure 1.3. Examples of monodesmosidic and didesmosidic saponins……….............8
Figure 1.4. Structures of a basic steroidal backbone, a spirostane
backbone, and a furostane backbone………………………………………...…..10
Figure 1.5. Examples of different carbohydrate linkages……………………………11
Figure 1.6. Structures of Dioscin and Protodioscin………………………………….14
Figure 1.7. Molecular structures of steroidal saponins from Lilium……....................20
Figure 1.8. Isosteroidal alkaloids of Liliaceae: Representative
examples of cevanine type, veratramine type, and jervine type
isosteroidal alkaloids……………………………………………………………..29
Figure 1.9. Steroidal alkaloids of Liliaceae: Representative examples
of solanidine type and verazine type steroidal alkaloids………………………...30
Figure 1.10. Structures of the steroidal alkaloids etioline and
teiemine isolated from the bulbs of L. candidum………………………………...32
Figure 1.11. Structures of the most common aglycones of the
steroidal glycoalkaloids………………………………………………………….34
Figure 1.12. Structures of steroidal glycoalkaloids isolated from
C. cordatum, L. philippinense, L. brownii, and L. mackliniae…………..……….39
xii
Figure 2.1. Isolation scheme for compounds 1 – 5 purified
from the bulbs of L. longiflorum…………………………………………………54
Figure 2.2. RP-HPLC chromatogram of 1 – 5 isolated from
L. longiflorum……………………………………………………………………57
Figure 2.3. Total ion chromatogram of L. longiflorum extract
and of compounds 1 – 5 isolated by RP-HPLC……………………………….…58
Figure 2.4. Structures of compounds 1 – 5 isolated from
L. longiflorum bulbs……………………………………………………………...60
Figure 2.5. High resolution mass spectrum of compound 1…………………………68
Figure 2.6. GC-MS chromatogram of the TMSi derivatives of
(22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -ol.…………………………………………………69
Figure 2.7. GCMS mass spectra of TMSi derivatives of
(22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -l……………………………………………...……70
Figure 2.8. GCMS mass spectra of TMSi derivatives of the
aglycone of compound 1…………………………………………………………71
Figure 2.9. Total ion chromatogram of (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -ol
and the aglycone of compound 1 generated by LC-MS………………………....72
Figure 2.10. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic
linkages for the carbohydrate moiety of compound 1……………………….…..73
Figure 2.11. ESI+–MS mass spectrum of compound 1……………………………...74
Figure 2.12. 1H NMR spectrum and
13C NMR spectrum of compound 1…………..75
Figure 2.13. High resolution mass spectrum of compound 2……………………......78
xiii
Figure 2.14. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic
linkages for the carbohydrate moiety of compound 2…………………………...79
Figure 2.15. ESI+–MS mass spectrum of compound 2………………………………80
Figure 2.16. 1H NMR spectrum and
13C NMR spectrum of compound 2…………...82
Figure 2.17. High resolution mass spectrum of compound 3………………………..85
Figure 2.18. LRMS- mass spectrum of compound 3…………………………...........86
Figure 2.19. GCMS spectra of TMSi derivatives of the aglycone of
compound 3 and (25R)-spirost-5-en-3 -ol………………………………………88
Figure 2.20. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic
linkages for the carbohydrate moiety of compound 3……………………….….89
Figure 2.21. ESI+–MS mass spectrum of compound 3…………………………...….90
Figure 2.22. 1H NMR spectrum and
13C NMR spectrum of compound 3………...…91
Figure 2.23. High resolution mass spectrum of compound 4………………………..94
Figure 2.24. LRMS- mass spectrum of compound 4………………………..……….95
Figure 2.25. Partial HMBC spectrum of compound 4……………………………….96
Figure 2.26. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic
linkages for the carbohydrate moiety of compound 4……………………..……98
Figure 2.27. ESI+–MS mass spectrum of compound 4………………………….…..99
Figure 2.28. 1H NMR spectrum and
13C NMR spectrum of compound 4………….100
Figure 2.29. High resolution mass spectrum of compound 5………………………103
Figure 2.30. LRMS- mass spectrum of compound 5……………………………….104
Figure 2.31. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic
linkages for the carbohydrate moiety of compound 5…………………………105
xiv
Figure 2.32. ESI+–MS mass spectrum of compound 5………………………..……106
Figure 2.33. 1H NMR spectrum and
13C NMR spectrum of compound 5………….107
Figure 2.34. ESI+–MS mass spectra of compounds 1 – 5………………………..…112
Figure 3.1. Plant organs of L. longiflorum analyzed in this study…………….……122
Figure 3.2. Structures of steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 – 2 and furostanol
saponins 3 – 5 quantified in the various L. longiflorum organs…………….…...126
Figure 3.3. MS2 product ion spectra of steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 – 2………..……129
Figure 3.4. MS2 product ion spectra of furostanol saponins 3 – 5………………….130
Figure 3.5. MS/MS chromatograms for the quantitative analysis
of compounds 1 – 5 in a L. longiflorum bulb scale…………………………..…131
Figure 3.6. Calibration equation for compound 1………………………………..…134
Figure 3.7. Calibration equation for compound 2……………………………….….135
Figure 3.8. Calibration equation for compound 3……………………………….….136
Figure 3.9. Calibration equation for compound 4……………………………….….137
Figure 3.10. Calibration equation for compound 5…………………………………138
Figure 3.11. Proportions of steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 – 2 to furostanol
saponins 3 – 5 in the different organs of L. longiflorum…………………….….142
Figure 3.12. Concentrations of steroidal glycoalkaloid 1 in the
different organs of L. longiflorum………………………………………………143
Figure 3.13. Concentrations of steroidal glycoalkaloid 2 in the
different organs of L. longiflorum………………………………………………144
Figure 3.14. Concentrations of compound 3 in the different
organs of L. longiflorum………………………………………………………..147
xv
Figure 3.15. Differences in saccharide composition and
interglycosidic linkages of compounds 3 – 5………………………………..…148
Figure 3.16. Concentrations of compound 4 in the different organs of L.
longiflorum……………………………………………………………………..150
Figure 3.17. Concentrations of compound 5 in the different
organs of L. longiflorum………………………………………………………..151
Figure 3.18. Histochemical staining of a bulb scale section…………………….…153
Figure 3.19. Histochemical analysis of bulb basal plate and bulb scale sections….154
Figure 3.20. Histochemical analysis of bulb basal plate and bulb scale sections….155
Figure 3.21. Proportions of compounds 1 – 5 in whole bulb scale,
bulb epidermis, and bulb mesophyll……………………………………………158
Figure 3.22. Proportions of compounds 1 – 5 in different organs
of L. longiflorum……………………………………………………………..…159
Figure 4.1. Total ion chromatogram of the partial acid-catalyzed
hydrolysis products of compound 1………………………………………….…173
Figure 4.2. Extracted ion chromatograms of m/z 885 taken every 24 hours
over the course of 96 hours………………………………………………….…176
Figure 4.3. Extracted ion chromatograms of m/z 723 taken every 24 hours
over the course of 96 hours…………………………………………….…….….…177
Figure 4.4. Extracted ion chromatograms of m/z 577 taken every 24 hours
over the course of 96 hours……………………………………………….……178
Figure 4.5. Extracted ion chromatograms of m/z 414.6 taken every 24 hours
over the course of 96 hours……………………………………………….……179
xvi
Figure 4.6. RP-HPLC chromatogram of compounds 6, 7, and 10…………….……181
Figure 4.7. Total ion chromatograms of compounds 6, 7, and 10 isolated
by RP-HPLC……………………………………………………………………182
Figure 4.8. Isolation scheme for compound 6 purified from the bulbs of L.
longiflorum...........................................................................................................185
Figure 4.9. RP-HPLC chromatogram of compound 6 isolated from
L. longiflorum bulbs……………………………………………………….........186
Figure 4.10. Structures of compounds 1 – 10............................................................187
Figure 4.11. Growth inhibition activity of compounds 1 – 5 on the radial
mycelia growth of B. cinerea…………………………………………...………190
Figure 4.12. Growth inhibition activity of compounds 1 and 2 on the
radial mycelia growth of B. cinerea……………………………………….……192
Figure 4.13. ESI+–MS mass spectra of steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 and 2……..……193
Figure 4.14. Metabolism of compound 1 by B. cinerea……………………………194
Figure 4.15. ESI+–MS mass spectra of fungal metabolite 6…………………..……195
Figure 4.16. Molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 6………………196
Figure 4.17. ESI+–MS mass spectra of fungal metabolite 7………………………..196
Figure 4.18. Molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 7………………197
Figure 4.19. ESI+–MS mass spectra of fungal metabolite 10………………………198
Figure 4.20. Molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 10……….…….199
Figure 4.21. Metabolism of compound 2 by B. cinerea……………………………200
Figure 4.22. ESI+–MS mass spectra of fungal metabolite 8…………………….….201
Figure 4.23. Proposed molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 8….…202
xvii
Figure 4.24. ESI+–MS mass spectra of fungal metabolite 9…………………….….203
Figure 4.25. TIC of the metabolites of compound 2, extracted ion
chromatogram of m/z 738.8, and the TIC of the partial acid-catalyzed
hydrolysis products of compound 1………………………………………….…204
Figure 4.26. Proposed molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 9…….205
Figure 4.27. Proposed partial metabolic pathways for compounds 1 and 2………..207
Figure 4.28. Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 8
(m/z 780.5) of control plant tissue and plant tissue infected with B. cinerea…..209
Figure 4.29. Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 9
(m/z 738.8) of control plant tissue and plant tissue infected with B. cinerea…..210
Figure 4.30. Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 7
(m/z 576.7) of control plant tissue and plant tissue infected with B. cinerea…..211
Figure 4.31. Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 10
(m/z 414.6) of control plant tissue and plant tissue infected with B. cinerea…..212
Figure 4.32. Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 6
(m/z 722.8) of control plant tissue and plant tissue infected with B. cinerea…..213
Figure 4.33. Total ion chromatogram (TIC) of compound 6
isolated by RP-HPLC from L. longiflorum bulbs……………………………..……214
1
Chapter 1: General Introduction
1.1. Introduction
The Easter Lily, (Lilium longiflorum Thunb., family Liliaceae), has beautiful white
flowers and a delicate aroma and is appreciated worldwide as an attractive ornamental
plant. Easter lilies are most commonly seen as indoor potted plants or floral arrangements
around the Easter holidays; however, they are also often planted outdoors as bedding
plants in flower gardens. In addition to their esthetic value, lily bulbs and flower buds are
regularly consumed as a food in Asia for their distinctive bitter taste and have long
historical use in traditional Chinese medicine.
L. longiflorum is native to the Ryuckyu archipelago of Japan and the islands of
eastern Taiwan (Wilson, 1925; Hiramatsu et al., 2001). The archipelago located between
Ryukyu and Taiwan consists of approximately 200 islands located between southwestern
mainland Japan and the southeastern China. Geological studies suggest that the
archipelago was formed from a section of the Asian continent and it has been proposed
that the biota native to the islands evolved from common ancestors located on the
adjacent mainland (Kizaki and Oshiro, 1977; Kimura, 1996). Consistent with the
hypothesis, L. longiflorum is genetically similar to other Lilium species in the geographic
region, such as L. formosanum, and is readily capable of producing fertile interspecific
hybrids with other members of the genus (Hiramatsu, et al., 2001; Preston, 1933). In
addition, cytological analysis of forty-six species revealed very little variation in the
2
karyotypes within the genus; thus, interspecific hybridization is widely employed for the
development of new Lilium cultivars (Stewart, 1947).
1.2. Botanical Classification
L. longiflorum is classified under the family Liliaceae in the order Liliales.
According to the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), the Liliaceae
family contains 16 accepted genera and the genus Lilium contains 110 accepted species
(GRIN, 2011). The most common vernacular names for L. longiflorum include Easter
lily, Bermuda Easter lily, Bermuda lily, trumpet lily, and white trumpet lily.
1.3. Botanical Description
The following botanical description for L. longiflorum is based on wild specimens
endemic to Taiwan. It is important to note that commercial varieties of L. longiflorum
have undergone extensive selection and hybridization and as a result the commonly
available cultivars are variable in morphological characteristics. Nevertheless, wild
specimens are the original breeding stock of today‘s modern cultivars. The bulbs of L.
longiflorum are pale yellow to white in color, globose to obovoid in shape and
approximately 4.0 – 6.0 cm in diameter. Bulb scales are imbricate in morphology. The
stem is green in color, erect to ascending in habit, and approximately 45.0 – 90.0 cm
long. The surface of the stem is scabrid and pubescent. The plant has entire alternate
leaves and are lanceolate to falcate-lanceolate in morphology. Typical leaves are
3
approximately 15.0 – 25.0 cm long and 1.0 – 2.5 cm wide. The leaf apex is acute and the
base is amplexicual. The leaves are chartaceous and glabrous on both surfaces. Leaves
have three veins that are slightly impressed on upper surface and are elevated on the
lower surface. Easter lily flowers are terminal and are pure white in appearance. Flowers
range from solitary to several, have a fragrant aroma, and are typically 12.0 – 17.0 cm
long and 5.0 – 7.0 cm in diameter. The flower habit is horizontal or nodding. Bracts are
lanceolate and are approximately 3.0 – 5.0 cm long with an acute apex. The pedicel is
green in appearance, 2.5 – 6.0 cm in length, and glabrous. Six tepals occur in two series.
The tepals are white in appearance and are slightly tinged green toward base abaxially.
The outer tepals are oblanceolate to broadly oblanceolate and 2.5 – 3.0 cm wide. The
inner tepals are somewhat broader, ranging from 3.5 – 4.5 cm in width, and have an
obtuse apex. Filaments are 7.0 – 9.0 cm long and glabrous. Anthers are cylindric and
range from 2.0 – 3.0 cm in length. The ovaries are green in appearance, elongate,
cylindric, and 2.5 – 4.0 cm in length. The ovaries are glabrous. The style is 7.0 – 9.0 cm
long and pale yellow in appearance. The stigma is dark green and trifid. The fruit is a
loculicidal capsule that is cylindric and 3.0 – 5.0 cm in length and 2.5 – 3.5 cm in width
(Ying, 2000; Wu and Raven, 2000).
4
Figure 1.1. Image of L. longiflorum in full bloom.
5
1.4. Natural products from Liliaceae
The Liliaceae family is a rich source of natural products displaying a vast range of
structural diversity. A multitude of natural products have been isolated and characterized
from Liliaceae including, dimeric ent-kaurane diterpenes (Kitajima et al., 1982; Wu et al.,
1995), flavonoid glycosides (Fattorusso et al., 2002; Francis et al., 2004), anthocyanins
(Takeda et al., 1986; Nørbæk and Kondo, 1999), stilbenes (Zhou et al., 1999), phenolics
(Tai et al. 1981), phenolic glucosides (Shoyama et al., 1987), phenolic amides (Park,
2009) carotenoids (Tsukida et al., 1965), sterols (Itoh, et al., 1977), alkaloids
(Shimomura, H, 1987), and sulfur-containing compounds (Lanzotti, 2006). Most
notably, there has been extensive work done on the isolation and characterization of
steroidal glycosides including steroidal saponins (Harmatha et al., 1987; Matsuura et al.,
1989; Yang, et al., 2004) and steroidal glycoalkaloids (Mimaki and Sashida, 1990;
Sashida et al., 1990) from within the Liliaceae family.
Steroidal glycosides have been reported to exhibit a wide range of biological
activities including antifungal (Sautour et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2003), platelet
aggregation inhibition (Zhang et al., 1999; Huang et al., 2006), anti-cholinergic (Gilani et
al., 1997) anti-diabetic (Nakashima et al., 1993), anti-hypertensive (Oh et al., 2003),
cholesterol lowering (Matsuura et al., 2001), anti-inflammatory (Shao et al., 2007),
antiviral (Gosse et al., 2002), and anticancer (Acharya et al., 2009; Pettit et al., 2005;
Mimaki et al., 1999; Jiang et al., 2005). Additionally, steroidal glycosides have a wide
variety of commercial uses including surfactants (Yamanaka et al., 2008), foaming agents
6
(Singh et al., 2003), vaccine adjuvants (Rajput et al., 2007), and serve as precursors for
the industrial production of pharmaceutical steroids (Hansen, 2007).
Steroidal saponins have been found in over 100 plant families and in some marine
organisms such as starfish and sea cucumber (Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza, 2006). They
are characterized by a steroid type skeleton glycosidically linked to carbohydrate
moieties. Steroidal glycoalkaloids are characterized by a nitrogen containing steroid type
skeleton glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moieties. In contrast to steroidal saponins,
the occurrences of steroidal glycoalkaloids are, thus far, limited to the members of the
plant families Solanaceae and Liliaceae (Li et al., 2006; Ghisalberti, 2006).
1.5. Saponins in general
Saponins are a structurally diverse class of natural products that are characterized
by a non-polar sapogenin moiety glycosidically linked to one or more polar carbohydrate
moieties. Based on the composition of sapogenin skeleton, they are generally classified
into two major categories, triterpenoid saponins and steroidal saponins (Abe et al., 1993).
Triterpenoid saponins contain a thirty carbon aglycone and steroidal saponins contain a
twenty-seven carbon aglycone. Both classes are derived from the thirty carbon precursor
2,3-oxidosqualene (Haralampidis et al., 2000). Isopentenyl pyrophosphate synthesized
via the mevalonate pathway is the five carbon donor for the biosynthesis of terpenes in
plants. Triterpenoid and steroidal sapogenins are synthesized from the thirty carbon
hydrocarbon squalene, which is subsequently oxidized to squalene 2,3-epoxide, and then
7
converted to tetra- or pentacyclic triterpenes by a family of 2,3-oxidosqualene cyclases.
Following cyclization, the sapogenin moiety is subsequently mono- or
Figure 1.2. Structures of (A) 2,3-oxidosqualene, (B) a triterpenoid sapogenin (quillaic
acid), and (C) a steroidal sapogenin (diosgenin) (Haralampidis et al., 2000;
Kuljanabhagavad, et al. 2008; Espejo, et al., 1982).
RO
O
O
COOH
RO
OH
CHO
O
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
6
727
20
11
8
9
10
29
12
13
14
1516
17
18
19
30
21
22
24
25
1
2
3
4
5
A
B
C
poly- glycosylated by a wide variety of glycosyltransferase enzymes. In addition to the
structure of the sapogenin, saponins are also classified according to the number of
carbohydrate moieties that are glycosidically linked to the aglycone. Accordingly, they
8
are referred to as mono-, di-, or tridesmosidic, based on the number of carbohydrate
moieties linked to the sapogenin skeleton.
Figure 1.3. Examples of (A) monodesmosidic and (B) didesmosidic saponins isolated
from Quillaja Saponaria and Chenopodium quinoa, respectively (Kuljanabhagavad, et al.
2008; Guo, et al., 1998).
O
O
OH
HO
OH
O
OH
OH
OH
HOCOO
O
OH
CHO
O
HO
OH
OH
O
HO
HOOC
HO
O
COOH
O
OH
CHO
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
A
B
9
1.5.1. Steroidal Saponins
Steroidal saponins are widely found throughout the plant kingdom and have been
reported in a broad range of orders including Solanales (Ferro, et al., 2005), Ranunculales
(Braca, et al., 2004), Sapindales (Achenbach, et al., 1994), Fabales (Murakami et al.,
2000), Cyperales (Osbourn, et al., 2000), Liliales (Debella, et al., 1999), Dioscoreales
(Haraguchi et al., 1994), Aspargales (Sautour et al., 2007), and Zingiberales (Lin, et al.,
1996). In addition, steroidal saponins have been documented in over 100 plant families
and in many marine organisms (Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza, 2006). Steroidal saponins
are divided into two main classes, spirostanols and furostanols, based on structural
differences in the aglycone. Spirostanols have a six-ring structure (A – F rings), referred
to as a spirostane skeleton, and are monodesmosidic, typically having a carbohydrate
moiety -glycosodically attached by an ether linkage to the C-3 carbon of the aglycone.
Furostanols have a pentacyclic aglycone (A – E rings), referred to as a furostane skeleton,
and are bidesmosidic with one carbohydrate moiety attached through an ether linkage at
C-3 carbon and a second carbohydrate moiety attached by an ether linkage at the C-26
carbon. The most common furostanols have a single glucose linked at the C-26 position;
however, multiple sugars can be attached, but this is less common.
10
Figure 1.4. Structures of (A) a basic steroidal backbone (A-F rings), (B) a spirostane
backbone, and (C) a furostane backbone.
A B
C D
F
RO
O
OHOR2
RO
O
O
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
2223
2425
26
27
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
A
B
C
11
Figure 1.5. Examples of different carbohydrate linkages: (A) linear arrangement ( -D-
glu-(1→4)- -D-glu), (B) branched arrangement ( -L-rha-(1→2)- -L-xyl-(1→3)- -D-
glu), and (C) branched arrangement ( -L-rha-(1→2)- -D-glu-(1→4)- -D-glu).
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
R
O
HOHO
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH 2'
4'
1''
-L-Rha
O
HOO
OH
O
OH
RO
HO
OH
HO
OH
4'
O
OO
OH
HO
O
R
2'3'
OH3CHO
OH OH
1''
-D-Glc-D-Glc 4
-D-Glc3
-D-Xly
2
-L-Rha
-D-Glc4
2
-D-Glc
A
B
C
The sugar composition of the carbohydrate moiety of steroidal saponins most commonly
include, D-glucose, D-galactose, D-glucuronic acid, D-galacturonic acid, L-rhamnose,
L-arabinose, D-xylose, and D-fucose. All dextrorotatory form sugars are linked via a -
glycosidic linkage and all levorotatory form sugars are linked via an -glycosidic
linkage. The composition of the carbohydrate moiety can range from one sugar to
multiple sugars and can be linked in a linear or branched arrangement. In addition, sugars
can be attached by different interglycosidic linkages resulting in a vast number of
12
possible structural arrangements. Structural differences in the carbohydrate moiety have
been shown to play a role in the biological activity of the molecules and differential
biological activity of steroidal saponins containing the same aglycone but differing only
in carbohydrate composition has been previously reported (Mimaki et al., 2001).
1.5.1.1. Commercially Important Steroidal Saponins
Steroidal saponins have been reported to exhibit a wide range of biological
activities including antifungal (Sautour et al., 2005), platelet aggregation inhibition
(Zhang et al., 1999; Huang et al., 2006), anti-diabetic (Nakashima et al., 1993),
cholesterol lowering (Matsuura, 2001), anti-inflammatory (Shao et al., 2007), antiviral
(Gosse et al., 2002) and anticancer (Acharya et al., 2009; Pettit et al., 2005; Mimaki et al.,
1999). Additionally, steroidal saponins have wide a variety of commercial uses including
surfactants (Yamanaka et al., 2008), foaming agents (Singh et al., 2003), vaccine
adjuvants (Rajput et al., 2007), and serve as precursors for the industrial production of
pharmaceutical steroids (Hansen, 2007).
The pioneering work published by Russell Marker in the 1940s resulted in the
semi-synthetic preparation of progesterone from the sapogenin, diosgenin, obtained by
the hydrolysis of steroidal saponins extracted from the Japanese yam, Dioscorea tokoro
(Marker, et al., 1940). The Dioscoreaceae family is a rich source of steroidal saponins,
and through further investigations with the goal of discovering an even richer source of
precursors for steroid synthesis, other species such as D. Mexicana, D. composita, and D.
13
floribunda were identified. Diosgenin and similar steroid-based sapogenins are still an
important intermediate for the industrial preparation of pharmaceutical steroids including
anti-inflammatory, androgenic, estrogenic, and contraceptive drugs. In addition to a
source of pharmaceutical precursors, steroidal saponin rich tubers and roots from
members of the Dioscorea genus are commonly consumed as both food and medicine in
much of Africa, Asia, and Tropical America (Sautour, et al. 2007).
Steroidal saponins have been isolated and characterized from many Dioscorea
species including D. bulbifera var. sativa (Teponno, et al., 2006), D. cayenensis
(Sautour, et al. 2004), D. collettii var. hypoglauca (Hu, et al., 2003), D. composita
(Espejo, et al., 1982), D. deltoidea var. orbiculata (Shen, et al., 2002), D. futschauensis
(Liu, et al., 2003), D. nipponica (Cui, et al., 2004), D. olfersiana (Haraguchi, et al.,
1994), D. panthaica (Dong, et al., 2004), D. parviflora (Yang, et al., 2005), D.
polygonoides (Osorio, et al. 2003), D. prazeri (Wij, et al., 1977), D. pseudojaponica
(Yang, et al., 2003), D. spongiosa (Yin, et al., 2003), D. villosa (Sautour, et al., 2006), D.
zingiberensis (Sun, et al., 2003). The high levels of steroidal saponins in these species
may contribute to the reported medicinal properties of these plants. The tubers and roots
several Dioscorea species including D. colletii var. hypoglauca, D. panthaica , D.
nipponica, and D. futschauensis have been traditionally used in China for various
medicinal uses including anticancer, cardiovascular, rheumatism, and a general tonic
(Lacaille-Dubois, 2002; Li and Zhou, 1994; Li, et al., 2000). In fact, a crude drug used in
traditional Chinese medicine that is prepared with D. panthaica is regularly used for the
prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases in China today (Li and Zhou, 1994).
14
In addition, another crude drug made from a mixture of steroidal saponins extracted from
D. nipponica is used to treat rheumatism (Li, et al., 2000).
Steroidal saponins isolated from Dioscorea have shown various biological
activities including cytotoxic activity, immunomodulating activity, antimicrobial activity,
hormonal activity (Lacaille-Dubois, 2002), anti-osteoporotic activity (Yin et al., 2003),
anti-inflammatory activity (Tewtrakul et al., 2007), and anti-allergic activity (Tewtrakul
et al., 2006).
Figure 1.6. Structures of Dioscin and Protodioscin isolated from D. collettii var.
hypoglauca (Hu, et al., 2003)
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O
O
HO
H3C
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
1''''
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
O
HO
H3C
HO
OH
1'''
1'''
Dioscin
Protodioscin
15
In addition to the commercial use of steroidal saponins as precursors for the
synthesis of pharmaceutical steroids, steroidal saponins serve as an important raw
material in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and agricultural industries. The most
common commercial applications of steroidal saponins include surfactants (Yamanaka et
al., 2008), foaming agents (Singh et al., 2003), vaccine adjuvants (Rajput et al., 2007),
and feed additives (Anthony et al., 1994; Balog et al., 1994).
Yucca schidigera, a desert plant from the Agavaceae family, is one of the most
important commercial sources of steroidal saponins. Y. schidigera, commonly referred to
as yucca, is native to the southwestern United States and Mexico where it has a long
historical use as a medicine to treat ailments including inflammation, headaches,
gonorrhea, and arthritis (Cheeke, 1998). The primary commercial raw material use of
yucca extract is as a foaming agent for beverage manufactures, food manufacturers, and
cosmetic companies. The foaming activity of yucca extract is due to the high steroidal
saponin content (Oleszek et al., 2001).
In the agricultural feed industry, yucca extract is used as a livestock feed
supplement. It has been reported to increase livestock growth rates (Mader and Brumm,
1987; Anthony et al., 1994), increase feed efficiency (Mader and Brumm, 1987) and
improve general health of livestock (Anthony et al., 1994; Balog et al., 1994). In addition,
yucca extract utilized as an animal feed supplement has been reported to reduce
malodorous aromas associated livestock waste (Cheeke, 2000). Steroidal saponins have
also been isolated and characterized in other Yucca species including Y. aloifolia
(Bahuguna, et al., 1991), Y. elephantipes (Zhang, et al., 2008), Y. filamentosa (Dragalin,
et al., 1975), Y. glauca (Stohs and Obrist, 1975), and Y. gloriosa (Nakano, et al., 1991).
16
1.5.1.2. Dietary Sources of Steroidal Saponins
Plants from the Allium genus are of great agricultural importance and have a long
history of use as both food and medicine. In particular, garlic, A. sativum, and onion, A.
cepa, have been used in traditional medicine since ancient times (Block, 1985). The
Allium genus belongs to the Amaryllidaceae family which is closely related to the
Liliaceae family. The Allium genus is a rich source of steroidal saponins, a group of
compounds that may play a role in the traditional medicinal uses of Allium species.
Steroidal saponins isolated from Allium species exhibit various biological activities
including cytotoxicity (Mimaki et al., 1999a), antifungal activity (Morita et al., 1988),
anti-blood coagulation activity (Peng, et al., 1996), antispasmodic activity (Corea et al.,
2005), anti-tumor activity (Sang et al., 2003), anti-platelet aggregating activity (Peng, et
al., 1996), cholesterol lowering activity (Matsuura et al., 2001), and insecticidal activity
(Harmatha et al., 1987). Steroidal saponins with biological activity have been isolated
and characterized in over thirty species of the Allium genus (Lanzotti, 2005). Some other
Allium species that are commonly consumed as food and have steroidal saponins with
biological activity include shallots, A. ascalonicum (Fattorusso et al., 2002), leeks, A.
porrum (Harmatha et al., 1987; Fattorusso et al., 2000), and elephant garlic, A.
ampeloprasum (Morita et al., 1988; Mimaki et al., 1999b).
Plants from the Asparagus genus which are also high in steroidal saponins, are of
great agronomic importance and have a long history of use as both food and medicine. In
particular, garden asparagus, A. officinalis, is consumed worldwide and is a rich source of
steroidal saponins (Shimoyamada, et al., 1990; Shimoyamada, et al., 1996; Huang and
17
Kong, 2006). In addition to use as a food, many Asparagus species are used in traditional
medicine. In fact, the root of A. filicinus is used in traditional Chinese medicine as a
treatment for colds, coughs, and pneumonia (Zhou et al., 2007) and A. racemosus is used
in traditional Indian medicine for the treatment of spasm, chronic fevers, and rheumatism
(Hayes et al., 2008). The Asparagus genus belongs to the Asparagaceae family which is
closely related to the Liliaceae family. Steroidal saponins isolated from Asparagus
species exhibit putative biological activities including antifungal (Shimoyamada et al.,
1996), antiprotozoal (Oketch-Rabah and Dossaji, 1997) and cytotoxic activity (Zhang et
al., 2004). In addition, steroidal saponins with biological activities have been identified
and characterized in other members of the genus including A. acutifolius (Sautour, et al.,
2007), A. adscendens (Sharma, et al., 1982), A. africanus (Debella, et al.,1999), A.
cochinchinensis (Zhang, et al., 2004), A. dumosus (Ahmad, et al., 1998), A. filicinus
(Sharma, et al., 1996), A. gobicus (Yang, et al., 2004), A. oligoclonos (Kim, et al.,
2005), and A. plumosus (Sati, et al., 1985).
18
1.5.1.3. Steroidal saponins isolated from Lilium
Extensive work has been done on the isolation and characterization of steroidal
saponins in Lilium. Steroidal saponins have been reported in L. brownii (Mimaki and
Sashida 1990a; Mimaki and Sashida 1990b; Hou and Chen, 1998), L. candidum (Mimaki
et al., 1998; Mimaki et al., 1999; Eisenreichova, et al., 2000), L. hansonii (Ori et al.,
1992), L. henryi Baker (Mimaki et al., 1993), L. longiflorum (Mimaki et al., 1994), L.
mackliniae Sealy (Sashida et al., 1991), L. martagon L. (Satou et al., 1996), L.
pardalinum Kellogg (Shimomura et al., 1989), L. pensylvanicum (synonym: L. dauricum)
(Mimaki et al., 1992), L. pumilum (synonym: L. tenuiflolium) (Mimaki et al., 1989), L.
regale E. H. Wilson (Mimaki et al., 1993; Gur'eva et al., 1996; Kintya et al., 1996), L.
speciosum var. speciosum (Mimaki and Sashida, 1991), and L. speciosum x L.
nobilissimum (Makino) Makino (Nakamura et al., 1994). Steroidal saponins that have
been characterized in the Lilium genus are summarized in Table 1.1 and the molecular
structures are shown in Figure 1.7.
19
Table 1.1. Steroidal saponins isolated from Lilium.
species compound reference
L. candidum 5, 10, 23, 33, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55 Mimaki et al., 1998
57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62 Mimaki, et al., 1999
56 Eisenreichova, et al., 2000
L. regale 5, 28, 29, 30, 31 Mimaki et al., 1993
32, 33, 34 ,35, 36 Gur'eva et al., 1996
3, 5, 37, 38, 39, 40 Kintya et al., 1996
L. longiflorum 4, 23, 24, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47 Mimaki et al., 1994
L. pensylvanicum 10, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 Mimaki et al., 1992
L. pardarinum 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 Shimomura et al., 1989
L. speciosum x
nobilissum 4, 5, 10, 23, 41 Nakamura et al., 1994
L. hansonii 18, 19, 20, 21 Ori et al., 1992
L. brownii 3a, 4b, 5b, 6a, 7b Mimaki and Sashida, 1990 a, b
8, 9 Hou and Chen, 1998
L. speciosum 3, 5, 10 Mimaki ans Sashida, 1991
L. martagon 48, 49 Satou et al., 1996
L. henryi 4, 5 Mimaki et al., 1993
L. pumilum 1, 2 Mimaki et al., 1989
L. macklineae 4, 5 Sashida et al., 1991
20
RO
OHOH
OH
O
R
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19-D-Glcp1
2 -D-Allp
O
HOO
OH
R2O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O OR1
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
1''
O
HOO
OH
R3O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
1'2'
1''
1'''
R3
H6
7 -D-Glcp
R1 R2
HH
H
-D-Glcp
3
4
5
HMG
HMG
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
23
24
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
1''''
8
9 5 -H
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
OOCH3
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
27
1'2'
1''
10
Figure 1.7. Molecular structures of steroidal saponins from Lilium.
21
O
R4OO
OH
R3O
O
O
R2 OCH3
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
HO
R1
H
R1 R2 R3
H
H
H
H
OH H
OH
H
OH
H
CH3
CH2OH
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
R4
H
H
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
2022
24
25
27
1'2'
4'
-D-Glcp
11
12
13
14
15
-D-Glcp
-L-Arap
-L-Arap
16
17
-L-Arap
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
1''''
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
OH
19
18
5 -H
21
20
5 -H
O
R1OO
OH
R2O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
OOCH3
R1 R2
H
H -D-Glcp
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
27
1'2'
1''
-L-Arap22
23
26
25
O
OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O
O
HO
OH
OH
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
24
Figure 1.7. continued
22
O
R3OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O
OH
HO
R3
H1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
252
627
1'2'
4'
1''
25
26 -L-Arap
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
26
27
1'2'
4'
1''
27
O
OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
O
OCH3
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
O
O
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
R2OO
OH
R1O
OH
O
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O O
R1 R2
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
3'
1''
-D-Glcp
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1''''
30
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
1''
28
29
4'
3'
1'2'
3'
1''
H
Figure 1.7. continued
23
O
OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O OHHO
O
HO
OH
HO
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
1''
1'''2'''
1''''
3'
31
O
O
O
O
R2O
OH
HO
OR1
O
R2OO
OH
HO
OR1
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
R1 R2
H
H
H
R1 R2
H
H
H1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
3 '
1''''
35
36
34
-D-Glcp
-L-Rhap
-L-Rhap
1'2'
3 '
33
32
-L-Rhap
O
R2OO
OH
HO
OR1
O
O
OH
R1 R2
HH1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
3'
38
37
-D-Glcp-L-Rhap
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O
O O
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
3'
39
Figure 1.7. continued
24
O
R1OO
OH
HO
OH
O
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O
O
R1
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
1''
3'
40 -D-Glcp
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
OOCH3
O
HO
O
HO
OH
O
R1 R2
H
H
H
O
O
OCH3
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
O
R2O
OH
R1O
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O-HMG
O
R1OO
OH
R2O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O R
R R1
OH
R2
HOH
O
HOO
OH
O
OH
O
O OHHO
O
HO
OH
HO
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
43
44
42 -D-Glcp
-L-Arap
-D-Xlyp
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1''''
41
5 -H
1'2'
4'
1''
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
1''
4'
3'
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
27
1'2'
1''
26
25
1'''
4'
46
45
-D-Glcp
-L-Arap
-L-Arap
47
49
48
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'
1'''2'''
1''''
3'
Figure 1.7. continued
25
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
OOCH3
O
HO
OR2
HO
O
R1
HOH
OH -D-Glcp
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
27
1'2'
1''
50
51
26
25
1'2'
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
OR3
R2
R1
R1 R2
H H
R3
OH
CH3
OCH3 CH3
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
27
1'2'
1''
26
25
52
53
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OOH
O
O
O OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
27
1'2'
1''
26
25
1'''
1''''
3''
54
R1
HO
O
OCH3
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
O
HO
OH
R1O
OH3CHO OHOH
O55
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1''''
1'2'
4'
1''
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
O
OC2H5
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
27
1'2'
1''
26
25
1'''
56
Figure 1.7. continued
26
O
HOO
O
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
OR3
R4
R1
R2
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
R1 R2
H
H H
R3
H
H OH
CH3
CH2OH
OCH3
CH3
OCH3
CH3
R4
CH3
H
H
H
H H
OH H
O
O
OCH3
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
O
HO
O
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH 1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1''''
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
27
1'2'
1''
26
25
57
58
59
60
1'''
61
1'2'
1''
1'''
62
Figure 1.7. continued
27
1.6 Steroidal Alkaloids
Steroidal alkaloids are a structurally diverse class of natural products that have
been isolated and characterized in a wide range of organisms including plants, marine
animals, and terrestrial animals (Atta-ur-Rahman and Choudhary, 1998). Structurally,
steroidal alkaloids contain a steroid-type backbone and with a nitrogen atom incorporated
into the molecule. The biosynthesis of steroidal alkaloids in plants differs from other
plant alkaloids due to the fact that the carbon atoms in the molecule are derived from the
melavonic acid pathway, whereas the carbon backbones of other alkaloids are derived
from amino acids (Atta-ur-Rahman and Choudhary, 1998). Steroidal alkaloids are most
commonly found in the plant families of Apocynanceae, Buxaceae, Liliaceae and
Solanaceae. Interestingly, highly cytotoxic steroidal alkaloids have also been isolated and
characterized from marine organisms such as the truncate Ritterea tokiokal (Fukuzawa et
al., 1994), and amphibians such as Salamandra sp. and Phyllobates sp. (Daly et al.,
2005).
1.6.1 Steroidal Alkaloids in Liliaceae
The occurrence of steroidal alkaloids in the Liliaceae family is well documented
(Li et al., 2006). Fritillaria, a genus in the Liliaceae family, and Veratrum, a genus in the
closely related Melanthiaceae family, have been recognized for centuries for their
pharmacological activities and have a long history of use in traditional medicine. In fact,
V. viride has been documented to be used by Native Americans for the treatment of
28
catarrah, the treatment of rheumatism, and as an insecticide against lice (Rahman and
Choudhary, 1998). Steroidal alkaloids isolated from the Liliaceae family have been of
great interest in pharmacology and have been documented to exhibit various putative
biological activities including antihypertensive (Oh et al., 2003), anticholinergic (Gilani
et al., 1997), antifungal (Zhou et al., 2003), and anticancer (Jiang et al., 2005). In
particular, the genera Veratrum and Fritillaria, have been the subject of extensive
chemical characterization and pharmacological investigations. Hundreds of new steroidal
alkaloids have been isolated from these plants and over 100 steroidal alkaloids have been
isolated between the years of 1980 and 2005 (Li et al., 2006). The steroidal alkaloids
isolated from the Liliaceae have been classified into main two groups, isosteroidal
alkaloids and steroidal alkaloids, on the basis of connectivity of the carbon skeleton.
1.6.1.1. Classification of Isosteroidal Alkaloids of Liliaceae
Isosteroidal alkaloids, also referred to as Veratrum steroidal alkaloids, are
characterized by a C-nor-D-homo-[14(13→12)-abeo] ring system (Li et al., 2006).
Isosteroidal alkaloids are further sub-divided into three groups according to the linkage
patterns between rings E and F into cevanine type, veratramine type, and jervine type.
The cevanine type, structurally characterized by the hexacyclic benzo [7,8] fluoreno [2,1-
b] quinolizine nucleus, constitutes the largest class. The veratramine type is characterized
by the absence of ring E and the presence of an aromatic ring D. Analogues with an
unaromatized ring D are also placed in this class. The jervine type contain hexacyclic
29
compounds that have the furan ring E fused onto a piperidine ring system forming an
ether bridge between carbon atoms at C17 and C23.
Figure 1.8. Isosteroidal alkaloids of Liliaceae: Representative examples of cevanine type
(A), veratramine type (B), and jervine type (C) isosteroidal alkaloids, isolated from F.
imperialis, F. ningguoensis, and F. camtschatcensis, respectively (Li et al., 2006).
N
HN
HN
O
OH
OH
HO
HO
O
HO
HO
OH
HO
A
B
C
30
1.6.1.2. Classification of Steroidal Alkaloids of Liliaceae
The steroidal alkaloids of Liliaceae, also referred to as Solanum steroidal
alkaloids, are characterized by a six membered C-ring and a five-membered D-ring. The
steroidal alkaloids are further sub-divided to two groups on the basis of the position of
the nitrogen atom. Steroidal alkaloids with the nitrogen atom incorporated into an
indolizidine ring are referred to as solanidine type. The solanidine type is derived from
epiminocholestanes with the amino group incorporated into an indolizidine ring, resulting
in a hexacyclic carbon framework. If the nitrogen atom is incorporated into a piperidine
ring, they are of verazine type. The verazine type is based on the 22/23,26-
epiminocholestane heterocyclic skeleton.
Figure 1.9. Steroidal alkaloids of Liliaceae: Representative examples of solanidine type
(A) and verazine type (B) steroidal alkaloids, isolated from F. delavayi and F. ebeiensis
var. purpurea, respectively (Li et al., 2006).
N
N
HO
OHHO
HO
OOH
A
B
31
1.6.1.3. Steroidal Alkaloids in Lilium
Although extensive work has been done on the characterization of steroidal
alkaloids in the Liliacece family, less is known on the steroidal alkaloids in the Lilium
genus. In 1996 Noor-e-Ain reported on the identification of two steroidal alkaloids from
L. candidum, commonly known as the Madonna lily (Noor-e-Ain, 1996). Two 22, 26-
epiminocholestane-type steroidal alkaloids, named etioline and teinemine, that were
previously found in several Solanum and Veratrum species were isolated from L.
candidum bulbs (Lin et al., 1986; Atta-ur-Rahman and Choudhary, 1998). In 2001,
Erdoğan et al. also reported on the isolation of etioline from L. candidum bulbs (Erdoğan
et al., 2001). Although these compounds were isolated as free form steroidal alkaloids,
the isolation procedure was performed over several weeks under acidic conditions and it
is unclear whether the conditions caused glycosidic cleavage, resulting in the formation
of artifacts during the isolation process. Thus far, the glycosylated forms of these two
steroidal alkaloids have not been identified L. candidum. Nevertheless, these compounds
are the only free form steroidal alkaloids that have been reported from the Lilium genus.
32
Figure 1.10. Structures of the steroidal alkaloids (A) etioline and (B) teiemine isolated
from the bulbs of L. candidum (Noor-e-Ain, 1996; Erdoğan et al., 2001)
HO
N
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
2223
24
2526
27
OH A
B
HO
HN
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
2223
24
2526
27
OH
1.6.2. Steroidal Glycoalkaloids
In contrast to the widespread distribution of steroidal alkaloids in plants and
animals, steroidal glycoalkaloids, thus far, have only been identified in the Solanaceae
and Liliaceae families (Ghisalberti, 2006). Steroidal glycoalkaloids are characterized by a
steroidal alkaloid type aglycone glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moieties. The most
common aglycones of the steroidal glycoalkaloids can be classified based upon their
structural features into six major groups. The first group is referred to as (1) spirosolanes
and are characterized by an oxazaspirodecane ring system. The second group, the (2) 22,
26-epiminocholestanes, are characterized by a 22/23, 26-epiminocholestane heterocyclic
skeleton. The third group, the (3) solanidanes, are characterized by a fused indolizidine
ring system. The fourth group, the (4) epiminocyclohemiketals, are characterized the
33
presence of an epiminocyclohemiketal functionality. The fifth group, the (5) 3-
aminospirostanes, is characterized by an amino group at the C3-position. The sixth group,
the (6) leptines, are characterized by a fused indolizidine ring system with 23-hydroxy or
23-acetoxy moieties. The most common steroidal glycoalkaloids belong to the solanidane
and the spirosolane groups (Ghisalberti, 2006). The carbohydrate moiety of steroidal
glycoalkaloids is -glycosidically linked at the C-3 hydroxy position of the steroidal
alkaloid backbone. The most common sugars are D-glucose, D-galactose, D-xylose, L-
rhamnose, and L-arabinose. Similar to the steroidal saponins, all dextrorotatory form
sugars are linked via a -glycosidic linkage and all levorotatory form sugars are linked
via an -glycosidic linkage. The composition of the carbohydrate moiety can range from
one sugar to multiple sugars, linked in a linear or branched arrangement.
34
Figure 1.11. Structures of the most common aglycones of the steroidal glycoalkaloids:
(A) spirosolanes, (B) 22, 26-epiminocholestanes, (C) solanidanes, (D)
epiminocyclohemiketals, (E) 3-aminospirostanes, and (F) leptines
N
HO H2N
O
HN
OH
O
H2N
O
N
HO
R
HO
O
HN
HO
N
OH
R
OH
OAc
A B
C D
F1
2
E
35
1.6.2.1. Dietary Sources of Steroidal Glycoalkaloids
Steroidal glycoalkaloids from the Solanaceae family are found in many
agriculturally important foods crops such as tomato, S. lycopersicum, potato, S.
tuberosum, eggplant, S. melongena, and pepper, Capsicum annuum. -Solasonine and -
solamargine are the two predominant steroidal glycoalkaloids found in the common
cultivated eggplant, S. melongena (Blankemeyer et al. 1998). -Solasonine and -
solamargine share the same aglycone, solasodine, but differ only in the carbohydrate
moiety. The carbohydrate moiety of -solasonine contains a trisaccharide moiety, 3-O- -
L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-galactopyranoside, whereas
-solamargine contains a disaccharide moiety, 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-
galactopyranoside. Solasodine is a common aglycone and has been identified in over 200
Solanum species alone (Dinan et al. 2001). -Solanine and -chaconine are the most
prevalent glycoalkaloids found in cultivated potato, S. tuberosum. Similar to -solasonine
and -solamargine, -solanine and -chaconine share the same aglycone, solanidine, but
differ only in the carbohydrate moiety. The carbohydrate moiety of -solanine contains a
trisaccharide, 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-galactopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-
glucopyranoside, whereas -chaconine contains a disaccharide moiety, 3-O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-galactopyranoside. -Tomatine and dehyrotomatine are
the most abundant steroidal glycoalkaloids in the leaves and unripe fruit of tomato, S.
lycopersicum. In the case of -tomatine and dehyrotomatine, they only differ in the
degree of saturation between the C5 and C6 carbon of the aglycone and share the same
36
carbohydrate moiety, namely 3-O- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-xylopyranosyl-
(1→3)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-galactopyranoside.
Steroidal glycoalkaloids are toxic to many organisms including bacteria, fungi,
and animals. The literature suggests that their toxicological effects are based on the
disruption of cellular membranes, anticholinesterase activity, and their effect on the
active transport of ions through membranes (Friedman et al., 1992a; Keukens et al., 1995;
Blankemeyer et al., 1992; Blankemeyer et al., 1995). Steroidal glycoalkaloids are
amphiphilic in nature due to the lipophilic steroidal aglycone and the hydrophilic
carbohydrate moiety. Recent evidence suggests that this structural characteristic
contributes to their biological activity. Accordingly, free aglycones are less active as
compared to their glycosylated forms (Roddick, 1989). Interestingly, chaconine and
solanine share the same aglycone and only differ in the carbohydrate moiety; however,
chaconine has been shown to be the more teratogenic as compared to solanine
(Blankemeyer et al., 1997; Blankemeyer et al., 1998). Furthermore, spirosolanes have
been shown to be less teratogenic as compared to solanidanes. Differences in the
carbohydrate moiety, the absolute configuration of the F ring, and saturation between C5
and C6 has been shown to play a role in biological activity (Gaffield and Keeler, 1996).
In addition, different forms of steroidal glycosides that occur in the same plant have been
shown to act synergistically, thus the importance of investigating the biological activity
of the compounds both individually and in mixtures (Rayburn et al., 1994; Smith et al.,
2001). Due to the structural diversity of steroidal glycoalkaloids, differential biological
activities have been observed. For example, some steroidal glycoalkaloids are highly
toxic whereas others may potentially have beneficial properties, in particular the
37
spirosolanes. Beneficial biological activities that have been observed include cholesterol
and triglyceride lowering, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-viral activity, and anti-cancer
activity (Friedman et al. 2000; Kuo et al., 2000; Ikeda et al., 2003; Carter and Lake,
2004).
1.6.2.2. Steroidal Glycoalkaloids in Lilium
Although steroidal alkaloids are well documented in the Solanaceae and Liliaceae
families, a very small number of steroidal glycoalkaloids have been isolated from the
Lilium genus. In Lilium, steroidal glycoalkaloids have been identified in L. philippinense
(Espeso et al., 1990), L. mackliniae (Sashida et al., 1991), and L. brownii (Mimaki and
Sashida, 1990a; Mimaki and Sashida, 1990b). In 1990, Espeso et al. reported the isolation
of a steroidal glycoalkaloid from the aerial parts of the L. philippinense, commonly
known as the Banquet lily. Interestingly, the compound was a veratramine type
isosteroidal alkaloid glucoside, containing an unaromatized D ring. Prior to this work, the
only steroidal glycoalkaloid previously isolated from the genus was from L. cordatum;
however, this plant was taxonomically moved into the closely related genus
Cardiocrinum (Endl.) Lindl. Nevertheless, in 1987 Nakano et al. reported the isolation
and structural elucidation of (25R)- and (25S)-22,26-epimino-5α-cholest-22(N)-en-3β,6β-
diol O(3)-β-D-glucopyranoside from C. cordatum (Nakano et al., 1987). Also in 1990,
Mimaki et al. reported on the isolation a structural elucidation of two steroidal
glycoalkaloids from L. brownii, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside and (22,R
38
25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranoside. Both
alkaloids were solasodine-based and differed only in the number of sugars in the
carbohydrate moiety. In 1991, Sashida et al. reported on the isolation of a solanidine-
based steroidal glycoalkaloid, solanidine O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside, from the bulbs of L. mackliniae.
Interestingly, this compound was isolated previously from two Fritillaria species, F.
thunbergii and F. camtschatcensis (Sashida et al., 1991). In contrast to the steroidal
saponins which have been extensively isolated and characterized in the genus, there are a
very limited number of reports on the occurrence of steroidal glycoalkaloids in the Lilium
genus.
39
Figure 1.12. Structures of steroidal glycoalkaloids isolated from C. cordatum (1, 2), L.
philippinense (3), L. brownii (4, 5), and L. mackliniae (6).
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
910
11 12
13
14 15
16
17
18
19
O
O
HOO
OH
R1O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
20
21
22
23 24
25
26
27
HN
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
N
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
1'2'
1''
23
24
26
27
3
4
R1
-D-Glcp
H
O
NR2
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
2223
24
2526
OH
R1
R2R1
HCH31
2 H CH3
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
5
6
40
1.7. Plant organ distribution of steroidal glycosides
Although steroidal glycosides are widespread in plants and have been identified in
almost all plant organ types, there are only a few investigations comparing the
concentration of these natural products in the different organs of the same plant species.
Even less is known about tissue specific localization and cellular and sub-cellular
synthesis and storage of these compounds. This is due, in part, to the complexity of
performing quantitative analysis of this diverse class of natural products.
Steroidal glycosides lack a strong chromophore; therefore, quantitative methods
using non-specific short wavelength ultraviolet (UV) detection (200 – 210nm) is a
challenge due to interference from phytochemicals with strong chromophores that occur
in the same plant matrix. Analytical methods using evaporative light scattering detection
(ELSD) have been developed to help overcome this obstacle; however, laborious sample
preparation and sensitivity issues persist (Oleszek and Bialy, 2006). Recently, analytical
methods utilizing liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry (LC-MS) operating in
selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode and liquid chromatography–tandem mass
spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) have been developed with increased sensitivity and
specificity over other methods (Oleszek and Bialy, 2006). Due to recent advances in
analytical chemistry, including better chromatography and analytical instrumentation,
more studies on the organ distribution of steroidal glycosides in plants will become
increasingly available.
41
Although reports on the organ distribution of steroidal glycosides in plants are not
common, there have been some reports on the concentrations of these compounds within
the different plant organs. The organ distribution of steroidal glycosides in plants such as
Solanum nigrum, Solanum incanun (Eltayeb et al., 1997), Asparagus officinalis L. (Wang
et al., 2003) and Dioscorea pseudojaponica Yamamoto (Lin et al., 2008) have been
reported. Steroidal glycoalkaloids are generally found in all plant organs, with the highest
concentrations occurring in the metabolically active parts including in flowers, sprouts,
immature fruits, young leaves and shoots. In 1997, Eltayeb et al. reported on the
concentrations of steroidal glycoalkaloid, solasodine, in the different organs of S. nigrum
and S. incanun throughout maturation using a colorimetric assay (Eltayeb et al., 1997).
Interestingly, all of the plant organs tested contained detectable levels of solasodine with
the highest concentrations occurring in small actively growing leaves. In addition, the
concentration in the roots was observed to be higher than in the stems. In 2003, Wang et
al. developed a LC-MS method and quantified the concentration of the furostanol
saponin, protodioscin, in common garden asparagus, A. officinalis (Wang et al., 2003).
The distribution of protodioscin within the shoots was found to vary in concentration,
with the highest concentration observed in the lower stem tissue adjacent to the rhizome.
In 2008, Lin and Yang reported on the concentration of several steroidal saponins in the
different organs of the yam, D. pseudojaponica, using HPLC-ESLD (Lin et al., 2008).
Saponins were found occur in increasing concentrations in the vine, leaf, rhizophor, tuber
flesh and then tuber cortex. Although there are some reports on the distribution of
steroidal glycoside in the different plant organs, reports on tissue specific localization are
even less common.
42
Although scarce, there are some reports on the tissue specific localization and cellular
localization of steroidal glycosides in plants. In potato, S. tuberosum, the concentration of
the steroidal glycoalkaloid, -solanine, has been observed to increase in potato tubers in
response to mechanical wounding (McKee, 1955; Ishizaka and Tomiyama, 1972). When
potato tubers are wounded, the development of meristematic tissue near the site of the
wounded tissue occurs. This area develops a suberized wound periderm that is believed
provide a protective structural barrier from fungi and bacteria. It has been shown that the
tissues adjacent to the wound periderm accumulate -solanine, suggesting a role in
wound healing (McKee, 1955). In addition, in D. pseudojaponica, differential
concentrations of steroidal saponins were observed in the inner yam tuber cortex as
compared to the tuber flesh (Lin et al., 2008). Furthermore, histological observations of
the cellular localization of furostanol saponins in D. caucasia have been reported with
furostanol accumulation in specialized idioblasts in the upper and lower leaf epidermis as
compared to the leaf mesophyll where no furostanols were detected (Gurielidze et al.,
2004). Although researchers have reported on the occurrences of steroidal glycosides in
the different plant organs, plant tissues, and plant cell types, considering the widespread
abundance of these compounds in the plant kingdom, investigations this area of plant
biology is surprisingly lacking.
1.8. Steroidal glycosides in plant defense
Plants have multiple protection strategies from plant pathogens and herbivory.
The strategies include structural barriers, constitutive chemical defenses and inducible
43
chemical defenses. The first line of plant defense is the morphological structure of the
plant‘s surface. Physical structures such as the waxy cuticle and epidermal cell wall serve
as a protective barrier from pathogens. Specialized structures such as thorns or spines
serve as protection from herbivory. In addition structural features, it has been well
established that plant derived secondary metabolites can increase plant resistance to
pathogens and herbivory. Plant chemical defenses are broadly classified as constitutive
chemical defenses, known as phytoanticipins, or inducible chemical defenses, known as
phytoalexins (VanEtten et al, 1994; Müller and Börger, 1940). These definitions are
based on how the compounds are regulated rather than by chemical structure.
Accordingly, the definitions are plant species specific and in some case even tissue
specific within the same species.
Phytoalexins are inducible secondary metabolites that are produced in response to
infection or by chemical or mechanical injury (Müller and Börger, 1940). The synthesis
of phytoalexins occur in healthy cells adjacent to wounded or infected cells and are
induced by chemical elicitors released from damaged cells. Chemical elicitors trigger the
expression of phytoalexin biosynthetic genes resulting in de novo synthesis. Phytoalexins
are toxic to many organisms including fungi, bacteria, and animals. Some well known
examples of phytoalexins include resveratrol in grape, pisatin in pea, and capsidiol in
pepper.
Phytoanticipins are secondary metabolites that are constitutively present in plant
cells prior to infection (VanEtten et al, 1994). Some phytoanticipins are present in their
biologically active forms and in some cases present as biologically inactive precursors.
Upon cellular disruption by infection or mechanical damage, the biologically inactive
44
precursors are rapidly converted to biologically active forms. Phytoanticipin distribution
within plants is often tissue specific and in some plants the compounds are localized in
the outer cell layers, creating a defensive barrier to invading pathogens. For example, the
plant pathogenic fungus Colletotricum circinans infects white onions but does not infect
pigmented onions. In pigmented onions, phenolic compounds that are inhibitory to C.
circinans are preferentially accumulated in the bulb skin, thus providing a protective
barrier to infection (Link and Walker, 1933).
Steroidal glycosides are a class of compounds that in many plant species are
considered phytoanticipins due to the fact that they are constitutively present in healthy
plant tissues and are inhibitory or toxic to some organisms (Osbourn, 1996). The role of
steroidal glycosides in plant defense, including antifungal and antiherbivory, has been
studied extensively (Zullo et al., 1984; Nozzolillo et al., 1997; Adel et al., 2000; Bowyer
et al., 1995; Osbourn, 1996; Morrissey and Osbourn, 1999; Osbourn, 1999;
Papadopoulou et al., 1999; Morrissey et al., 2000; Trojanowska et al., 2000; Osbourn et
al., 2003; Osbourn, 2003; Hughes et al., 2004; Choi et al., 2005). For example, some
steroidal glycosides are toxic to insects such as the European corn borer, Ostrinia
nubialis, and army worm, Spodoptera littoralis (Nozzolillo et al., 1997; Adel et al.,
2000). In oats, Avena sativa, biologically inactive steroidal saponins are converted into an
antifungal form in response to tissue damage, suggesting a role in the plant-pathogen
interaction (Osbourn, 1996; Morrissey et al., 2000; Osbourn, 2003; Hughes et al., 2004).
In addition, the steroidal glycoalkaloids -tomatine and -chaconine play a role in fungal
resistance of tomato, Solanum lycopersicum, and potato, Solanum tuberosum,
45
respectively (Morrissey and Osbourn, 1999); however, the exact mechanism of resistance
to the pathogens has not been fully elucidated.
In general, the molecular mechanism for the antifungal activity of steroidal
glycosides is not well characterized; however, interaction with cellular membranes has
been proposed to play a role. Due to the amphipathic nature of the molecules, steroidal
glycosides have been shown to disrupt cell membranes both in vitro and in vivo (Steel
and Drysdale, 1988; Roddick et al, 2001). Some studies suggest that membrane
disruption may be due either to the interaction of the aglycone with membrane bound
sterols, resulting in the formation of membrane pores (Armah et al., 1999) or the
extraction of membrane bound sterols, causing loss of lipid bilayer integrity and
membrane leakage (Keukens et al, 1992; Keukens et al, 1995). Despite the fact that
steroidal glycosides have antifungal properties and may play a protective role against
potential pathogens, in the case of successful pathogens this is not sufficient and infection
occurs. Some mechanisms that fungal pathogens utilize to overcome host defense
strategies are avoidance, tolerance, and enzymatic metabolism of plant defense
compounds.
1.9 Detoxification of steroidal glycosides
Some successful fungal pathogens have the ability to overcome plant defenses by the
metabolism of plant defense compounds. The plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea has been
shown to produce enzymes that can metabolize a variety of plant defense compounds
from active forms to inactive forms (Staples and Mayer, 1995). For example, B. cinerea
46
produces laccases that metabolize plant defense compounds induced during infection and
reduces lignification by the host (Bar-Nun et al., 1988). In addition, fungal produced
lactases have been shown to detoxify phytoalexins from a wide variety of plants by cross-
linking host produced phenols (Van Etten et al., 1989; Pezet et al., 1992). B. cinerea
produced lactases are capable of degrading the grape phytoalexins, pterostilbene and
resveratrol, that are up regulated by the plant in response to infection, thus overcoming
the plant‘s defense response (Pezet et al., 1992).
The enzymatic detoxification of steroidal glycosides by fungal pathogens is well
documented (Arneson et al., 1967; Verhoeff and Liem, 1975; Ford et al., 1977; Bowyer
et al., 1995; Morrissey et al., 2000). Plant pathogens such as Gaeumannomyces graminis
and Stagonospora avanae have the ability to enzymatically detoxify host plant saponins
by sugar cleavage, resulting in loss of antifungal activity of the compounds (Bowyer et
al., 1995; Morrissey et al., 2000). In tomato, B. cinerea metabolizes the antifungal
steroidal glycoalkaloid, -tomatine, to an inactive form by enzymatic cleavage of the
entire carbohydrate moiety, or by the cleavage of the terminal xylose by a -xylosidase
enzyme (Verhoeff and Liem, 1975; Quidde and Osbourn, 1998). In addition, other plant
pathogenic fungi such as Septoria lycopersici and Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici
detoxify -tomatine by cleavage of sugar residues through two separate independent
metabolic pathways (Arneson et al., 1967; Ford et al., 1977). The ability to efficiently
detoxify host plant chemical defenses may play a role in the virulence and host range of
some fungal pathogens (Bowyer et al, 1995). Pedras et al. suggested that a better
understanding the detoxification pathways utilized by plant pathogenic fungi could
potentially lead to new approaches to control plant pathogens (Pedras et al., 2011).
47
Plants produce both constitutively expressed and inducible plant defense compounds
as a means of protection from plant pathogens. Some compounds are stored in an active
form and are preferentially localized, creating a protective barrier to potential plant
pathogens. In other cases, precursors are stored and rapidly activated upon infection.
Inducible plant defense compounds are produced in healthy cells by signaling molecules
that originate in damaged cells. Despite the chemical diversity of plant defense
compounds and the differential mechanisms of expression, successful plant pathogens
evolved multiple means by which they overcome plant defenses and thus cause infection.
Friedman and McDonald speculated that in response to plant pathogen‘s ability to
overcome host plant defenses, some plants may have adapted structural modifications to
plant defense compounds, thus increasing their biological activity (Friedman and
McDonald, 1997). For example, in many Solanaceous species ―paired‖ glycoalkaloids
occur that share the same aglycone, only differ in the carbohydrate moiety, and express
differential biological activity (Friedman and McDonald, 1997; Roddick et al., 2001). A
plant defense strategy aimed at inhibiting the pathogens ability of to detoxify plant
defense compounds may be an alternative strategy in plant defense. The structural
modification of plant defense compounds as an adaptive response to plant pathogens is an
interesting hypothesis and needs further exploration.
48
CHAPTER 2: Isolation and Structural Determination of Steroidal Glycosides from
the Bulbs of Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.)
2.1. Abstract
The bulbs of Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.) are used as a food and
medicine in several Asian cultures and they are cultivated as an ornamental plant
throughout the world. A new steroidal glycoalkaloid and two new furostanol saponins,
along with two known steroidal glycosides, were isolated from the bulbs of L.
longiflorum. The new steroidal glycoalkaloid was identified as (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-
3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-
glucopyranoside. The new furostanol saponins were identified as (25R)-26-O-( -D-
glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-
arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside and (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-
furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-xylopyranosyl-
(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside. The previously known steroidal glycosides, (22R, 25R)-
spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-
glucopyranoside and (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-
O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside were
identified in L. longiflorum for the first time. These new compounds from L. longiflorum
and the isolation methodologies employed can be used for studies on the biological role
49
of steroidal glycosides in plant development and plant-pathogen interactions, as well as
for studies in food and human health, for which little is known.
2.2. Introduction
The Easter lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb., family Liliaceae) has beautiful white
flowers and a delicate aroma and is appreciated worldwide as an attractive ornamental. In
addition to its economic importance and popularity in horticulture, lily bulbs are regularly
consumed in Asia, as both food and medicine. The bulbs of several Lilium species,
including L. longiflorum, L. brownii, L. pensylvanicum, and L. pumilum, have been used
traditionally in China as sedatives, anti-inflammatory and antitussive agents, and a
general tonic (Su, 1979; Mimaki et al., 1990; Mimaki et al., 1992, Varrier, 2002). The
crude drug ―Bai-he‖, used in traditional Chinese medicine, is prepared from the bulbs of
Lilium sp. and is regularly used for lung ailments in China today. Although the medicinal
use of L. longiflorum is well documented, the compounds responsible for the reported
properties are not known.
Bulbs of the genus Lilium are a rich source of secondary metabolites, including
bitter phenylpropanoid glycosides identified in the bulbs of L. speciosum Thunb.
(Shimomura et al., 1986), antitumor alkaloids identified in L. hansonii Leichtlin ex D. D.
T. Moore (Shimomura et al., 1987), and steroidal glycoalkaloids identified in L. brownii
(Mimaki and Sashida, 1990b). Extensive work has been done on the isolation and
characterization of steroidal saponins in Lilium. Steroidal saponins have been reported in
50
L. brownii (Mimaki and Sashida, 1990a; Mimaki and Sashida, 1990b; Sashida et al.,
1990; Hou and Chen, 1998; Ji et al., 2001), L. candidum (Mimaki et al., 1998; Mimaki et
al., 1999; Eisenreichova et al., 2000), L. hansonii (Ori et al., 1992), L. henryi (Mimaki et
al, 1993), L. longiflorum (Mimaki et al, 1994), L. mackliniae (Sashida et al., 1991), L.
martagon (Satou et al., 1996), L. pardalinum (Shimomura et al, 1989), L. pensylvanicum
(Mimaki et al., 1992), L. pumilum (Mimaki et al, 1989), L. regale (Mimaki et al, 1993,
Gureva et al, 1996, Kintya et al, 1997), L. speciosum var. speciosum (Mimaki et al,
1991), and L. speciosum x L. nobilissimum (Nakamura et al, 1994).
Steroidal saponins have been reported to exhibit a wide range of biological
activities including antifungal (Sautour et al., 2005), platelet aggregation inhibition
(Zhang et al., 1999; Huang et al., 2006), antidiabetic (Nakashima et al, 1993), cholesterol
lowering (Matsuura et al., 2001), anti-inflammatory (Shao et al., 2207), antiviral (Gosse
et al., 2002), and anticancer (Mimaki et al., 1999; Pettit et al., 2005; Acharya et al.,
2009). Although the putative biological activities of steroidal saponins are well
documented, the biological role of these compounds within the plant is poorly
understood.
The occurrence of steroidal alkaloids in the Liliaceae family is also well
documented (Li et al, 2006). Steroidal alkaloids isolated from the Fritillaria genus and
the closely related Veratrum genus show various biological activities including
antihypertensive (Oh et al., 2003), anticholinergic (Gilani et al., 1997), antifungal (Zhou
et al, 2003), and anticancer (Jiang et al., 2005). In Lilium, steroidal alkaloids have been
identified in L. candidum L. (Erdoğan et al., 2001) and steroidal glycoalkaloids have been
identified in L. philippinense (Espeso and Guevara, 1990), L. mackliniae (Sashida et al.,
51
1991), and L. brownii (Sashida et al., 1990); however, no steroidal alkaloids or steroidal
glycoalkaloids have been previously reported from L. longiflorum.
With regard to the steroidal glycosides of L. longiflorum bulbs, six spirostanol
saponins and three furostanol saponins with antitumor activity have been reported
(Mimaki et al, 1994). To set the stage for biological activity studies on the role of
steroidal glycosides in plant development and plant-pathogen interactions, as well as for
studies in food and human health, this chapter reports the isolation and structural
determination of several new steroidal glycosides from the bulbs of L. longiflorum. The
structures of the steroidal glycosides were elucidated by a combination of spectroscopic
and chemical analysis.
2.3. Materials and Methods
2.3.1. Plant Material.
L. longiflorum, cultivar 7-4, bulbs were provided from the Rutgers University lily
breeding program. Bulbs were treated with Captan (Bayer CropScience AG, Monheim
am Rhein, Germany) fungicide prior to planting. Bulbs were planted in beds containing
Pro-Mix (Premier Horticulture Inc., Quakertown, PA) soil mix and were grown to mature
plants under greenhouse conditions for 9 months prior to harvest. The greenhouse
temperatures were set to provide a minimum day temperature of 24 ºC and a minimum
52
night temperature of 18 ºC. Plants were fertilized biweekly with a 100 mg L-1
solution of
NPK 15-15-15 fertilizer (J. R. Peters Inc., Allentown, PA). Each plant produced three to
five new bulbs, which were used for extraction. The new bulbs were full-sized, fresh, and
mature at harvest. Each plant was harvested by hand, and the bulbs were manually
separated, immediately frozen under liquid nitrogen, lyophilized on a VirTis AdVantage
laboratory freeze-dryer (SP Industries Inc.,Warminster, PA), and stored at -80 ºC until
analysis.
2.3.2. Chemicals.
The following compounds were obtained commercially: (25R)-spirost-5-en-3β-ol,
Sephadex LH-20, N,O-bis(trimethylsiyl)trifluoroacetamide with trimethylchlorosilane
(99:1) silylating reagent, Dragendorff reagent, p-(dimethylamino)benzaldehyde,
hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, pyridine-d5 (0.3% v/v TMS), D-(+)-glucose, L-(-)-
glucose, D-(+)-rhamnose, L-(-)-rhamnose, D-(+)-arabinose, L-(-)-arabinose, D-(+)-
xylose, and L-(-)-xylose (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO); and (22R,25R)-spirosol-5-ene-
3β-ol (Glycomix Ltd., Reading, U.K.). All solvents (acetonitrile, chloroform, ethanol,
ethyl acetate, formic acid, n-butanol, and n-pentane) were of chromatographic grade
(Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Fair Lawn, NJ). Water was deionized (18 MΩ cm) using a
Milli-Q water purification system (Millipore, Bedford, MA).
53
2.3.3. Isolation and Purification of Steroidal Glycosides 1 – 5 from L. longiflorum.
2.3.3.1. Sequential Solvent Extraction of Lyophilized L. longiflorum Bulbs
Lyophilized lily bulbs (100 g) were frozen in liquid nitrogen, ground into a fine
powder with a laboratory mill (IKA Labortechnik, Staufen, Germany), and extracted with
n-pentane (3 x 100 mL) on a wrist-action autoshaker (Burrell Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA)
at room temperature for 30 min. After centrifugation (5000 rpm for 10 min) (Sorvall RC-
3C Plus, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.), the organic layers were discarded and the pellet
was freed from residual solvent in a fume hood overnight. The residual defatted material
was then extracted with a mixture of ethanol and water (7:3, v/v; 2 x 150 mL) on an
autoshaker for 45 min at room temperature (25 ºC). After centrifugation (5000 rpm for 10
min) and vacuum filtration through a Whatman 114 filter paper (Whatman International
Ltd., Maidstone, U.K.), the supernatant was collected and the residue discarded. The
supernatant was then evaporated under reduced pressure (30 ºC; 1.0 x 10-3
bar) using a
Laborota 4003 rotary evaporator (Heidolph Brinkman LLC, Elk Grove Village, IL) and
lyophilized, yielding a crude bulb extract (13.7 g). The lyophilized crude bulb extract was
then dissolved in deionized water (100 mL) and washed with ethyl acetate (5 x 100 mL),
and the organic phase was discarded. The aqueous phase was then extracted with n-
butanol (5 x 100 mL) and the aqueous phase discarded. The organic phase was then
evaporated under reduced pressure (30 ºC; 1.0 x 10-3
bar) and lyophilized, yielding a
crude glycoside extract (2.42 g) (Figure 2.1).
54
Figure 2.1. Isolation scheme for compounds 1 – 5 isolated from the bulbs of L.
longiflorum. EtOH, ethanol; EtAC, ethyl acetate; n-BuOH, n-butanol; ACN, acetonitrile.
2.3.3.2. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)
Crude glycoside extract (1.0 g) was dissolved in a solution of ethanol and water
(7:3, v/v; 5.0 mL), filtered with a 0.45 μm PTFE syringe filter (Thermo Fisher Scientific
Inc.), and then applied onto a standard threaded 4.8 cm x 60 cm glass column (Kimble
Chase Life Science and Research Products LLC, Vineland, NJ) packed with Sephadex
LH-20 (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Uppsala, Sweden) that was washed and
conditioned in the same solvent mixture overnight. Chromatography was performed with
55
isocratic ethanol/water (70:30, v/v) at a flow rate of 3.5 mL min-1
. The first 200 mL of
effluent was discarded, and 30 fractions (25 mL each) were collected and analyzed by
LC-MS. LC-MS analyses were performed on a HP 1100 series HPLC (Agilent
Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, CA) equipped with an autoinjector, a quaternary pump, a
column heater, and a diode array detector and interfaced to a Bruker 6300 series ion-trap
mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization chamber. HP ChemStation
and BrukerData Analysis software were used for data acquisition and data analysis.
Reverse phase separations were performed using a Prodigy C18 column (250 mm x 4.6
mm i.d.; 5.0 μm particle size) (Phenomenex, Torrance, CA). The flow rate was set to 1.0
mL min-1
, and the column temperature was at 23 ± 2 ºC. The binary mobile phase
composition consisted of (A) 0.1% formic acid in deionized water and (B) 0.1% formic
acid in acetonitrile. Chromatography was performed using a linear gradient of 15 – 43%
B over 40 min and then to 95% B over 5 min; thereafter, elution with 95% B was
performed for 10 min. The re-equilibration time was 10 min. All mass spectra were
acquired in positive ion mode over a scan range of m/z 100 – 2000. Ionization parameters
included capillary voltage, 3.5 kV; end plate offset, -500 V; nebulizer pressure, 50 psi;
drying gas flow, 10 mL min-1
; and drying gas temperature, 360 ºC. Trap parameters
included ion current control, 30000; maximum accumulation time, 200 ms; trap drive,
61.2; and averages, 12 spectra. On the basis of the LC-MS profile, GPC fractions 6 – 17
were combined, evaporated under reduced pressure (30 ºC; 1.0 x 10-3
bar), and
lyophilized, yielding GPC fraction A (180 mg).
56
2.3.3.3. Semipreparative Reverse-Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-
HPLC)
Fractionation of GPC fraction A was achieved by semipreparative RP-HPLC
performed on a Luna C18 column (250 mm x 21.2 mm i.d.; 10 μm particle size)
(Phenomenex) to afford 1 – 5 (Figure 2.2). Chromatography was performed on a
Shimadzu LC-6AD liquid chromatograph (Shimadzu Scientific Instruments Inc.,
Columbia, MD) using a UV-vis detector and a 2 mL injection loop. Mixtures of (A) 0.1%
formic acid in deionized water and (B) 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile were used as the
mobile phase. The flow rate was set to 20 mL min-1
, the column temperature was 23±2
ºC, and UV detection was recorded at λ=210nm. GPC fraction A was dissolved in a
mixture of mobile phase A and mobile phase B (75:25, v/v) and filtered through a 0.45
μm PTFE syringe filter prior to injection. Chromatography was performed using a linear
gradient of 5 – 30% B over 45 min and then to 90% B over 10 min; thereafter, elution
with 90% B was performed for 10 min. The re-equilibration time was 10 min.
57
Figure 2.2. RP-HPLC chromatogram (λ = 210 nm) of 1 – 5 isolated from L. longiflorum
n-butanol extract fractionated by gel permeation chromatography (GPC).
The target compounds were collected, freed from solvent under reduced pressure (30 ºC;
1.0 x 10-3
bar), and lyophilized. Final purification of 1 and 2 was performed with an
isocratic separation using a mixture of 0.1% formic acid in deionized water and 0.1%
formic acid in acetonitrile (80:20, v/v). The target compounds were collected, freed from
solvent under reduced pressure (30 ºC; 1.0 x 10-3
bar), and lyophilized, yielding 1 (15mg)
and 2 (7 mg) as white amorphous powders in high purity (>98%), as determined by LC-
MS (Figure 2.3) and NMR. Final purification of 3 – 5 was performed with an isocratic
separation using a mixture of 0.1% formic acid in DI water and 0.1% formic acid in
acetonitrile (75:25, v/v). The target compounds were collected, freed from solvent under
reduced pressure (30 ºC; 1.0 x 10-3
bar), and lyophilized, yielding 3 (25 mg), 4 (7 mg),
and 5 (5 mg) as white amorphous powders in high purity (>98%), as determined by LC-
MS (Figure 2.3) and NMR.
5
10
15
32
20
34 36 38 40 42
Inte
nsity (
210)
time (min)
1
2
3
4
5
58
Figure 2.3. (A) Total ion chromatogram (TIC) of crude L. longiflorum n-butanol extract
(B – F) Total ion chromatograms (TIC) of 1 – 5 isolated by RP-HPLC.
1
2 3 4
5
A
B
C
D
E
F
1
3
2
4
5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Time [min]
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
0
2
4
0
2
4
8 x10
Intens.
0
2
4
0
1
2
3
59
2.3.4. Structural Elucidation
Compounds 1 – 5 (Figure 2.4) were identified by a combination of spectroscopic
data (1H NMR,
13C NMR, HMBC, HMQC, MS, IR), chromatographic data, and chemical
analysis. Melting points were obtained using a Thomas-Hoover Capillary Melting Point
Apparatus (Arthur H. Thomas Co., Philadelphia, PA) and by differential scanning
calorimetry using a Perkin-Elmer Diamond DSC (Perkin-Elmer, Waltham, MA). IR
spectra were recorded on a Nexus 670 FT-IR spectrophotometer. Observed rotations were
obtained on a Perkin-Elmer model 341LC polarimeter. High -resolution mass spectra
(HRMS) were recorded on a BioTOF II ESI under the following conditions: source
temperature, 150 ºC; acceleration voltage, 8500; mass resolution, 10000 fwhm; scan
range, m/z 100 – 1000; drying gas, N2. ESI+–MS spectra were recorded on a Bruker 6300
series ion-trap mass spectrometer under the conditions reported above.1D1H NMR and
13CNMR spectra and 2D heteronuclear multiple bond coherence (HMBC) and
heteronuclear multiple quantum coherence (HMQC) spectra were acquired on an AMX-
400 spectrometer and an AMX-500 spectrometer (Bruker, Rheinstetten, Germany).
Samples for NMR analysis were dissolved in pyridine-d5, and chemical shifts are given
as δ values with reference to tetramethylsilane (TMS).
60
Figure 2.4. Structures of compounds 1 – 5 isolated from L. longiflorum bulbs.
O
R3OO
OH
R2O
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
O
HOO
OH
R1O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
O
HO
OH
O
O
HO
OH
OH
O
HOHO
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
R1
R2 R3
H
H
H
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
1''''
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
6-Ac- -D-Glcp-D-Glcp
1
2
4
5
-L-Arap -D-Xlyp
3
-D-Glcp
6-Ac- -D-Glcp
-D-Glcp
-L-Arap
-D-Xlyp
61
2.3.4.1. Acid Hydrolysis of Compounds 1 – 5.
A solution of each compound (1 mg) in 1NHCl in methanol (0.5 mL) was
refluxed at 80 ºC for 2 h. After hydrolysis, the solution was adjusted to pH 7 with NaOH
(4 N) and evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure (30 ºC; 1.0 x 10-3
bar). The
residue was dissolved in water (1 mL) and extracted with n-pentane (2 mL). The n-
pentane phase was used for aglycone analysis, and the aqueous phase was used for sugar
analysis.
2.3.4.2. Aglycone Analysis
The n-pentane phase obtained after hydrolysis was evaporated to dryness under
reduced pressure (30 ºC; 1.0 x 10-3
bar), dissolved in a mixture of pyridine and BSTFA
with TMCS (99:1) silylating reagent (1:1, v/v, 100 μL), and refluxed in a sealed tube (60
ºC for 1 h). After cooling to room temperature, the solution was analyzed by GC-MS. An
Agilent 6890 series GC system coupled to an Agilent 5973 mass spec detector (Santa
Clara, CA) was used for GC-MS analysis. A capillary column (HP-5, 5% phenyl, 95%
dimethyl polysiloxane stationary phase, 30 m x 0.25 mm i.d. x 0.25 mm film thickness)
was used for the chromatographic separation. The temperature program was as follows:
70 ºC for 2 min, then increased 8 ºC min-1
to 240 ºC, and held for 10 min. The other
parameters used were splitless injector heated at 250 ºC and helium as the carrier gas with
a constant flow of 1 mL min-1
. MS parameters were as follows: operated in electron
62
impact (EI) ionization mode at 70 eV; scan range, m/z 50 – 550. The transfer line was
maintained at 250 ºC. Comparisons were made with retention times and mass spectra of
aglycone reference standards prepared according to the same procedure.
2.3.4.3. Sugar Composition Analysis
The aqueous fraction obtained after hydrolysis was evaporated to dryness under
reduced pressure (30 ºC; 1.0 x 10-3
bar), dissolved in a mixture of pyridine and BSTFA
with TMCS (99:1) silylating reagent (1:1, v/v, 100 μL), and refluxed in a sealed tube (60
ºC for 1 h). After cooling to room temperature, the solution was analyzed by GC-MS.
The temperature program was as follows: 50 ºC for 6 min, then increased at 4 ºC min-1
to
160 ºC, and held for 5 min. The other parameters used were a splitless injector heated to
200 ºC and helium as the carrier gas with a constant flow of 1 mL min-1
. MS parameters
were the same as reported above. Identifications were made based on retention times and
mass spectra of sugar standards prepared according to the same procedure.
2.3.4.4. Determination of Sugar Absolute Configurations
Absolute configuration of sugars was determined by enantioselective GC-FID. A
chiral RTBetaDEXsm capillary column (30m x 0.25mm x 0.25 μm; Restek Corp., State
College, PA) was used for chromatographic separation. The temperature program was as
63
follows: 60 ºC for 0 min, then increased at 4 ºC min-1
to 160 ºC, then increased at 15 ºC
min-1
to a final temperature 230 ºC, and maintained for 15 min. The other parameters
used were as follows: FID detector heated to 230 ºC; split injector with a 10:1 split ratio
maintained at 230 ºC; helium as the carrier gas with a constant flow of 1 mL min-1
.
Comparisons were made with retention times of optically pure sugar standards prepared
following the same procedure.
2.3.4.5. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
Each compound (1 mg) was dissolved in methanol (0.5 mL), spotted on a 20 cm x
20 cm silica gel 60 F254 TLC plate (Merck & Co., Inc., Whitehouse Station, NJ), and
developed with chloroform/methanol/water (8:4:1, v/v/v). To detect furostanols, TLC
plates were developed with Ehrlich‘s reagent [3.2 g of p-(dimethylamino)benzaldehyde
in 60 mL of 95%ethanol and 60 mL of 12 N HCl] and heated to 110 ºC for 5 min. Bright
red spots were indicative of a positive reaction. To detect alkaloids, the TLC plates were
developed with Dragendorff‘s reagent and heated to 110 ºC for 5 min. Orange spots were
indicative of a positive reaction.
64
2.4. Results and Discussion
2.4.1 Structure Elucidation of Compounds 1 – 5.
Lyophilized lily bulbs were washed with n-pentane and extracted with ethanol
and water. After the removal of solvent, the extract was dissolved in deionized water,
washed with ethyl acetate and extracted with n-butanol. The organic phase was
evaporated under reduced pressure and lyophilized, yielding a crude steroidal glycoside
extract. The crude glycoside extract was fractionated by gel permeation chromatography
(Sephadex L-H20) and repeated semi-prep RP-HPLC to yield compounds 1 – 5 (Figure
2.3). Based on 1H NMR,
13C NMR, 2D NMR (HMQC and HMBC), HRESI–TOFMS and
chemical analysis, including GC-MS analysis of the sugar and aglycone TMSi derivatives
after acid hydrolysis, 1 and 3 were identified as (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside, previously
isolated from L. brownii (Mimaki and Sashida et al., 1990), and (25R)-26-O-( -D-
glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside, previously isolated from Dioscorea
deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb., Ophiopogon planiscapus Nakai, L. hansonii and Allium
nutans L. (Sviridov et al., 1975; Watanabe et al., 1983; Ori et al., 1992; Akhov et al.,
1999 ) (Figure 2.4). This is the first report of these compounds isolated from the bulbs of
L. longiflorum. Compound 2 was characterized as a new acetylated steroidal
glycoalkaloid. The structure of compound 2 was determined to be (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-
65
en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-
glucopyranoside. Compounds 4 and 5 were characterized as new furostanol saponins.
The structure of compound 4 and 5 were determined to be (25R)-26-O-( -D-
glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-
arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside and (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-
furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-xylopyranosyl-
(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside, respectively. This is the first report of these new natural
products.
The 1H NMR spectra of steroidal glycoside are complex to analyze due to
overlapping proton resonances. For example, the proton resonances of the carbohydrate
moiety occur in a narrow spectral width of 3.0 – 4.2 ppm, making assignments difficult.
Despite overlapping signals, there are many diagnostic features in the 1H NMR spectrum.
The methyl peaks of the steroidal backbone are readily distinguishable and informative.
For example, resonances integrating for three protons which are indicative of tertiary
methyl groups and secondary methyl groups are diagnostic of the aglycone. Additionally,
the 13
C NMR spectra have many diagnostic characteristics. For example, olefinic carbon
resonances at approximately C 139.7 – 142.1 and 120.9 – 124.3 in the 13
C NMR
spectrum are indicative of unsaturation between C-5 and C-6. A quarternary carbon
signal at approximately C ~110 ppm suggests a furostane skeleton possessing a hydroxyl
group at the C-22 position whereas C ~113 ppm suggests the methoxyl furostane
derivative (Agrawal, 1995).
Resonances in the 1H NMR and
13C NMR spectra are useful for the determination
of both the number of saccharide residues and anomeric configurations of interglycosidic
66
linkages. Anomeric carbon resonances of the oligosaccharide moiety typically occur in
the C 92 – 108 region of the 13
C NMR spectra, thus allowing the number of individual
sugar residues to be determined. In the 1H NMR spectra, anomeric proton resonances
typically occur as broad singlets or doublets in the range of C 4.2 – 6.4 ppm.
Furthermore, coupling constants for anomeric proton resonances of the C-1 position of -
linked sugars have a coupling constant of approximately J = 1.0 – 3.0 Hz and -linked
sugars have a coupling constant of approximately J = 6.0 – 8.0 Hz. (Agrawal, 1995).
Although there are many distinguishable and diagnostic features of 1H NMR spectra,
overlapping resonances often inhibit complete assignments and do not provide sufficient
information for the determination of integlycosidic linkages. With 2-D NMR techniques
such as HMBC, often the integlycosidic linkages can be determined; however, the
absolute configurations of sugars can not be determined. One approach to determine the
absolute configurations of the monosaccharide residues is by acid-catalyzed hydrolysis,
derivatization and entantioslective GC-FID analysis. This approach allows for the
determination of the absolute configurations of the monosaccharide residues of the
carbohydrate moiety.
67
2.3.4.1. Structure Elucidation of Compound 1
Compound 1 was obtained as a white amorphous powder. The compound was
positive to the Dragendorff reaction, indicative of an alkaloid. The IR spectrum showed
absorption due to the presence hydroxyl groups at 3400 cm-1
. HRESI–TOFMS showed a
[M + H]+ ion at m/z: 884.5028 (calculated for C45H74NO16, 884.5002). Additionally,
[M+H+Na]++
ion was observed at m/z 453.7443 (calculated for C45H74NO16Na,
453.7447) (Figure 2.5). Thus, molecular formula was calculated as C45H73NO16,
suggestive of steroidal glycoalkaloid. The aglycone was readily deduced from 1H NMR,
13C NMR (Figure 2.12; Table 2.1), ESI
+–MS (Figure 2.33) and chemical analysis. The
1H NMR spectrum showed two singlets at 1.06 and 0.88 which is indicative of tertiary
methyl groups of the spirosolane skeleton. Furthermore, two doublet signals at 1.09
and 0.82 were assignable to secondary methyl groups. A quaternary carbon signal at C
98.4 and olefinic carbon signals at C 140.8 and 121.8 in the 13
C NMR spectrum were
consistent with a 5 spirosolane aglycone. The unsaturation between C-5 and C-6 is
further substantiated by a doublet at 5.3 in the 1H NMR spectrum for the H-6 signal.
68
Figure 2.5. (A) High resolution mass spectrum of compound 1 and (B) expanded view of
[M + H + Na]++
ion at m/z 453.7443 (calculated for C45H74NO16Na, 453.7447). The mass
spectrum was acquired on a BioTOF II.
12
9.0
49
4
15
4.1
54
7
22
7.2
42
6
36
9.1
75
2
38
7.1
91
6
43
8.2
85
1
45
3.7
44
34
67
.36
02
49
6.3
31
0
52
5.3
52
5
55
4.3
72
6
58
3.3
92
8
61
2.4
13
8
64
1.4
32
7
67
0.9
64
3
69
9.9
73
8
75
7.5
12
9
79
5.5
42
1
85
3.5
90
8
88
4.5
02
8
91
1.6
24
8
96
9.6
74
1
10
27
.71
72
200 400 600 800 1000 m/z0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Intens.
45
3.7
44
3
45
4.2
45
0
45
4.7
45
2
450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 m/z0
250
500
750
1000
1250
Intens.
A
B
69
Upon acid hydrolysis, derivatization and GC-MS analysis, the retention time and mass
spectrum of the TMSi derivative of the aglycone was consistent with that of the steroidal
alkaloid, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -ol (solasodine), which was prepared following the
same procedure. In 2008, Eanes and Tek reported that during derivitazation of
solasodine, two products are formed (Eanes and Tek, 2008). Consistent with their
observations, two products were detected by GC-MS for both solasodine and the
aglycone of compound 1 (Figure 2.6; Figure 2.7; Figure 2.8). In addition to
derivitazation and GC-MS analysis, the retention time and mass spectrum the aglycone of
compound 1 was consistent with that of authentic (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -ol
analyzed by LC-MS (Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.6. GC-MS chromatogram of the TMSi derivatives of authentic (22R, 25R)-
spirosol-5-en-3 -ol standard. Two products are generated during derivatization, labeled
A and B.
16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 23.00 24.00 25.00 26.00 27.00 28.00 29.00 Time-->
100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000 700000 800000 900000
1000000 1100000 1200000 1300000 1400000 1500000 1600000 1700000 1800000 1900000 2000000 2100000 2200000
Abundance
A
B
70
Figure 2.7. GCMS mass spectra of TMSi derivatives, A and B, generated from authentic
(22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -ol standard.
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
55000
60000
65000
70000
75000
m/z-->
Abundance 111
73
557 138 452 162 190 412 347 238 281 41 484 528 384 214
A
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
800000
900000
m/z-->
Abundance 125
73 452 238
148
96 542 484 41 181 207 362 394 308
B
71
Figure 2.8. GCMS mass spectra of TMSi derivatives, A and B, generated from the
aglycone of compound 1.
m/z--> 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
22000
24000
26000
28000
30000
Abundance 111
73
557 138 452 162
190 412 238 281 41 484 528
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
0
220000
240000
260000
280000
300000
320000
340000
360000
380000
m/z-->
Abundance 125
73 452
238 148 96 542 484 41 208 394 309
72
Figure 2.9. Total ion chromatogram (TIC) of (A) authentic (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -
ol standard (Rt = 32.1 min) and (B) the aglycone of compound 1 (Rt = 32.1 min)
generated by LC-MS.
The structure of the oligosaccharide moiety was readily deduced from 1H NMR,
13C
NMR, ESI+–MS, and chemical analysis. Three anomeric protons were observed at
4.97, 6.27, and 5.15, which implied the presence of three saccharide residues. Coupling
constants of the anomeric proton resonances suggested -interglycosidic linkages.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0
1
2
3
8 x10 Intens.
Time [min]
A
0
1
2
3
4
5
8 x10 Intens.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Time [min]
B
73
Additionally, the 13
C NMR spectrum contained three anomeric carbon signals observed at
C 105.3, 1 and consistent with the presence of three saccharide residues.
The HMBC experiment showed long-range correlations between the anomeric proton
signal at 4.97 [H-1′] and the carbon signal at C 78.1 [C-3], between the anomeric
proton signal at 5.15 [H-1′′′] and the carbon signal at C 82.1 [C-4′], and the anomeric
proton signal at 6.27 [H-1′′] and the carbon signal at C 77.8 [C-2′] (Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.10. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic linkages for the
carbohydrate moiety of compound 1.
O
HO
O
OH
O
OH3CHO
OHOH
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OHH
H
H
H H 78.1
4.97 (7.2) 77.8
6.27
5.15 (7.6)
82.1
1
Upon acid hydrolysis, derivatization and GC-MS/entantioslective GC-FID analysis, the
sugars of the trisaccharide moiety were identified as D-(+)-glucose and L-(–)-rhamnose in
a 2 to 1 ratio.1H NMR spectrum showed a doublet integrating for three protons at 1.78,
which is indicative of the methyl group of rhamnose. The ESI+–MS mass spectrum
showed the molecular ion 884.7 [M+H]+
and the doublely charged sodium adduct at
453.8 [M+H+Na]++
. Additionally, ion fragments at m/z 738.5 [M–Rha+H]+, 576.4 [M–
Glu–Rha+H]+, and 414.4 [M–2Glu–Rha+H]
+ were observed and were consistent with a
74
trisaccharide moiety containing two D-(+)-glucoses and a L-(–)-rhamnose moiety (Figure
2.11).
Figure 2.11. ESI+-MS mass spectrum of compound 1.
Accordingly, the structure of 1 was determined to be (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O-
-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside,
previously reported in L. brownii (Mimaki and Sashida, 1990b).
253.1
414.4
453.8
576.4
738.5
884.7
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
6 x10
Intens.
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 m/z
75
Figure 2.12. (A) 1H NMR spectrum and (B)
13C NMR spectrum of compound 1.
A
B
76
Compound 1, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside: amorphous solid; [28
D - 76.9 (c 0.02;
MeOH); mp 303 ºC (dec); IR max (film) cm-1
: 3336 (OH), 2930 (CH), 1585, 1450, 1347,
1255, 1029, 984, 897, 811; HRESI–TOFMS, m/z 884.5028 [M + H]+ (calculated for
C45H74NO16, 884.5002); ESI+
– MS, m/z 884.7 (100, [M+H]+
), 738.5 (3, [M–Rha+H]+),
576.4 (19, [M–Glu–Rha+H]+), 453.8 (1.6, [M+H+Na]
++ ), 414.4 (15, [M–2Glu–Rha+H]
+
); 1H NMR (400 MHz) 0.82 [d, 3H, J = 5.2 Hz, 27-H], 0.88 [s, 3H, 18-H], 1.06 [s, 3H,
19-H], 1.09 [d, 3H, J = 6.8 Hz, 21-H], 1.78 [d, 3H, J = 6.4 Hz, 6′′-H], 2.75 [m, 2H, 26-
H], 3.88 [m, 1H, 3-H], 3.90 [m, 1H, 2′-H], 4.33 [1H, 6b′′′-H], 4.56-4.40 [1H, 6a′′′-H],
4.48 [m, 2H, 6′-H], 4.61 [dd, 1H, J =9.2, 3.2, 3′′-H], 4.97 [d, 1H, J = 7.2 Hz, 1′-H], 5.15
[d, 1H, J =7.6 Hz, 1′′′-H], 5.30 [d, 1H, J = 4.8 Hz, 6-H], 6.27 [s, 1H, 1′′-H]; 13
C NMR
(400 MHz, pyridine-d5) 37.5 [C-1], 30.2 [C-2], 78.1 [C-3], 38.9 [C-4], 140.8 [C-5],
121.8 [C-6], 32.4 [C-7], 31.6 [C-8], 50.3 [C-9], 37.2 [C-10], 21.2 [C-11], 40.1 [C-12],
40.7 [C-13], 56.7 [C-14], 32.6 [C-15], 78.8 [C-16], 63.6 [C-17], 16.5 [C-18], 19.4 [C-19],
41.6 [C-20], 15.7 [C-21], 98.4 [C-22], 34.7 [C-23], 31.1 [C-24], 31.7 [C-25], 48.1 [C-26],
19.9 [C-27], 100.0 [C-1′], 77.8 [C-2′], 76.2 [C-3′], 82.1 [C-4′], 77.3 [C-5′], 62.0 [C-6′],
101.8 [C-1′′], 72.5 [C-2′′], 72.8 [C-3′′], 74.2 [C-4′′], 69.5 [C-5′′], 18.7 [C-6′′], 105.3 [C-
1′′′], 75.0 [C-2′′′], 78.3 [C-3′′′], 71.2 [C-4′′′], 78.5 [C-5′′′], 62.1 [C-6′′′]; 1H NMR and
13C
NMR are consistent with the literature (Mimaki and Sashida, 1990b).
77
2.3.4.2. Structure Elucidation of Compound 2
Compound 2 was obtained as a white amorphous powder. The compound was
positive to the Dragendorff reaction, indicative of an alkaloid (Mimaki and Sashida,
1990). The IR spectrum showed absorption at 1732 cm-1
and 3353 cm-1
due were due to
the presence of an acetyl group and hydroxyl groups. HRESI–TOFMS showed a [M+H]+
ion at m/z: 926.5085 (calculated for C47H76NO17, 926.5108). Additionally, [M+H+Na]++
ion was observed at m/z 474.7520 (calculated for C47H76NO17Na, 474.7500) (Figure
2.13). Thus, the molecular formula was calculated as C47H75NO17, suggestive of an
acetylated steroidal glycoalkaloid. The aglycone was readily deduced from 1H NMR,
13C
NMR (Figure 2.16; Table 2.1), ESI+–MS (Figure 2.34), and chemical analysis. The
1H
NMR spectrum showed two singlets at 1.06 and 0.88 which is indicative of tertiary
methyl groups of the spirosolane skeleton. Furthermore, two doublet signals at 1.11
and 0.82 were assignable to secondary methyl groups. A quaternary carbon signal at
C 98.4 and olefinic carbon signals at C 140.8 and 121.9 in the 13
C NMR spectrum were
consistent with a 5 spirosolane aglycone. The unsaturation between C-5 and C-6 was
further substantiated by a doublet at 5.29 in the 1H NMR spectrum for the H-6 signal.
78
Figure 2.13. (A) High resolution mass spectrum of compound 2 and (B) expanded view
of [M + H + Na]++
ion at m/z 474.7520 (calculated for C47H76NO17Na, 474.7500). The
mass spectrum was acquired on a BioTOF II.
12
9.1
16
4
22
7.2
85
8
39
3.3
02
4
43
8.2
87
1
47
4.7
52
0
49
6.3
27
3
52
5.3
52
8
54
2.7
39
5 55
4.3
70
4
58
3.3
93
4
61
2.4
12
0
64
1.4
32
2
66
2.3
90
3
92
6.5
63
5
200 400 600 800 1000 m/z0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Intens.
47
4.7
52
0
47
5.2
53
9
47
5.7
53
3
47
6.2
57
7
472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 m/z0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Intens.
A
B
79
Upon acid hydrolysis, derivatization and GC-MS analysis, the retention time and mass
spectrum of the TMSi derivative of the aglycone was consistent with that of (22R, 25R)-
spirosol-5-en-3 -ol, which was prepared following the same procedure. The structure of
the oligosaccharide moiety was readily deduced from 1H NMR,
13C NMR, HMBC, ESI
+–
MS and chemical analysis. Three anomeric protons were observed at 4.98, 6.24 and
5.09, which implied the presence of three saccharide residues. Coupling constants for the
anomeric proton resonances suggested -interglycosidic linkages. Additionally, the 13
C
NMR spectrum contained three anomeric carbon signals observed at C 105.6,
and consistent with the presence of three saccharide residues. The HMBC
experiment showed long-range correlations between the anomeric proton signal at
4.98 [H-1′] and the carbon signal at C 78.1 [C-3], between the anomeric proton signal at
5.09 [H-1′′′] and the carbon signal at C 83.3 [C-4′], and the anomeric proton signal
at 6.24 [H-1′′] and the carbon signal at C 77.6 [C-2′] (Figure 2.14).
Figure 2.14. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic linkages for the
carbohydrate moiety of compound 2.
O
HO
O
OH
O
OH3CHO
OHOH
O
O
HO
O
HO
OHH
H
H
H H 78.1
4.98 (7.2) 77.6
6.24
5.09 (8)
83.3
O
2
80
Upon acid hydrolysis, derivatization and GC-MS/entantioslective GC-FID analysis, the
sugars of the trisaccharide moiety were identified as D-(+)-glucose and L-(–)-rhamnose in
a 2 to 1 ratio. 1H NMR spectrum showed a doublet integrating for three protons at
1.78, indicative of the methyl group of rhamnose. The ESI+–MS mass spectrum showed
the protonated molecular ion 926.6 [M+H]+
and the protonated double charged sodium
adduct at 474.8 [M+H+Na]++
. Additionally, ion fragments at m/z 780.5 [M–Rha+H]+,
576.4 [M–Glu–Ac– Rha+H]+ and 414.3 [M–2Glu–Ac–Rha+H]
+ were observed and were
consistent with a trisaccharide moiety containing D-(+)-glucose, an acetylated D-(+)-
glucose and a L-(-)-rhamnose moiety (Figure 2.15).
Figure 2.15. ESI+-MS mass spectrum of compound 2.
253.2
414.3
474.8 576.4
780.5
926.7
0
2
4
6
8
6 x10
Intens.
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 m/z
81
The presence of an acetyl group was shown by the IR absorption at1732 cm-1
, H NMR
2.06 (s, 3H, CO-CH3) and 13
C NMR C 170.9 and 20.8. The carbon signals
corresponding to the saccharide moiety of 2 were similar to those reported for (25R,26R)-
26-methoxyspirost-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside, isolated from L. speciosum x L.
nobilissimum (Nakamura et al., 1994). Alkaline hydrolysis of 2 with 1M sodium
hydroxide yielded 1. Upon comparison of the 13
C NMR spectra of 1 and 2, the C-6′′′ and
C-4′′′ signals were shifted from C 62.1 and 71.2, to C 64.8 and 71.9, respectively. The
signal for C-5′′′ was shifted from C 78.5 to 74.9 and all other carbon signals were
similar. Upon comparison of the 1H NMR spectra of 1 and 2, the signals assignable to H2-
6′′′ methylene protons of the terminal glucose were shifted to a lower field as compared
to those of 2. Thus, the acetyl moiety was linked to the C-6 hydroxy position of the
terminal glucose unit. Accordingly, the structure of 2 was determined to be (22R, 25R)-
spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-
(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside (Figure 2.4).
82
Figure 2.16. (A) 1H NMR spectrum and (B)
13C NMR spectrum of compound 2.
A
B
83
Compound 2, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-
acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside: amorphous solid; [ D
28 -
32.0º (MeOH; c 0.05); mp 285 ºC (dec); IR max (film) cm-1
: 3353 (OH), 2932 (CH),
1732 (C=O), 1588, 1451, 1370, 1252, 1033, 983, 897, 813; HRESI–TOFMS m/z:
926.5085 [M+H]+ (calculated for C47H76NO17, 926.5108); ESI+–MS, m/z 926.6 (100,
[M+H]+), 780.5 (14, [M–Rha+H]
+), 576.4 (15, [M–Glu–Ac–Rha+H]
+), 474.8 (3,
[M+H+Na]++
), 414.3 (30, [M–2Glu–Ac–Rha+H]+);
1H NMR (400 MHz) 0.82 [d, 3H,
J = 4.8 Hz, 27-H], 0.88 [s, 3H, 18-H], 1.06 [s, 3H, 19-H], 1.11 [d, 3H, J = 6.4 Hz, 21-H],
1.78 [d, 3H, J = 6 Hz, 6′′-H], 2.06 [s, 3H, CO-CH3], 4.35 [t, 1H, J =9.4, 4′′-H], 4.60 [dd,
1H, J =8.8, 3.2, 3′′-H], 4.64 [d, 1H, J = 8.4 Hz, 6b′′′-H], 4.92 [dd, 1H, J =11.6, 2, 6a′′′-H],
4.98 [d, 1H, J = 7.2 Hz, 1′-H], 5.09 [d, 1H, J =8.1′′′-H], 5.29 [d, 1H, J = 4.4 Hz, 6-H],
6.24 [br s, 1H, 1′′-H]; 13
C NMR (500 MHz, pyridine-d5) 37.5 [C-1], 30.2 [C-2], 78.1 [C-
3], 39.0 [C-4], 140.8 [C-5], 121.9 [C-6], 32.4 [C-7], 31.6 [C-8], 50.4 [C-9], 37.2 [C-10],
21.2 [C-11], 40.1 [C-12], 40.7 [C-13], 56.7 [C-14], 32.6 [C-15], 79.0 [C-16], 63.5 [C-17],
16.5 [C-18], 19.4 [C-19], 41.6 [C-20], 15.7 [C-21], 98.4 [C-22], 34.7 [C-23], 31.0 [C-24],
31.7 [C-25], 48.0 [C-26], 19.8 [C-27], 99.9 [C-1‘], 77.6 [C-2‘], 76.1 [C-3‘], 83.3 [C-4‘],
77.4 [C-5‘], 62.0 [C-6‘], 102.0 [C-1‘‘], 72.5 [C-2‘‘], 72.8 [C-3‘‘], 74.2 [C-4‘‘], 69.6 [C-
5‘‘], 18.7 [C-6‘‘], 105.6 [C-1‘‘‘], 75.1 [C-2‘‘‘], 78.2 [C-3‘‘‘], 71.9 [C-4‘‘‘], 74.9 [C-5‘‘‘],
64.8 [C-6‘‘‘], 20.8 [Ac-CH3], 170.9 [AcC=O].
84
2.3.4.3. Structure Elucidation of Compound 3
Compound 3 was obtained as a white an amorphous powder. The compound was
positive to the Ehrlich‘s reaction, indicative of a furostanol saponin (Yoshiaki et al.,
1983). The IR spectrum showed absorption at 3400 cm-1
due to the presence of hydroxyl
groups. HRESI–TOFMS showed a [M + Na]+ ion at m/z: 1087.5307 (calculated for
C51H84O23Na, 1087.5296 ) (Figure 2.17). Additionally, [M–H]- ion was observed at m/z
1063.6 (Figure 2.18). Thus, the molecular formula was calculated as C51H84O23,
consistent with a furostanol saponin. The aglycone was readily deduced from 1H NMR,
13C NMR (Figure 2.22; Table 2.1), ESI
+–MS (Figure 2.34), HMBC, and chemical
analysis. The 1H NMR spectrum showed two singlets at 1.06 and 0.90 which is
indicative of tertiary methyl groups of the furostane skeleton. Furthermore, two doublet
signals at 1.35 and 1.0 were assignable to secondary methyl groups. A quarternary
carbon signal at C 110.7 suggests a furostane skeleton possessing a hydroxyl group at
the C-22 position. (25R)-26-O- -D-glucopyranosyl-22 -methoxy-furost-5-en-3 26-triol
3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside,
previously identified in L. longiflorum possessing antitumor activity, contains a methoxy
group at the C-22 position with a OCH3 signal at C 47.73 which is missing in 3. Also,
the quaternary carbon signal for C-22 had a minor upfield shift to C 110.7 instead of the
reported value of C 112.7 for the C-22 methoxy derivative (Mimaki et al., 1994).
85
Figure 2.17. (A) High resolution mass spectrum of compound 3 and (B) expanded view
of [M + Na]+ ion at m/z: 1087.5307 (calculated for C51H84O23Na, 1087.5296 ). The mass
spectrum was acquired on a BioTOF II.
22
9.1
71
5
30
9.2
26
1
37
1.1
13
73
93
.31
44
42
7.2
23
2
46
7.3
19
5
49
6.3
20
4
52
5.3
60
2
55
5.2
71
1
58
3.3
99
5
61
2.4
19
6
64
1.4
38
6
67
0.4
64
4
69
9.4
77
1
73
7.5
02
8
79
5.5
47
0
85
3.5
87
2
91
1.6
28
5
96
9.6
66
3
10
27
.71
22
10
87
.53
07
11
43
.79
58
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z0
200
400
600
800
Intens.
10
85
.75
54
10
86
.75
67
10
87
.53
07
10
88
.02
63
10
88
.53
43
10
89
.53
68
1084 1086 1088 1090 1092 1094 m/z0
200
400
600
Intens.
A
B
86
Figure 2.18. LRMS- mass spectrum of compound 3 acquired on BioTOF II.
14
5.0
17
1.1
21
2.1
53
1.3
10
63
.61
08
3.6
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z0
200
400
600
Intens.
C-22 hydroxy furostanols are readily converted to C-22 methoxy derivatives upon
refluxing in methanol (Watanabe et al., 1983; Wang et al., 2003). It has been suggested
that C-22 methoxy furostanol saponins identified in plants may be artifacts formed during
the extraction process when methanol is used as a solvent (Oleszek and Bialy, 2006).
The carbon peaks from C-5 to C-27 were similar to those reported for (25R,S)-26-
O- -D-glucopyranosyl-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -D-galactopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-
-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-galactopyranoside, isolated from Tribulus terrestris L.,
which suggests the presence of an α-hydroxy group at the C-22 position of the furostane
skeleton (Wang et al., 1997). Olefinic carbon signals at C 140.8 and 121.9 in the 13
C
87
NMR spectrum are consistent with a 5 furostane skeleton. The unsaturation between C-5
and C-6 is further substantiated by a doublet at 5.29 in the 1H NMR spectrum for the H-
6 signal. Upon acid hydrolysis, derivatization and GC-MS analysis, the retention time
and mass spectrum of the TMSi derivative of the aglycone was consistent with that of
(25R)-spirost-5-en-3 -ol, which was prepared following the same procedure (Figure
2.19). The structure of the oligosaccharide moiety was readily deduced from 1H NMR,
13C NMR, HMBC, ESI–MS
+ and chemical analysis. The
1H NMR spectrum contained
four anomeric proton signals observed at 6.26, 4.96, and . The coupling
constants of the anomeric proton resonances suggested -interglycosidic linkages. The
13C NMR spectrum contained four anomeric carbon signals observed at C 105.2, 105.0,
and consistent with the presence of four saccharide residues.
88
Figure 2.19. GCMS spectra of (A) TMSi derivative of the aglycone of compound 3 and
(B) TMSi derivative of (25R)-spirost-5-en-3 -ol standard.
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
22000
24000
26000
28000
m/z-->
Abundance
139
282
73 187
243 372 119 95
207 414 159 41 343 471
B
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 m/z--> 0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
400000
450000
500000
550000
600000
Abundance 139
282
187 73
243 372 119
93 159 414 213 343 41 471
A
89
The HMBC experiment showed long-range correlations between the anomeric proton
signal at 4.96 [H-1′] and the carbon signal at C 78.2 [C-3], between the anomeric
proton signal at 5.14 [H-1′′′] and the carbon signal at C 82.1 [C-4′], and the anomeric
proton signal at 6.26 [H-1′′] and the carbon signal at C 77.8 [C-2′] (Figure 2.20).
Figure 2.20. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic linkages for the
carbohydrate moiety of compound 3.
O
HO
O
OH
O
OH3CHO
OHOH
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OHH
H
H
H H 78.2
4.96 (7.2) 77.8
6.26
5.14 (8)
82.1
3
Upon acid hydrolysis, derivitazation and GC-MS/entantioslective GC-FID analysis, the
sugars were identified as D-(+)-glucose and L-(-)-rhamnose in a 3:1 ratio. 1H NMR
spectrum showed a doublet integrating for three protons at 1.77, which is indicative of
the methyl group of rhamnose. The ESI+–MS mass spectrum showed a base ion peak at
1047.7 [M-18+H]+ and the sodium adduct at 1087.7 [M + H+Na]
+. Additionally, ion
fragments at m/z 901.5 [M-18-Rha+H]+, 739.4 [ M-18-Glu-Rha+H]+, 577.4 [M-18-
2Glu-Rha+H]+, and 415.3 [M-18-3Glu-Rha+H]
+ were observed and are consistent with 3
being bidesmodic with the trisaccharide moiety at the C3 position containing two
90
glucoses and one rhamnose, and a glucose moiety at the C26 position, indicative of a
furostanol saponin (Figure 2.21).
Figure 2.21. ESI+–MS mass spectrum of compound 3.
Accordingly, the structure of 3 was determined to be (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-
furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-
(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside, previously reported from D. deltoidea, O. planiscapus, L.
hansonii, and A. nutans (Sviridov et al., 1975; Watanabe et al., 1983; Ori et al., 1992;
Akhov et al., 1999) (Figure 2.4).
253.1 415.3 577.4 739.4 901.5
1047.7
1087.7
0
1
2
3
4
6 x10
Intens.
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 m/z
91
Figure 2.22. (A) 1H NMR spectrum and (B)
13C NMR spectrum of compound 3.
A
B
92
Compound 3, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside: amorphous
solid; [28
D - 60.0 (c 0.05; MeOH); mp 207 ºC (dec): IR max (film) cm-1
: 3347 (OH),
2893 (CH), 1662, 1377, 1256, 1027, 909, 839, 812; HRESI–TOFMS m/z: 1087.5296
[M+Na]+ (calculated for C51H84O23Na, 1087.5307); ESI
+ – MS, m/z 1087.7 (20,
[M+Na]+), 1047.7 (100, [M–18+H]
+), 901.5 (9, [M–18–Rha+H]
+), 739.4 (17, [M–18–
Glu–Rha+H]+), 577.4 (11, [M–18–2Glu–Rha+H]
+), 415.3 (9, [M–18–3Glu–Rha+H]
+);
1H NMR (500 MHz) 0.91 [s, 3H, 18-H], 1.00 [d, 3H, J = 6.4 Hz, 27-H], 1.07 [s, 3H,
19-H], 1.35 [d, 3H, J = 6.8 Hz, 21-H], 1.76 [d, 3H, J = 6.5 Hz, 6′′-H], 4.56 [dd, 1H, J
=12, 2.5, 6′′′′-H], 4.60 [dd, 1H, J =9.5, 3.5, 3′′-H], 4.83 [d, 1H, J = 8 Hz, 1′′′′-H], 4.96 [d,
1H, J = 6.5 Hz, 1′-H], 5.14 [d, 1H, J =8, 1′′′-H], 5.29 [d, 1H, J = 4 Hz, 6-H], 6.26 [br s,
1H, 1′′-H]; 13
C NMR (400 MHz, pyridine-d5) 37.5 [C-1], 30.2 [C-2], 78.2 [C-3], 39.0 [C-
4], 140.8 [C-5], 121.9 [C-6], 32.5 [C-7], 31.7 [C-8], 50.4 [C-9], 37.2 [C-10], 21.2 [C-11],
39.9 [C-12], 40.8 [C-13], 56.6 [C-14], 32.4 [C-15], 81.1 [C-16], 63.9 [C-17], 16.5 [C-18],
19.4 [C-19], 40.7 [C-20], 16.5 [C-21], 110.7 [C-22], 37.1 [C-23], 28.4 [C-24], 34.3 [C-
25], 75.3 [C-26], 17.5 [C-27], 100.0 [C-1′], 77.8 [C-2′], 76.2 [C-3′], 82.1 [C-4′], 77.3 [C-
5′], 62.1 [C-6′], 101.8 [C-1′], 72.5 [C-2′′], 72.8 [C-3′′], 74.2 [C-4′′], 69.5 [C-5′′], 18.7 [C-
6′′], 105.2 [C-1′′′], 75.0 [C-2′′′], 78.5 [C-3′′′], 71.2 [C-4′′′], 78.3 [C-5′′′], 61.9 [C-6′′′],
105.0 [C-1′′′′], 75.2 [C-2′′′′], 78.6 [C-3′′′′], 71.7 [C-4′′′′], 78.2 [C-5′′′′], 62.8 [C-6′′′′]; 1H
NMR and 13
C NMR are consistent with the literature (51).
93
2.3.4.3. Structure Elucidation of Compound 4
Compound 4 was obtained as a white amorphous powder. The compound was
positive to the Ehrlich‘s reaction, indicative of a furostanol saponin (Yoshiaki et al.,
1983). The IR spectrum showed absorption at 3367 cm-1
due to the presence of hydroxyl
groups. HRESI–TOFMS showed a [M+Na]+ ion at m/z: 1057.5211 (calculated for
C50H82O22Na, 1057.5190) (Figure 2.23). Additionally, [M–H]- ion was observed at m/z
1033.6 (Figure 2.24). Thus, the molecular formula was calculated as C50H82O22,
consistent with a furostanol saponin. The aglycone was readily deduced from 1H NMR,
13C NMR (Figure 2.28; Table 2.1), HMBC, ESI
+–MS (Figure 2.34), and chemical
analysis. The 1H NMR spectrum showed two singlets at 1.07 and 0.91 which is
indicative of the tertiary methyl groups of the furostane skeleton. Furthermore, two
doublet signals at 1.35 and 1.0 were assignable to secondary methyl groups. (25R)-26-
O- -D-glucopyranosyl-22 -methoxy-furost-5-en-3 26-diol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-
(1→2)- -L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside, previously identified in L.
longiflorum possessing antitumor activity, contains a methoxy group at the C-22 position
with a OCH3 signal at C 47.73 which is missing in 4. Also, the quaternary carbon signal
for C-22 had a minor upfield shift to C 110.7 instead of the reported value of C 112.7
for the C-22 methoxy derivative (Mimaki et al., 1994).
94
Figure 2.23. (A) High resolution mass spectrum of compound 4 and (B) expanded view
of [M + Na]+ ion at m/z: 1057.5211 (calculated for C50H82O22Na, 1057.5190). The mass
spectrum was acquired on a BioTOF II.
22
9.1
74
4
30
9.2
30
6
39
3.3
18
2
43
8.3
03
4 46
7.3
26
0 49
6.3
44
1
54
0.2
66
4
58
3.4
02
8
61
2.4
22
9
64
1.4
42
8
67
0.4
66
1
69
9.4
79
2
73
7.5
05
1
76
3.6
08
9 79
5.5
39
2
85
3.5
89
5
91
1.6
27
7
96
9.6
70
6
10
27
.71
28
10
57
.52
11
10
85
.73
76
11
43
.79
51
12
01
.83
76
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Intens.
10
57
.52
11
10
58
.01
41
10
58
.52
65
10
59
.52
73
1056 1058 1060 1062 1064 m/z0
200
400
600
Intens.
A
B
95
Figure 2.24. LRMS- mass spectrum of compound 4 acquired on BioTOF II.
14
3.1
17
1.1
21
2.1
51
6.2
10
33
.6
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Intens.
Long range coupling was observed between the methyl proton signal at H-21]
and the carbon signals at C 40.7 [C-20], 63.9 [C-17] and 110.7 [C-22], supporting that
the shift seen in this region is consistent with a C-22 hydroxy compared to the C-22
methoxy derivative with the reported values of C 40.5 [C-20], 64.2 [C-17] and 112.7 [C-
22] (Mimaki et al., 1994) (Figure 2.25). The carbon peaks from C-5 to C-27 were similar
to those reported for (25R,S)-26-O- -D-glucopyranosyl-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O-
-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→2)-O- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-galactopyranoside,
isolated from Tribulus terrestris L., which suggests the presence of an α-hydroxy group
at the C-22 position of the furostane skeleton (Wang et al., 1997).
96
Figure 2.25. Partial HMBC spectrum of compound 4, showing the correlation between
H-21 and the carbon signals of C-20, C17 and C-22.
O
OH
17
2022
1.35
40.7
63.9 110.7
H21
Consistent with (25R)-26-O- -D-glucopyranosyl-furost-5-en-3 22 triol 3-O- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside, isolated from
the rhizomes of Tupistra chinensis Bak., the peak of C-25 at C 34.3 as compared to C
34.42, suggests an R configuration (Wang et al., 1992). Olefinic carbon signals at C
140.7 and 121.9 in the 13
C NMR spectrum were consistent with a 5 furostane skeleton.
C-22
C-17
C-20
0.80 1.0
0
1.2
0
1.60 1.40 1.8
0
2.00 PPM F2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
PPM F1
97
The unsaturation between C-5 and C-6 is further substantiated by an olefinic proton
signal at 5.33 in the 1H NMR spectrum for H-6. Upon acid hydrolysis, derivatization
and GC-MS analysis, the retention time and mass spectrum of the TMSi derivative of the
aglycone was consistent with that of (25R)-spirost-5-en-3 -ol, which was prepared
following the same procedure. The structure of the oligosaccharide moiety was readily
deduced from 1H NMR,
13C NMR, HMBC, ESI
+–MS and chemical analysis. All four
sugars of 4 have similar carbon NMR values to those reported for (25R)-26-O- -D-
glucopyranosyl-22 -methoxy-furost-5-en-3 26-diol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-
-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside (Mimaki et al., 1994). The 1H NMR
spectrum contained four anomeric proton signals observed at 6.30, 4.99, 4.92 and
4.84. The coupling constants of the anomeric proton resonances suggested -
interglycosidic linkages. The carbon signals were at C 105.6, 105.0, 102.5 and 99.9,
which is consistent with the presence of four saccharide residues. The HMBC experiment
showed long-range correlations between the anomeric proton signal at 4.99 [H-1′] and
the carbon signal at C 77.7 [C-3], between the anomeric proton signal at 4.92 [H-1′′′]
and the carbon signal at C 88 [C-3′], and the anomeric proton signal at 6.30 [H-1′′]
and the carbon signal at C 78 [C-2′] (Figure 2.26).
98
Figure 2.26. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic linkages for the
carbohydrate moiety of compound 4.
O
OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
HO
OH
OH H
H
H
H 77.7
4.99 (7.2)
78
6.30
4.92 (7.6) 88
4
Upon acid hydrolysis, derivitazation and GC-MS/entantioslective GC-FID analysis, the
sugars were identified as D-(+)-glucose, L-(–)-rhamnose and L-(–)-arabinose in a 2:1:1
ratio. 1H NMR spectrum showed a doublet integrating for three protons at 1.76,
indicative of the methyl group of rhamnose. The ESI+–MS mass spectrum showed a base
ion peak at 1017.7 [M–18+H]+ and the sodium adduct at 1057.7 [M+Na]
+ . Additionally,
ion fragments at m/z 871.6 [M–18–Rha+H]+, 739.4 [ M–18–Ara–Rha+H]+, 577.2 [M–
18–Ara–Rha–Glu+H]+ and 415.2 [M–18–2Glu–Ara–Rha+H]
+ were observed and were
consistent with 4 being bidesmodic with the trisaccharide moiety at the C-3 position
containing D-(+)-glucose, L-(–)-arabinose and L-(–)-rhamnose, and a D-(+)-glucose
moiety at the C-26 position, indicative of a furostanol saponin (Figure 2.27).
99
Figure 2.27. ESI+–MS mass spectrum of compound 4.
Accordingly, the structure of 4 was determined to be (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-
furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-arabinopyranosyl-
(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside (Figure 2.4).
271.1 415.3 577.2 739.4 871.6
1017.7
1057.7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
6 x10
Intens.
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 m/z
100
Figure 2.28. (A) 1H NMR spectrum and (B)
13C NMR spectrum of compound 4.
A
B
101
Compound 4, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside:
amorphous solid; [ D
28 - 48.6º (MeOH; c 0.07); mp 200 ºC (dec); IR max (film) cm
-1:
3367 (OH), 2899 (CH), 1699, 1377, 1256, 1040, 912, 840, 811, 780; HRESI–TOFMS
m/z: 1057.5211 [M+Na]+ (calculated for C50H82O22Na, 1057.5190); ESI
+ – MS, m/z
1057.7 (5, [M+Na]+), 1017.7 (100, [M–18+H]
+), 871.6 (7, [M–18–Rha+H]
+), 739.4 (13,
[M–18–Ara–Rha+H]+), 577.2 (7, [M–18–Ara–Rha–Glu + H]
+), 415.2 (4, [M–18–2Glu–
Ara–Rha+H]+);
1H NMR (400 MHz) 0.91 [s, 3H, 18-H], 1.00 [d, 3H, J = 6.4 Hz, 27-
H], 1.07 [s, 3H, 19-H], 1.35 [d, 3H, J = 6.8 Hz, 21-H], 1.76 [d, 3H, J = 6 Hz, 6′′-H], 3.08
[d, 1H, J = 11.6, 5′′′-H], 4.05 [m, 1H, Hz, 2′′′′-H], 3.90-3.85 [m, 1H, 2′-H], 4.84 [d, 1H, J
= 7.6 Hz, 1′′′′-H], 4.91 [m, 1H, 16-H], 4.92 [d, 1H, J = 7.6, 1′′′-H], 4.99 [d, 1H, J = 7.2
Hz, 1′-H], 5.33 [d, 1H, J = 4 Hz, 6-H], 6.30 [br s, 1H, 1′′-H]; for 13
C NMR (400 MHz,
pyridine-d5) 37.5 [C-1], 30.1 [C-2], 77.7 [C-3], 38.7 [C-4], 140.7 [C-5], 121.9 [C-6], 32.4
[C-7], 31.7 [C-8], 50.3 [C-9], 37.2 [C-10], 21.1 [C-11], 39.9 [C-12], 40.8 [C-13], 56.6 [C-
14], 32.5 [C-15], 81.1 [C-16], 63.9 [C-17], 16.5 [C-18], 19.4 [C-19], 40.7 [C-20], 16.5
[C-21], 110.7 [C-22], 37.2 [C-23], 28.4 [C-24], 34.3 [C-25], 75.2 [C-26], 17.5 [C-27],
99.9 [C-1′], 78.0 [C-2′], 88.0 [C-3′], 69.7 [C-4′], 77.6 [C-5′], 62.4 [C-6′], 102.5 [C-1′′],
72.5 [C-2′′], 72.9 [C-3′′], 74.4 [C-4′′], 69.5 [C-5′′], 18.7 [C-6′′], 105.6 [C-1′′′], 72.3 [C-
2′′′], 74.6 [C-3′′′], 69.7 [C-4′′′], 67.8 [C-5′′′], 105.0 [C-1′′′′], 75.3 [C-2′′′′], 78.6 [C-3′′′′],
71.7 [C-4′′′′], 78.5 [C-5′′′′], 62.8 [C-6′′′′].
102
2.3.4.4. Structure Elucidation of Compound 5
Compound 5 was obtained as a white amorphous powder. The compound was
positive to the Ehrlich‘s reaction, indicative of a furostanol saponin. The IR spectrum
showed absorption at 3362 cm-1
due to the presence of hydroxyl groups. HRESI–TOFMS
showed a [M+Na] +
ion at m/z: 1057.5211 (calculated for C50H82O22Na, 1057.5190)
(Figure 2.29). Additionally, [M–H]- ion was observed at m/z 1033.6 (Figure 2.30). Thus,
the molecular formula was calculated as C50H82O22, consistent with a furostanol saponin.
The aglycone was readily deduced from 1H NMR,
13C NMR (Figure 2.33; Table 2.1),
HMBC, ESI+–MS (Figure 2.34), and chemical analysis. The
1H NMR spectrum showed
two singlets at 1.08 and 0.91 which is indicative of tertiary methyl groups of the
furostane skeleton. Furthermore, two doublets at 1.35 and 1.0 were assignable to
secondary methyl groups. The carbon signals for the two tertiary methyl groups were at
C 19.4 and 16.5 and secondary methyl groups at C 17.5 and 16.5, respectively. A
quaternary carbon signal at C 110.7 was observed, supporting a furostane skeleton
possessing a hydroxyl group at the C-22 position and the C-25 carbon signal at C 34.3
was indicative an R configuration. Similar to 4, long range coupling was observed
between the methyl proton signal at H-21 and the carbon signals at C 40.7 C-20,
63.9 C-17 and 110.7 C-22. Olefinic carbon signals at C 140.7 and 121.9 in the 13
C NMR
spectrum were consistent with a 5 furostane skeleton. The unsaturation between C-5 and
C-6 was further substantiated by a doublet at 5.33 in the 1H NMR spectrum for the H-
6 signal.
103
Figure 2.29. (A) High resolution mass spectrum of compound 5 and (B) expanded view
of [M + Na] +
ion at m/z: 1057.5211 (calculated for C50H82O22Na, 1057.5190). The mass
spectrum was acquired on a BioTOF II.
22
9.1
00
5
30
9.1
70
5
39
3.2
72
0
43
8.2
67
1 46
7.2
89
4
49
6.3
12
2
54
0.2
42
0
58
3.3
86
4
61
2.4
07
7
64
1.4
38
5
67
0.4
52
8
69
9.4
77
2
73
7.5
00
6
76
3.6
04
7
79
5.5
45
3
85
3.5
84
7
91
1.6
32
3
96
9.6
69
9
10
27
.71
28
10
57
.52
42
10
85
.74
82
11
43
.79
94
12
01
.83
74
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z0
500
1000
1500
2000
Intens.
10
57
.52
42
10
58
.02
74
10
58
.52
74
10
59
.52
29
1052 1054 1056 1058 1060 1062 1064 1066 1068 m/z0
200
400
600
800
1000
Intens.
A
B
104
Figure 2.30. LRMS- mass spectrum of compound 5 acquired on BioTOF II.
14
5.0
17
1.1
21
2.1
51
6.2
10
33
.6
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Intens.
Upon acid hydrolysis, derivatization and GC-MS analysis, the retention time and mass
spectrum of the TMSi derivative of the aglycone was consistent with that of (25R)-
spirost-5-en-3 -ol, which was prepared following the same procedure. The structure of
the oligosaccharide moiety was readily deduced from 1H NMR,
13C NMR, HMBC, ESI
+–
MS and chemical analysis. 5 showed similar carbon NMR peaks to those of compound 3
and 4, except for the 3′′′ sugar peaks. This identifies 5 to be similar in structure,
connectivity and configuration to compound 3 and 4, except for the 3′′′sugar. The 1H
NMR spectrum contained four anomeric proton signals observed at 6.34, 5.01, 4.99
and 4.89. Coupling constants of the anomeric proton resonances suggested -
interglycosidic linkages. The 13
C NMR spectrum contained four anomeric carbon signals
105
observed at C 105.4, 105.0, 102.4 and 100.0, consistent with the presence of four
saccharide residues. The HMBC experiment showed long-range correlations between the
anomeric proton signal at 4.99 [H-1′] and the carbon signal at C 77.4 [C-3], between
the anomeric proton signal at 5.01 [H-1′′′] and the carbon signal at C 88.2 [C-3′], and
the anomeric proton signal at 6.34 [H-1′′] and the carbon signal at C 78 [C-2′]
(Figure 2.31).
Figure 2.31. HMBC long-range correlations for the interglycosidic linkages for the
carbohydrate moiety of compound 5.
5
O
OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
HO
HO
OH H
H
H
H 77.4
4.99 (7)
78
6.34
4.01 (5.5) 88.2
Upon acid hydrolysis, derivatization and GC-MS analysis, the sugars were identified as
D-(+)-glucose, L-(-)-rhamnose and L-(-)-xylose in a 2:1:1 ratio. 1H NMR spectrum
showed a doublet integrating for three protons at 1.77, indicative of the methyl group
of rhamnose. The ESI+–MS mass spectrum showed a base ion peak at 1017.7 [M–18+H]
+
and the sodium adduct at 1057.7 [M+Na]+. Additionally, ion fragments at m/z 871.6 [M–
18–Rha+H]+, 739.4 [M–18–Xyl–Rha+H]
+, 577.2 [M–18–Xyl–Rha–Glu+H]
+, and 415.2
[M–18–2Glu–Xyl–Rha+H]+ were observed and were consistent with 5 being bidesmodic
with the trisaccharide moiety at the C-3 position containing D-(+)-glucose, L-(-)-xylose
106
and L-(-)-rhamnose, and a D-(+)-glucose moiety at the C-26 position, indicative of a
furostanol saponin (Figure 2.32).
Figure 2.32. ESI+–MS mass spectrum of compound 5.
Accordingly, the structure of 5 was determined to be (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-
furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-xylopyranosyl-
(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside (Figure 2.4).
271.1 415.3 577.2 739.4 871.6
1017.7
1057.7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
6 x10
Intens.
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 m/z
107
Figure 2.33. (A) 1H NMR spectrum and (B)
13C NMR spectrum of compound 5.
A
B
108
Compound 5, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside: amorphous
solid; [ D
28 - 46.4º (MeOH; c 0.03); mp 200 ºC (dec); IR max (film) cm
-1: 3362 (OH),
2898 (CH), 1636, 1377, 1256, 1035, 912, 838, 811; HRESI–TOFMS m/z: 1057.5242 [M
+ Na]+ (calculated for C50H82O22Na, 1057.5190); ESI+
– MS, m/z 1057.7 (2, [M+Na]+),
1017.7 (100, [M–18+H]+), 871.6 (7, [M–18–Rha+H]
+), 739.4 (9, [M–18–Xyl–Rha+H]
+),
577.2 (3, [M–18–Xyl–Rha–Glu+H]+), 415.2 (2, [M–18–2Glu–Xyl–Rha+H]
+);
1H NMR
(500 MHz) 0.91 [s, 3H, 18-H], 1.00 [d, 3H, J = 6.5 Hz, 27-H], 1.08 [s, 3H, 19-H], 1.35
[d, 3H, J = 7 Hz, 21-H], 1.77 [d, 3H, J = 6.5 Hz, 6′′-H], 4.83 [d, 1H, J = 8 Hz, 1′′′′-H],
4.89-4.88 [m, 1H, 16-H], 4.99 [d, 1H, J = 7 Hz, 1′-H], 5.01 [d, 1H, J = 5.5, 1′′′-H], 5.33
[d, 1H, J = 4 Hz, 6-H], 6.34 [br s, 1H, 1′′-H]; 13
C NMR (400 MHz, pyridine-d5) 37.5 [C-
1], 30.1 [C-2], 77.7 [C-3], 38.7 [C-4], 140.7 [C-5], 121.9 [C-6], 32.4 [C-7], 31.7 [C-8],
50.3 [C-9], 37.2 [C-10], 21.1 [C-11], 39.9 [C-12], 40.8 [C-13], 56.6 [C-14], 32.5 [C-15],
81.1 [C-16], 63.9 [C-17], 16.5 [C-18], 19.4 [C-19], 40.7 [C-20], 16.5 [C-21], 110.7 [C-
22], 37.2 [C-23], 28.4 [C-24], 34.3 [C-25], 75.2 [C-26], 17.5 [C-27], 100.0 [C-1′], 78.0
[C-2′], 88.2 [C-3′], 69.7 [C-4′], 77.7 [C-5′], 62.4 [C-6′], 102.4 [C-1′′], 72.5 [C-2′′], 72.9
[C-3′′], 74.4 [C-4′′], 69.5 [C-5′′], 18.7 [C-6′′], 105.5 [C-1′′′], 74.7 [C-2′′′], 78.4 [C-3′′′],
70.7 [C-4′′′], 67.3 [C-5′′′], 105.0 [C-1′′′′], 75.3 [C-2′′′′], 78.6 [C-3′′′′], 71.7 [C-4′′′′], 78.5
[C-5′′′′], 62.8 [C-6′′′′].
109
2.5. Conclusion
Although, saponins are widely distributed secondary metabolites and have been
identified in over 100 plant families and in marine organisms such as starfish and sea
cucumber (Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza, 2006), thus far, steroidal glycoalkaloids are
limited to members of the families Solanaceae and Liliaceae (Ghisalberti, 2006). In
addition, novel or ―alien‖ glycoalkaloids have been reported from interspecific hybrids of
Solananceous plants (Grassert and Lellbach, 1987). For example, a novel tomatidine
glycoalkaloid, not present in either parental species, was identified in the sexual hybrids
of S. acaule and Solanum x ajanhuiri (Osman et al., 1986). Interspecific hybridization is
widely employed for the development of new Lilium cultivars. Similar to Solananceous
plants, interspecific hybridization in the Liliaceae family may result in novel steroidal
glycosides. Several novel steroidal saponins including a steroidal saponin with an
acetylated glucose, (25R,26R)-26-methoxyspirost-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-
(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside, has been isolated
from the interspecific hybrid L. speciosum x L. nobilissimum (Nakamura et al., 1994).
Steroidal saponins with acetylation of saccharide residues have been identified;
however, the biological significance of acetylation of these compounds is unclear. Some
genotypes of Solanum chacoense, a wild potato species that is resistant to Leptinotarsa
decemlineata, contain glycoalkaloids that are acetylated at the C-23 position of the
steroid aglycone (Sinden et al., 2005), but we are unaware of any steroidal glycoalkaloids
that contain naturally occurring acetylated saccharides. Interestingly, the presence or
absence of the acetyl moiety of the S. chacoense glycoalkaloids markedly affected
110
resistance to foliar feeding of both adults and larvae of L. decemlineata. Differences in
acetylation of the terminal glucose of the trisaccharide moiety of 1 and 2 may also play a
biological role in L. longiflorum.
The furostanol saponins 3 – 5, are similar in structure except for the terminal
monosaccharide residues and interglycosidic linkages. 3 has a hexose as the terminal
sugar linked via the C-4′ carbon of the inner glucose, whereas both 4 and 5 contain a
pentose as the terminal sugar linked via the C-3′ carbon of the inner glucose. In fact,
differences in oligosaccharide composition and interglycosidic linkages have been shown
to affect the biological activity of steroidal saponins possessing the same aglycone moiety
(Yang et al., 2006). Differences in oligosaccharide composition and interglycosidic
linkages in 3 – 5 may also play a role in the biology of these compounds in L.
longiflorum.
In this chapter, a new acetylated steroidal glycoalkaloid, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-
en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-
glucopyranoside, and two new furostanol saponins, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-
furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-arabinopyranosyl-
(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside and (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-
3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-
glucopyranoside, from the bulbs of L. longiflorum have been isolated and structures
elucidated. Additionally, a known steroidal glycoalkaloid, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -
yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside,
and a known furostanol saponin, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-
111
3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-
glucopyranoside, were isolated for the first time from the bulbs of L. longiflorum. The
extraction and purification procedures reported in this chapter may be used for the
production of sufficient quantities of pure compounds for biological investigations. These
new compounds from L. longiflorum can be used for studies on the biological role of
steroidal glycosides in plant development and plant-pathogen interactions, as well as for
studies in food and human health, for which little is known.
112
Figure 2.34. ESI+–MS mass spectra of compounds 1 – 5.
[M + Na]+
[M – 18 + H]+
1057.7
[M + H]+
453.8
[M + Na]+
[M + Na]+
415.2 271.3
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
871.6
415.2
739.4
577.2
O
O
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HO
OH
OH
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
871.6
415.2
739.4
577.2
O
O
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HOHO
OH
1
2
3
4
5
[M – 18 + H]+
[M – 18 + H]+
[M + H + Na]++
[M + H + Na]++
414.6576.4
738.5
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
O
HO
OH
414.3576.4
780.5
O
901.5
415.3
739.4
577.4
O
HO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OHO
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
1087.7
414.6 576.4 738.5
884.7
271.2
414.3
474.8 576.4 780.5
926.6
271.3 415.3 577.4 739.4 901.5
1047.7
415.2 577.2 739.4 871.6
1017.7
1057.7
577.2 739.4
871.6
1017.7
1
2
3 7 x10
Intens
.
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25 7 x10
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
7 x10
2
4
6
6 x10
0
1
2
3
4 6 x10
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 m/z
[M + H]+
271.4
271.3
113
Table 2.1. 13
C NMR spectral data of compounds 1 – 5 in pryridine-d5.
compound
carbon 1 2 3 4 5
C-1 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5
C-2 30.2 30.2 30.2 30.1 30.1
C-3 78.1a 78.1
a 78.2
a 77.7
a 77.4
a
C-4 38.9 39.0 39.0 38.7 38.7
C-5 140.8 140.8 140.8 140.7 140.7
C-6 121.8 121.9 121.9 121.9 121.9
C-7 32.4 32.4 32.5 32.4 32.4
C-8 31.6b 31.6
b 31.7 31.7 31.7
C-9 50.3 50.4 50.4 50.3 50.3
C-10 37.2 37.2 37.2 37.2 37.2
C-11 21.2 21.2 21.2 21.1 21.1
C-12 40.1 40.1 39.9 39.9 39.9
C-13 40.7 40.7 40.8b 40.8
b 40.8
b
C-14 56.7 56.7 56.6 56.6 56.6
C-15 32.6 32.6 32.4 32.5 32.5
C-16 78.8 79.0 81.1 81.1 81.1
C-17 63.6 63.5 63.9 63.9 63.9
C-18 16.5 16.5 16.5 16.5 16.5
C-19 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.4
C-20 41.6 41.7 40.7b 40.7
b 40.7
b
C-21 15.7 15.7 16.5 16.5 16.5
C-22 98.4 98.4 110.7 110.7 110.7
C-23 34.7 34.7 37.1 37.2 37.2
C-24 31.1 31.0 28.4 28.4 28.4
C-25 31.7b 31.7
b 34.3 34.3 34.3
C-26 48.1 48.0 75.3c 75.3
c 75.3
c
C-27 19.9 19.8 17.5 17.5 17.5
C-1' 100.0 99.9 100.0 99.9 100.0
C-2' 77.8 77.6 77.8 78.0 78.0
C-3' 76.2 76.1 76.2 88.0 88.2
C-4' 82.1 83.3 82.1 69.7 69.7
C-5' 77.3 77.4 77.3 77.6a 77.7
a
C-6' 62.0 62.0 62.1 62.4 62.4
C-1" 101.8 102.0 101.8 102.5 102.4
C-2" 72.5 72.5 72.5 72.5 72.5
C-3" 72.8 72.8 72.8 72.9 72.9
C-4" 74.2 74.2 74.2 74.1 74.1
C-5" 69.5 69.6 69.5 69.5 69.5
C-6" 18.7 18.7 18.7 18.7 18.7
C-1'" 105.3 105.6 105.2 105.6 105.5
C-2'" 75.0 75.1 75.0 72.3 74.7
C-3'" 78.3 78.2 78.5 74.6 78.4
C-4'" 71.2 71.9 71.2 69.7 70.7
C-5'" 78.5 74.9 78.3 67.8 67.3
C-6'" 62.1 64.8 61.9
C-1"" 105.0 105.0 105.0
C-2"" 75.2c 75.2
c 75.2
c
C-3"" 78.6 78.6d 78.6
d
C-4"" 71.7 71.7 71.7
C-5"" 78.3a 78.5
d 78.5
d
C-6"" 62.8 62.8 62.8
Ac-CH3 20.8
Ac-C=O 170.9 a-d
Assignments may be interchanged in each column
114
Chapter 3: Quantitative Analysis of Steroidal Glycosides in Different Organs of
Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.) by LC-MS/MS
3.1. Abstract
The bulbs of the Easter lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.) are regularly consumed
in Asia as both food and medicine, and the beautiful white flowers are appreciated
worldwide as an attractive ornamental. The Easter lily is a rich source of steroidal
glycosides, a group of compounds that may be responsible for some of the traditional
medicinal uses of lilies. Since the appearance of recent reports on the role steroidal
glycosides in animal and human health, there is increasing interest in the concentration of
these natural products in plant-derived foods. A LC-MS/MS method performed in
multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was used for the quantitative analysis of two
steroidal glycoalkaloids and three furostanol saponins, in the different organs of L.
longiflorum. The highest concentrations of the total five steroidal glycosides were 12.02
± 0.36, 10.09 ± 0.23, and 9.36 ± 0.27 mg g-1
dry weight in flower buds, lower stems, and
leaves, respectively. The highest concentrations of the two steroidal glycoalkaloids were
8.49 ± 0.3, 6.91 ± 0.22, and 5.83 ± 0.15 mg g-1
dry weight in flower buds, leaves, and
bulbs, respectively. In contrast, the highest concentrations of the three furostanol
saponins were 4.87 ± 0.13, 4.37 ± 0.07, and 3.53 ± 0.06 mg g-1
dry weight in lower stems,
fleshy roots, and flower buds, respectively. The steroidal glycoalkaloids were detected in
higher concentrations as compared to the furostanol saponins in all of the plant organs
except the roots. The ratio of the steroidal glycoalkaloids to furostanol saponins was
115
higher in the plant organs exposed to light and decreased in proportion from the
aboveground organs to the underground organs. Additionally, histological staining of
bulb scales revealed differential furostanol accumulation in the basal plate, bulb scale
epidermal cells, and vascular bundles, with little or no staining in the mesophyll of the
bulb scale. An understanding of the distribution of steroidal glycosides in the different
organs of L. longiflorum is the first step in developing insight into the role these
compounds play in plant biology and chemical ecology and aids in the development of
extraction and purification methodologies for food, health, and industrial applications. In
this chapter, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside,
(25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside, (25R)-26-
O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-
-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside, and (25R)-26-O-( -D-
glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-
xylopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside were quantified in the different organs of L.
longiflorum for the first time.
116
3.2. Introduction
The Easter lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb., family Liliaceae), with its showy
white flowers and fragrant aroma, is enjoyed worldwide as an attractive ornamental plant.
Easter lilies are most commonly seen as indoor potted plants or floral arrangements
around the Easter holidays; however, they are also often planted outdoors as bedding
plants in flower gardens. In addition to their esthetic value, lily bulbs and flower buds are
regularly consumed as a food in Asia for their distinctive bitter taste and have a long
historical use in traditional Chinese medicine. In particular, a preparation of bulbs of
various Lilium species, referred to as ―Bai-he‖, is used as a treatment for inflammation
and lung ailments (Mimaki and Sashida, 1990; Mimaki et al., 1992). Among many other
secondary metabolites, L. longiflorum is a rich source of steroidal glycosides, a
structurally diverse class of natural products that includes steroidal saponins and steroidal
glycoalkaloids. Steroidal glycosides have been reported to exhibit a wide range of
biological activities including antifungal (Sautour et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2003), platelet
aggregation inhibition (Zhang et al., 1999; Huang et al., 2006), anticholinergic (Gilani et
al., 1997), antidiabetic (Nakashima et al., 1993), antihypertensive (Oh et al., 2003),
cholesterol lowering (Matsuura, 2001), anti-inflammatory (Shao et al., 2007), antiviral
(Gosse et al., 2002), and anticancer (Acharya et al., 2009; Pettit et al., 2005; Mimaki et
al., 1999; Jiang et al., 2005). Additionally, steroidal glycosides have a wide variety of
commercial uses including as surfactants (Yamanaka et al., 2008), foaming agents (Singh
et al., 2003), and vaccine adjuvants (Rajput et al., 2007) and serve as precursors for the
industrial production of pharmaceutical steroids (Hansen, 2007). Steroidal saponins have
117
been found in over 100 plant families and in some marine organisms such as starfish and
sea cucumber (Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza, 2006). They are characterized by a steroid
type skeleton glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moieties. Steroidal glycoalkaloids are
characterized by a nitrogen-containing steroid type skeleton glycosidically linked to
carbohydrate moieties. In contrast to steroidal saponins, the occurrences of steroidal
glycoalkaloids are, thus far, limited to members of the plant families Solanaceae and
Liliaceae (Li et al., 2006; Ghisalberti, 2006). Some glycoalkaloids from solanaceaous
plants have been shown to play a role in plant defense and are toxic to animals and
humans. The potato glycoalkaloids, -solanine and -chaconine, are highly toxic to
animals due to their interaction with membrane sterols, disruption of cell membranes, and
inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, suggesting a biological role in antiherbivory (Sánchez-
Mata et al., 2010). In Lilium, steroidal glycoalkaloids have been identified in L.
philippinense (Espeso and Guevara, 1990), L. mackliniae (Sashida et al., 1991), and L.
brownii (Mimaki and Sashida, 1990), and in the previous chapter solasodine-based
glycoalkaloids were identified for the first time from L. longiflorum. Interestingly, both
the leaves and flowers of L. longiflorum have been reported to be highly nephrotoxic to
domesticated cats; however, the toxic compounds have yet to be identified (Rumbeiha et
al., 2004; Langston, 2002). Although it has been reported that solasodine-based
glycoalkaloids are less toxic then solanidine-based glycoalkaloids (Roddick et al., 2001),
the animal and human toxicity of the steroidal glycoalkaloids from L. longiflorum has yet
to be investigated. Although the putative biological activities of steroidal glycosides are
well documented, the biological role of these compounds in plant metabolism and
development is poorly understood. The role of steroidal glycosides in wound response
118
and plant defense, including antifungal and antiherbivory, has been studied extensively
(Zullo et al., 1984; Nozzolillo et al., 1997; Adel et al., 2000; Bowyer et al., 1995;
Osbourn, 1996; Morrissey and Osbourn, 1999; Osbourn, 1999; Papadopoulou et al.,
1999; Morrissey et al., 2000; Trojanowska et al., 2000; Osbourn et al., 2003; Osbourn,
2003; Hughes et al., 2004; Choi et al., 2005). In fact, some steroidal glycosides are toxic
to insects such as the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubialis, and army worm,
Spodoptera littoralis (Nozzolillo et al., 1997; Adel et al., 2000). In oats, Avena sativa,
biologically inactive steroidal saponins are converted into an antifungal form in response
to tissue damage, suggesting a role in the plant-pathogen interaction (Osbourn, 1996;
Morrissey et al., 2000; Osbourn, 2003; Hughes et al., 2004). In addition, the steroidal
glycoalkaloids -tomatine and -chaconine play a role in fungal resistance of tomato,
Solanum lycopersicum, and potato, Solanum tuberosum, respectively (Morrissey and
Osbourn, 1999). Although the literature suggests that steroidal glycosides are involved in
the plant pathogen interaction and antiherbivory in oats, tomato, and potato, there are no
reports on biological role of steroidal glycosides in L. longiflorum.
In the previous chapter, two steroidal glycoalkaloids, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-
3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside
(1), (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside (2), and three furostanol saponins, (25R)-
26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-
(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside (3), (25R)-26-O-( -D-
glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-
arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside (4) and (25R)-26-O-( -D-
119
glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-
xylopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside (5) were identified for the first time in L.
longiflorum. Although steroidal glycosides have attracted scientific attention in recent
years for their medicinal and industrial uses, there are only a few studies that have
quantified these compounds within different plant organs throughout plant development.
The organ distribution of steroidal glycosides in various plants such as Solanum nigrum,
Solanum incanun (Eltayeb et al., 1997), Asparagus officinalis L. (Wang et al., 2003) and
Dioscorea pseudojaponica (Lin et al., 2008) have been reported, however, there are no
studies on the distribution of steroidal glycosides in L. longiflorum.
Steroidal glycosides lack a strong chromophore and occur in complex biological
matrices; therefore, nonspecific short-wavelength UV detection is often inadequate.
Analytical methods using evaporative light scattering detection (ELSD) are used to help
overcome this obstacle; however, laborious sample preparation and sensitivity issues
persist (Oleszek and Bialy, 2006). LC-MS methods operating in selected ion monitoring
(SIM) mode have been developed to increase sensitivity and specificity; however, the
separation of structurally similar compounds and shared ions still poses a challenge
(Ghisalberti, 2006; Oleszek and Bialy, 2006). LC-MS/MS in MRM mode overcomes
these obstacles, allowing for sensitive quantitative analysis in complex biological
matrices with increased specificity over SIM. The purpose of this investigation was to
utilize LC-MS/MS in MRM mode to quantify five steroidal glycosides in the different
organs of L. longiflorum. Additionally, histological techniques were employed to
qualitatively visualize tissue-specific localization of furostanols in bulb scales. An
understanding of the distribution and tissue specific localization of steroidal glycosides in
120
L. longiflorum is the first step to develop insight into the biological role these compounds
play in plant metabolism, plant development, and chemical ecology. Quantitative analysis
of steroidal glycosides in the different organs of L. longiflorum will aid in development
studies in animal and human health, toxicology, and optimization of extraction
methodologies for potential commercial applications including functional foods,
cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals.
3.3. Materials and Methods
3.3.1. Plant material.
Ten L. longiflorum cv. 7-4 plants were grown from tissue-cultured bulbs provided
by the Rutgers University lily breeding program. The young bulbs were treated with
Captan (Bayer CropScience AG, Monheim am Rhein, Germany) fungicide prior to
planting. Bulbs were planted in raised beds containing Pro-Mix (Premier Horticulture
Inc., Quakertown, PA) soil mix and were grown to mature plants, containing both flower
buds and flowers, under greenhouse conditions for 9 months prior to harvest. The
greenhouse temperatures were set to provide a minimum day temperature of 24 °C and a
minimum night temperature of 18 °C. Plants were fertilized biweekly with a 100mg L
min-1
solution of NPK 15-15-15 fertilizer (J. R. Peters Inc., Allentown, PA). Each plant
was harvested by hand and manually separated into the following plant organs: bulb
scales, fibrous roots, fleshy roots, leaves, lower stems, upper stems, flower buds, and
121
mature flowers. Bulb scales included both inner and outer bulb scales and ranged from
0.8 to 2.0 cm in width and from0.9 to 4.0 cm in length. Fibrous roots were 0.25 – 0.5mm
in diameter. Fleshy roots were 2 – 4 mm in diameter. Leaves ranged in size from 6 to 14
cm. Lower stems were defined as the underground portion of the stem, ranged in size
from 6 to 10 cm, and were from white to yellow in appearance. Upper stems were defined
as the aboveground portion of the stem, ranged in size from 19 to 31 cm, and were green
in appearance. Flower buds ranged in size from 3 to 6 cm. Mature flowers ranged in size
from 6 to 14 cm. All of the organs from 10 individual plants were pooled together by
organ type, immediately frozen under liquid nitrogen, lyophilized on a VirTis AdVantage
laboratory freeze-dryer (SP Industries Inc., Warminster, PA), and stored at -80 °C until
analyzed (Figure 3.1).
122
Figure 3.1. The different plant organs of L. longiflorum analyzed in this study.
123
3.3.2. Chemicals
The following compounds were obtained commercially: p-
(dimethylamino)benzaldehyde, hydrochloric acid, and pyridine-d5 (0.3%v/v TMS)
(Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). All solvents (acetonitrile, chloroform, ethanol, ethyl
acetate, formic acid, n-butanol, and n-pentane) were of chromatographic grade (Thermo
Fisher Scientific Inc., Fair Lawn, NJ). Water was deionized (18 MΩ cm) using a Milli-Q
water purification system (Millipore, Bedford, MA).
3.3.3. Histology and Microscopy.
Histological detection of furostanols was modified from the method of Gurielidze
et al., 2004 (Gurielidze et al., 2004). Bulb scales were carefully cross-sectioned (∼0.5
mm) parallel to the basal plate, soaked for 2 min in a solution of Ehrlich‘s reagent [3.2 g
of p-(dimethylamino)-benzaldehyde in 60 mL of 95% ethanol and 60 mL of 12 N HCl],
and briefly heated on a microscope slide under an open flame. Transmitted light
microscopy was performed with an Axiovert 200 inverted microscope (Carl Zeiss
Microimaging Inc., Thornwood, NY) at magnifications of 10x, 20x, and 40x Axiovision
version 3.0 software was used for image acquisition. Furostanol localization was
visualized as dark red areas.
124
3.3.4. Purification and Confirmation of Analytical Standards.
Closely following the procedure recently reported in chapter two, the steroidal
glycosides 1-5 were isolated as analytical standards from lyophilized L. longiflorum bulbs
(Figure 3.2). Briefly, lyophilized lily bulb powder was washed with n-pentane and
extracted with ethanol and deionized water (7:3, v/v). After the removal of solvent, the
extract was dissolved in deionized water, washed with ethyl acetate, and extracted with n-
butanol. The organic phase was evaporated under reduced pressure and lyophilized,
yielding a crude steroidal glycoside extract. The crude glycoside extract was fractionated
by gel permeation chromatography and repeated semipreparative RP-HPLC to yield
compounds 1 – 5. The standards were obtained as white amorphous powders in high
purity, >98%, as determined by LC-MS and NMR.
125
O
R3OO
OH
R2O
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
O
HOO
OH
R1O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
O
HO
OH
O
O
HO
OH
OH
O
HOHO
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
R1
R2 R3
H
H
H
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
14 15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
1''''
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
6-Ac- -D-Glcp-D-Glcp
1
2
4
5
-L-Arap -D-Xlyp
3
-D-Glcp
6-Ac- -D-Glcp
-D-Glcp
-L-Arap
-D-Xlyp
Figure 3.2. Structures of steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 – 2 and furostanol saponins 3 – 5
quantified in the various L. longiflorum organs.
126
3.3.4.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR).
1D1H NMR and
13C NMR spectra were acquired on an AMX-400 spectrometer
and an AMX-500 spectrometer (Bruker, Rheinstetten, Germany). Samples for NMR
analysis were dissolved in pyridine-d5 and chemical shifts were calculated as δ values
with reference to tetramethylsilane (TMS).
3.3.5. Quantitative Analysis of Steroidal Glycosides in Lilium longiflorum.
3.3.5.1. Sample Preparation
Lyophilized lily organ samples were removed from the freezer and allowed to
reach room temperature. The samples were ground to a fine powder with a laboratory
mill (IKA Labortechnik, Staufen, Germany) and passed through a sieve (pore size =
270mesh) (W. S. Tyler Inc., Mentor, OH). Each sample (125 mg except 250 mg for
fibrous roots and fleshy roots) was weighed separately and transferred into a 50 mL
volumetric flask, which was partially filled with ethanol and deionized water (7:3, v/v; 35
mL each). The samples were then extracted on a wrist-action autoshaker (45 min)
(Burrell Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA), sonicated in an ultrasonic water bath (30 min)
(B3500A-DTH ultrasonic bath, VWR International Inc., West Chester, PA), and filled to
full volume (50 mL) with ethanol and deionized water (7:3, v/v). The solution was
transferred to a centrifuge tube, centrifuged (5000 rpm for 10 min) (Sorvall RC-3C Plus,
127
Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.), and filtered through a 0.45 μm PTFE syringe filter
(Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.) prior to LC-MS/MS analysis.
3.3.5.2. Analytical Standard Preparation
Steroidal glycosides 1 – 5, isolated and purified as described in chapter two were
used as analytical standards. The analytical standards were accurately weighed into
volumetric flasks (10 mL) and partially filled with ethanol and deionized water (7:3, v/v;
7 mL each). Solutions were sonicated (5 min) and filled to full volume (10 mL) with
ethanol and deionized water (7:3, v/v). Solutions used for calibration curves were
prepared by dilution of the stock solutions. External calibration curves were established
over six data points covering a concentration range of 0.086 – 2.75 μg mL-1
for
compound 1 and 0.078 – 2.5 μg mL-1
for compounds 2 – 5. Mean areas (n = 3) generated
from the standard solutions were plotted against concentration to establish calibration
equations. Standard solutions were stored at 4 °C and were allowed to reach room
temperature prior to analysis.
3.3.5.3. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).
LC-MS/MS analysis of L. longiflorum extracts was performed using an Agilent
1200 series HPLC system (Agilent Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, CA) equipped with a
FC/ALS Therm autosampler thermostat, a HiP-ALS SL autosampler, a BIN Pump SL
128
binary pump, a TCC SL thermostated column compartment, and a DADSL diode array
detector, interfaced to a 6410 triple-quadrupole LC-MS mass selective detector equipped
with an API-ESI ionization source. Chromatographic separations were performed on a
Prodigy C18 column (250 x 4.6 mm i.d.; 5.0 μm particle size) (Phenomenex, Torrance,
CA) operated at a flow rate of 1.0 mL min-1
, column temperature set to 25 °C, and an
injection volume of 10 μL. The binary mobile phase consisted of (A) 0.1% formic acid in
deionized water and (B) 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile. Chromatographic separations
were performed using a linear gradient of 15 – 43%B over 40min and then to 95%B over
5 min; thereafter, elution with 95% B was performed for 10 min. The re-equilibration
time was 10 min. Mass Hunter Workstation Data Acquisition, Qualitative Analysis, and
Quantitative Analysis software were used for data acquisition and analysis. Quantitative
analysis was performed in positive ion mode. Ionization parameters included capillary
voltage, 3.5 kV; nebulizer pressure, 35 psi; drying gas flow, 10.0 mL min-1
; and drying
gas temperature, 350 °C. Full-scan mass data were collected for a mass range of m/z 100
– 1500. MS2 experiments were conducted for precursor and product ion selection for
steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 and 2 (Figure 3.3) and furostanol saponins 3 – 5 (Figure 3.4).
129
Figure 3.3. MS2 product ion spectra of steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 – 2.
x103
0
2
4
6
8
884.5
866.5
x104
0
1
2
926.5
908.5
850 900 950 Counts vs. Mass-to-Charge (m/z)
130
Figure 3.4. MS2 product ion spectra of furostanol saponins 3 – 5.
Flow injection analysis (FIA) experiments were performed to optimize
fragmentor voltages and collision energies. The fragmentor voltage was set at 120 V, and
collision energies were set to 60, 55, 30, 25, and 25 for compounds 1 – 5, respectively.
By means of the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode, the individual steroidal
glycosides were analyzed using the following mass transitions given in parentheses: 1
(m/z 926.5 → 908.5), 2 (m/z 884.5 → 866.5), 3 (m/z 1047.5 → 885.5), 4 (m/z 1017.5 →
855.5), 5 (m/z 1017.5 → 855.5) (Figure 3.5).
x103
0
1
2 1047.5
885.5
x103
0
1
2
3 1017.5
855.5
x10
3
0
1
2
3
4
5 1017.5
855.5
800 900 1000 1100
Counts vs. Mass-to-Charge (m/z)
131
Figure 3.5. MS/MS chromatograms for the quantitative analysis of compounds 1 – 5 in a
L. longiflorum bulb scale using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode.
x10 2
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
Counts vs. Acquisition Time (min) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
x10 2
x10 3
x10 3
x10 3
m/z 1017.5 → 855.5
m/z 1047.5 → 885.5
m/z 926.5 → 908.5
m/z 884.5 → 866.5
TIC 1
2
3 4 5
1
2
3
4
5
132
3.3.5.4. Recovery
Recovery rates were calculated using the standard addition method (Skoog et al.,
1997). Lyophilized and finely ground lily organs were separately weighed, transferred
into volumetric flasks (50 mL), and spiked with three different concentrations (50, 100,
and 200 μg g-1
) of purified reference standards dissolved in ethanol and deionized water
(7:3, v/v). The volumetric flasks were then partially filled with ethanol and deionized
water (7:3, v/v; 35 mL each). After extraction on a laboratory shaker (45 min) and
sonication (30 min), they were filled to full volume (50 mL) with ethanol and deionized
water (7:3, v/v). Quantitative analysis was then performed as described above. The
recovery rate for each steroidal glycoside in the different plant organs was calculated by
comparing the amount of standard in the spiked sample with the content found in the lily
organ sample that was not spiked with additional standards (control). Each analysis was
performed in triplicate.
3.3.5.5. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC).
L. longiflorum bulb extract, prepared as described above, was evaporated under
reduced pressure (30 °C; 1.0 x 10-3
bar) using a Laborota 4003 rotary evaporator
(Heidolph Brinkman LLC, Elk Grove Village, IL) and lyophilized. Lyophilized bulb
extract (1 mg) and compounds 3 – 5 (1 mg) were individually dissolved in methanol (0.5
mL), spotted on a 20 cm x 20 cm silica gel 60 F254 TLC plate (Merck & Co., Inc.,
Whitehouse Station, NJ), and developed with chloroform/methanol/water (8:4:1, v/v/v).
133
To detect furostanols, TLC plates were developed with Ehrlich‘s reagent [3.2 g of p-
(dimethylamino)benzaldehyde in 60 mL of 95% ethanol and 60 mL of 12NHCl] and
heated to 110 °C for 5 min. Bright red spots were indicative of a positive reaction.
3.3.5.6. Statistical Analysis.
To examine differences in concentrations of steroidal glycosides in the different
plant organs, data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were
separated with Fisher‘s protected LSD (R = 0.05) using SAS version 9.2 for Windows
(SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC).
3.4. Results and Discussion
3.4.1. Quantification of steroidal glycosides in the different organs of L. longiflorum.
In chapter two, five steroidal glycosides including two steroidal glycoalkaloids
and three furostanol saponins were identified for the first time in L. longiflorum. To
investigate the natural distribution of these compounds in the different organs of L.
longiflorum, compounds 1 – 5 were purified as analytical standards. To quantify
compounds 1 – 5 in different organs of L. longiflorum, extracts prepared from bulb
scales, fibrous roots, fleshy roots, leaves, lower stems, upper stems, flower buds, and
mature flowers were analyzed by LC-MS/MS operating in MRM mode. To assess
134
linearity, calibration curves were constructed over a range of six concentrations. Good
linearity was achieved over the concentration ranges of 0.086 – 2.75 μg mL-1
for
compound 1 and 0.078 – 2.50 μg mL-1
for compounds 2 – 5 (Figure 3.6; Figure 3.7;
Figure 3.8; Figure 3.9; Figure 3.10). The correlation coefficients for compounds 1 – 5
ranged from R2 = 0.9997 to R
2 = 0.9999.
Figure 3.6. Calibration equation for compound 1.
135
Figure 3.7. Calibration equation for compound 2.
136
Figure 3.8. Calibration equation for compound 3.
137
Figure 3.9. Calibration equation for compound 4.
138
Figure 3.10. Calibration equation for compound 5.
To assess the accuracy of the analytical method, recovery rates were calculated
for compounds 1 – 5 in each plant organ. Standards were added in defined amounts to
each plant organ sample prior to quantitative analysis and compared to a control with no
standard addition. Recovery rates were calculated in the bulb scales (98.7 – 100.2%),
fibrous roots (95.7 – 102.4%), fleshy roots (98.6 – 102.0%), leaves (95.8 – 103.0%),
lower stems (97.7 – 100.1%), upper stems (95.9 – 102.3%), flower buds (95.3 – 101.0%),
and mature flowers (96.3 – 101.9%). The recovery rates for compounds 1 – 5 in all
139
organs analyzed were within the range of 95.7 – 103.0%. The precision of the method
was tested by multiple injections of the same bulb scale sample (n = 6) and calculating
the relative standard deviation (RSD) of compounds 1 – 5. The RSD values for
compounds 1 – 5 were 3.24, 2.54, 4.51, 1.63, and 2.58%, respectively. These data clearly
demonstrate acceptable recovery rates, RSD, and linearity, suggesting that the LC-
MS/MS method operating in MRM mode is a reliable method for the accurate
quantitative determination of compounds 1 – 5 in the different organs of L. longiflorum.
Concentrations of compounds 1 – 5 were determined in bulb scales, fibrous roots,
fleshy roots, leaves, lower stems, upper stems, flower buds, and mature flowers of L.
longiflorum cv. 7-4. The concentration of compounds 1 – 5 in the different plant organs
were significantly different as determined by ANOVA, P < 0.0001 (Table 3.1). The
highest concentrations of the total five steroidal glycosides were 12.02 ± 0.36, 10.09 ±
0.23, and 9.36 ± 0.27 mg g-1
dry weight in flower buds, lower stems, and leaves,
respectively (Table 3.2). Interestingly, the proportions of the steroidal glycoalkaloids 1
and 2 to furostanol saponins 3 – 5 were variable and decreased from the aboveground
plant organs to the underground organs (Figure 3.11). The highest concentrations of the
two steroidal glycoalkaloids were 8.49 ± 0.3, 6.91 ± 0.22, and 5.83 ± 0.15 mg g-1
dry
weight in flower buds, leaves, and bulbs, respectively (Table 3.2).
140
Table 3.1. ANOVA for concentrations of compounds 1 – 5 in the different organs of L.
longiflorum.
Compound Source SS df MS F P-value
1 Between organs 55.0459958 7 7.86371369 813.84 < 0.0001
Error 0.1546 16 0.0096625
Total 55.2005958 23
2 Between organs 30.0797958 7 4.29711369 389.32 < 0.0001
Error 0.1766 16 0.0110375
Total 30.2563958 23
3 Between organs 11.5567167 7 1.65095952 406.81 < 0.0001
Error 0.06493333 16 0.00405833
Total 11.62165 23
4 Between organs 11.18485 7 1.59783571 1681.93 < 0.0001
Error 0.0152 16 0.00095
Total 11.20005 23
5 Between organs 3.81072917 7 0.54438988 706.24 < 0.0001
Error 0.01233333 16 0.00077083
Total 3.8230625 23
141
Table 3.2. Concentrations of compounds 1 – 5 in the different organs of L. longiflorum.
1
Values with the same letter in each row are not significantly different (p < 0.05). 2
Concentrations are means of triplicates ± SD, expressed on a dry weight basis (dw).
compounds
concentration (mg g-1 dw)1,2
bulb scale fibrous root fleshy root leaf lower stem upper stem bud flower
1 3.31c ± 0.12 0.30g ± 0.05 0.55f ± 0.02 4.23b ± 0.01 3.17c ± 0.05 2.87d ± 0.15 4.82a ± 0.19 1.96e ± 0.03
2 2.52bc ± 0.07 0.26f ± 0.04 0.44f ± 0.01 2.68b ± 0.22 2.05d ± 0.05 2.34c ± 0.12 3.67a ± 0.11 0.96e ± 0.05
Total 1-2 5.83c ± 0.15 0.56g ± 0.09 0.99f ± 0.01 6.91b ± 0.22 5.22d ± 0.1 5.21d ± 0.27 8.49a ± 0.30 2.92e ± 0.07
3 1.51c ± 0.08 0.47f ± 0.03 1.55c ± 0.01 2.01b ± 0.07 1.50c ± 0.12 1.15d ± 0.04 2.92a ± 0.06 0.88e ± 0.05
4 0.81c ± 0.04 0.26f ± 0.02 1.76b ± 0.04 0.29f ± 0.01 2.18a ± 0.04 0.67d ± 0.03 0.41e ± 0.01 0.35e ± 0.01
5 0.69c ± 0.05 0.13f ± 0.01 1.06b ± 0.03 0.15f ± 0.01 1.19a ± 0.02 0.37d ± 0.04 0.20e ± 0.01 0.22e ± 0.01
Total 3-5 3.01d ± 0.17 0.86h ± 0.07 4.37b ± 0.07 2.45e ± 0.09 4.87a ± 0.13 2.19f ± 0.05 3.53c ± 0.06 1.45g ± 0.05
Total 1-5 8.84d ± 0.3 1.42h ± 0.14 5.36f ± 0.08 9.36c ± 0.27 10.09b ± 0.23 7.4e ± 0.32 12.02a ± 0.36 4.38g ± 0.12
142
Figure 3.11. Proportions of steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 – 2 to furostanol saponins 3 – 5 in
the different organs of L. longiflorum. Proportions are based on mg g-1
dry weight basis.
The two steroidal glycoalkaloids, 1 and 2, had a similar pattern of distribution in the
various organs of L. longiflorum (Figure 3.12; Figure 3.13). Compound 1 occurred in
significantly different concentrations in all of the plant organs analyzed, except for the
concentration in the bulb scale compared to the lower stem, which were not significantly
different from each other. Compound 1 occurred in the highest concentration of 4.82 ±
0.19 mg g-1
in the flower buds followed by 4.23 ± 0.01 mg g-1
in the leaf tissue.
143
Figure 3.12. Concentrations of steroidal glycoalkaloid 1 in the different organs of L.
longiflorum. Bars with the same letter are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
The concentration of 1 was significantly higher in the lower stem as compared to the
upper stem, at 3.17 ± 0.05 and 2.87 ± 0.15 mg g-1
, respectively. In the underground
organs, compound 1 occurred in the highest concentration of 3.31 ± 0.12 mg g-1
in the
bulb scale as compared to the lowest concentrations of 0.30 ± 0.05and 0.55 ± 0.02 mg g-1
in the fibrous roots and fleshy roots, respectively. Compound 2, the acetylated derivative
1
c
g
b
f
c d
a
e
144
of compound 1, was distributed similarly to compound 1; however, it generally occurred
in slightly lower concentrations.
Figure 3.13. Concentrations of steroidal glycoalkaloid 2 in the different organs of L.
longiflorum. Bars with the same letter are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
O
HO
OH
O
Compound 2 occurred in the highest concentration of 3.67 ± 0.11 mg g-1
in the flower
bud followed by 2.68 ± 0.22 mg g-1
in the leaf tissue and 2.52 ± 0.07 mg g-1
in the bulb
scale. In contrast to compound 1, compound 2 was significantly higher in the upper stem
2
bc
f
b
f
d c
a
e
145
as compared to the lower stem, at 2.34 ± 0.12 and 2.05 ± 0.05 mg g-1
, respectively. The
concentration of compound 2 was not significantly different between bulb scales and
leaves, 2.52 ± 0.07 and 2.68 ± 0.22 mg g-1
, bulbs scales and upper stem, 2.52 ± 0.07 and
2.34 ± 0.12 mg g-1
, and between fibrous roots and fleshy roots, 0.26 ± 0.04 and 0.44 ±
0.01 mg g-1
. Both steroidal glycoalkaloids occurred in the lowest concentration in the
fleshy roots and fibrous roots as compared to the other organs of the plant. Interestingly,
compounds 1 and 2 were lower in the flowers as compared to flower buds, which
contained the highest concentration of both compounds. Similar to solanaceous plants,
glycoalkaloid pairs that differed only in the composition of the carbohydrate moiety were
found (Sánchez-Mata et al., 2010; Roddick et al., 2001). Although glycoalkaloids are also
present in the edible parts of solanaceous plants, they can be toxic. Solanidine
glycoalkaloids found in potato tubers are generally considered to be safe at
concentrations of < 0.2 mg g-1
fresh weight (Sinden and Webb, 1972). Lily bulbs contain
solasodine glycoalkaloids similar to the glycoalkaloids found in eggplant, and these
compounds are less toxic than the solanidine based compounds (Roddick et al., 2001).
The content of steroidal glycoalkaloids, 1 and 2, in lily bulbs and flower buds is > 0.2 mg
g-1
fresh weight, but is similar to the content of solasonine and solamargine found in
Solanum macrocarpon, the Gboma eggplant, consumed in parts of Africa, Southeast
Asia, and the Caribbean. The glycoalkaloid levels in the fruits of Gboma eggplant are 5 –
10 times higher than the levels that are considered to be safe for human consumption
based on current standards (Sánchez-Mata et al., 2010). Feeding experiments are clearly
needed to determine the safe levels of L. longiflorum bulbs and flower buds for human
consumption and if the steroidal glycoalkaloids are the toxic compounds in flowers and
146
leaves that are responsible for poisoning in domesticated cats. Nevertheless, solasodine-
based glycoalkaloids have been used to treat human skin carcinomas and are of
commercial interest as a raw material for the production of pharmaceutical steroids
(Eltayeb et al., 1997).
The distribution of the furostanol saponins 3 – 5 was somewhat different from
that of the steroidal glycoalkaloids in the various plant organs of L. longiflorum (Figure
3.14; Figure 3.16; Figure 3.17).
147
Figure 3.14. Concentrations of compound 3 in the different organs of L. longiflorum.
Bars with the same letter are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
The highest concentrations of the three furostanol saponins were 4.87 ± 0.13, 4.37
± 0.07, and 3.53 ± 0.06 mg g-1
dry weight in lower stems, fleshy roots, and flower buds,
respectively (Table 3.2). Structurally, compounds 3 – 5 are similar except for the
interglycosidic linkage and terminal saccharide residues of the C-3 trisaccharide moiety
(Figure 3.15). In compound 3, the terminal sugar is a (+)-D-glucose linked from the C-
1′′′ carbon of the terminal sugar to the C-4′ carbon of the inner glucose. In compound 4,
c
f
b
c c d
a
e
3
148
the terminal sugar is (-)-L-arabinose linked from the C-1′′′ carbon to the C-3′ carbon of
the inner glucose. Compound 5 has the same interglycosidic linkage as compound 4;
however, it contains a (+)-(D)-xylose as the terminal sugar.
Figure 3.15. Differences in saccharide composition and interglycosidic linkages of
compounds 3 – 5.
Compound 3 occurred in significantly different concentrations in all of the plant
organs except that the bulb scale, lower stem, and fleshy roots were not significantly
different. The concentrations in the bulb scale, lower stem, and fleshy roots were 1.51 ±
0.08, 1.50 ± 0.12, and 1.55 ± 0.01 mg g-1
, respectively. Compound 3 occurred in the
highest concentration of 2.92 ± 0.06 mg g-1
in the flower buds followed by 2.01 ± 0.07
mg g-1
in the leaf tissue. Interestingly, the fibrous roots had the lowest concentration, and
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
HO
OH
OH
O
OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
HOHO
OH
O
OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO OHOH
O
3''
4''
3''
3
4
5
-D-Glcp
-D-Glcp
-L-Arap
-D-Xlyp
-L-Rhap
-L-Rhap
-L-Rhap
-D-Glcp
-D-Glcp
4
2
3
2
2
3
3
4
5
149
similarly to the steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 and 2, the flower buds had a higher
concentration than the mature flowers.
Compounds 4 and 5 had a similar pattern of distribution in the various organs of
L. longiflorum; however, compound 5 was slightly lower than compound 4 in all plant
organs. The concentrations of both compounds 4 and 5 were not significantly different
between fibrous roots and leaves or between flower buds and mature flowers.
150
Figure 3.16. Concentrations of compound 4 in the different organs of L. longiflorum.
Bars with the same letter are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
O
HO
OH
OH
O
OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
c
f f
b a
d e e
4
151
Figure 3.17. Concentrations of compound 5 in the different organs of L. longiflorum.
Bars with the same letter are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
O
HOHO
OH
O
OO
OH
HO
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
c
f f
b a
d e e
5
152
3.4.2. Histological visualization of furostanol localization in bulb scale sections of L.
longiflorum.
The Ehrlich reagent color reaction was employed to visualize furostanols in bulb
scale sections. The furostanols gave a bright red positive reaction, whereas the steroidal
glycoalkaloids were not positive for the reaction. Additionally, a crude extract of bulb
scales was separated by TLC and only furostanol bands gave a positive reaction,
suggesting that staining bulb scales with Ehrlich reagent should not produce positive
reactions with non-target compounds. Macroscopically, bulb scale cross sections showed
accumulation of furostanols in the outermost layers of the bulb scale. Additionally, a
positive reaction was observed surrounding three vascular bundles located in the
mesophyll, suggesting furostanol localization is associated with vascular bundles and
closely adjacent cells (Figure 3.18).
153
Figure 3.18. Histochemical staining of a bulb scale section. Arrows indicate the
epidermis (A) and three vascular bundles (B). Red color indicates the presence of
furostanols.
Interestingly, a positive reaction was not observed in the mesophyll, suggesting
preferential accumulation and elevated levels of furostanols in the outermost layer of the
bulb scale and association with vascular bundles. Microscopically, furostanols were
visualized in the highest intensity within the cells of the basal plate, and vascular bundles
and preferential accumulation in the intercellular spaces between the mesophyll cells and
palisade cell layer were observed (Figure 3.19; Figure 3.20).
154
Figure 3.19. Histochemical analysis of bulb basal plate and bulb scale sections: (A) Bulb
basal plate and adjacent bulb scale section. Lettered boxes indicate topography of images
(B) and (C); (B) subepidermal intercellular furostanol accumulation along the palisade
parenchyma of the basal plate (red); (C) Intercellular furostanol accumulation between
spongy tissue cells and palisade parenchyma of the basal plate (red). Furostanol
localization is visualized as dark red areas. VB, vascular bundles; BP, basal plate; M,
bulb scale mesophyll; EP, epidermal cells.
B
C
C B
M
BP
VB
EP EP
VB
20x
40x 40x
A
155
Figure 3.20. Histochemical analysis of bulb basal plate and bulb scale sections: (D)
Epidermal (red) and mesophyll cells of a bulb scale section; (E) Bulb scale epidermis
(red), mesophyll and apical meristem (red); (F) Apical meristem (red) and mesophyll
cells; (G) Bulb scale epidermal cells (red) and mesophyll cells. Furostanol localization is
visualized as dark red areas. VB, vascular bundles; BP, basal plate; M, bulb scale
mesophyll; EP, epidermal cells; AP, apical meristem.
D E
F G
EP
EP
AP
AP
M
M M
40x
10x
10x
10x
M
156
These observations were consistent with a histochemical analysis of mature leaf slices of
Achyranthus bidentata that showed triterpenoid saponin accumulation in palisade tissue
and phloem cells of the main vein vascular bundles and in phloem cells of the normal and
medullary vascular bundles of stem sections (Li and Hu, 2008). Interestingly, in oats, A.
sativa, the fluorescent steroidal saponin, avenacin A-1, has been visualized under UV
light and found to be localized in the epidermal cell layer of roots (Osbourn, 1999).
Similarly, in a histological study of Dioscorea caucasia, furostanol accumulation was
observed in specialized idioblasts in the upper and lower leaf epidermis and was not
observed in the leaf mesophyll (Gurielidze et al., 2004). Consistent with the observations
in D. caucasia and A. bidentata, there was no positive staining reaction in the mesophyll
of the bulb scale of L. longiflorum, suggesting lower levels of furostanols in these tissues.
3.4.3. Quantification of steroidal glycosides within bulb scales of L. longiflorum.
LC-MS/MS operating in MRM mode was employed to quantitatively determine
the levels of compounds 1 – 5 within whole bulb scales, the inner portion of bulb scales,
and the outermost portion of bulb scales. The outermost layers of intact lyophilized bulb
scales were carefully excised with a scalpel. The excised outermost cell layer was
approximately 15% of the average mass of the whole intact bulb scale. Quantitative
analysis was performed on whole bulb scale, the outermost layer of bulb scale (mostly
epidermal and subepidermal cells), and the innermost layer of bulb scale (mostly
mesophyll and vascular bundles) (Table 3.3).
157
Table 3.3. Concentrations of compounds 1 – 5 in whole bulb scale, bulb epidermis, and
bulb mesophyll.
1 Values with the same letter in each row are not significantly different (p < 0.05). 2 Concentrations are means of triplicates ± SD, expressed on a dry weight basis (dw).
Consistent with what was observed from the histological experiment, the concentrations
of furostanols 3 – 5 were higher in the outermost portion of the bulb scale verses the
inner bulb scale tissue. These quantitative data confirm the qualitative histological
observations made for localization of furostanols in bulb scale sections. Interestingly, the
steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 and 2 had the same organ distribution pattern as the furostanols
and occurred in elevated levels in the outermost portion of the bulb. The relative portions
of compounds 1 – 5 in the outermost layer of bulb scales were 38, 31, 20, 6, and 5%,
respectively (Figure 3.21).
compounds
concentration (mg g-1 dw)
1,2
whole bulb
scale
bulb
epidermis
bulb
mesophyll
1 3.31b ± 0.12 13.76
a ± 0.5 0.06
c ± 0.01
2 2.52b ± 0.07 11.22
a ± 0.3 0.07
c ± 0.01
3 1.51 b ± 0.08 7.27
a ± 0.4 0.10
c ± 0.01
4 0.81b ± 0.04 1.91
a ± 0.1 0.20
c ± 0.02
5 0.69b ± 0.05 1.90
a ± 0.1 0.17
c ± 0.02
158
Figure 3.21. Proportions of compounds 1 – 5 in (A) whole bulb scale, (B) bulb epidermis,
and (C) bulb mesophyll. Proportions are based on mg g-1
dry weight basis.
The relative portions of compounds 1 – 5 in the innermost portion of bulb scales
were 9, 12, 17, 34, and 28%, respectively. The relative proportions of compounds 1 – 5 in
the outermost layer of the bulb scale were similar to that of the whole bulb scale. The
relative proportions of compounds 1 – 5 in the innermost section of the bulb scale were
most similar to those of the fleshy roots, suggesting that the vascular bundles are most
likely contributing to the elevated levels of compound 3 – 5 in this tissue, which is
consistent with the histological visualizations (Figure 3.22).
159
Figure 3.22. Proportions of compounds 1 – 5 in different organs of L. longiflorum.
Proportions are based on mg g-1
dry weight basis.
In summary, the outermost cell layer of bulb scales that are associated with the
bulb epidermis had elevated levels of both steroidal glycoalkaloids and furostanols. The
innermost section of bulb scales had lower levels; however, the proportions of furostanols
to steroidal glycoalkaloids were different, demonstrating that the cells associated with the
vascular bundles have proportions of compounds 1 – 5 similar to those of the fleshy roots
as compared to the bulb epidermis. Elevated levels and preferential accumulation of
steroidal glycosides in the outermost cell layer of bulb scales and the cells associated with
vascular bundles may play a role in wound response and plant-pathogen interaction of L.
longiflorum.
160
3.5. Conclusion
In this chapter, two steroidal glycoalkaloids, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -
L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside and (22R,
25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside, and three furostanol saponins, (25R)-26-
O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-
-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-
furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-arabinopyranosyl-
(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside and (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-
3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-
glucopyranoside, were quantified in the different organs of L. longiflorum for the first
time. The highest concentrations of steroidal glycosides were detected in flower buds,
lower stems, and leaves. The steroidal glycoalkaloids were detected in higher
concentrations as compared to the furostanol saponins in all of the plant organs except for
the fibrous and fleshy roots. The proportions of steroidal glycoalkaloids to furostanol
saponins were higher in the plant organs exposed to light and decreased from the
aboveground organs to the underground organs. The highest concentrations of the
steroidal glycoalkaloids were detected in flower buds, leaves, and bulbs. Both steroidal
glycoalkaloids had a similar pattern of distribution in the various plant organs; however,
the acetylated derivative occurred at lower levels. The furostanol saponins were detected
in the highest concentrations in the lower stems, fleshy roots, and flower buds.
Interestingly, the flower buds contained the highest concentrations of compounds 1 – 3,
161
and the fleshy roots contained the highest levels of compounds 4 and 5. In addition,
differential accumulation of steroidal glycosides was observed in the basal plate, bulb
scale epidermal cells, and vascular bundles.
Steroidal saponins and steroidal glycoalkaloids have been shown to play a role in
host defense in several plant species (Osbourn, 1996; Morrissey and Osbourn, 1999;
Osbourn, 1999; Papadopoulou et al, 1999; Osbourn et al., 2003; Osbourn, 2003; Hughes
et al., 2004). It has been recognized that pathogen infection is often dependent upon the
developmental stage of the plant and is tissue or organ specific (Straathof and Löffler,
1994). It is possible that location specific infection or resistance is related to the level of
specific steroidal glycosides present at a developmental stage or tissue specific location.
A correlation between total saponin content and resistance to the plant pathogenic fungus
Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lilii has been observed in several hybrid Lilium cultivars;
however, only the total saponin content was measured and specific compounds were not
discriminated in the analysis (Curir et al, 2003). The results in this chapter show that the
levels of the two steroidal glycoalkaloids and three furostanol saponins varied in the
different organs and are preferentially accumulated in different tissues. Thus, it is
possible that the levels of specific steroidal glycosides present at a developmental stage
or tissue specific location may play a role in pathogen resistance (e.g. the high levels of
compounds 1 – 3 in the developing flower buds). This concept may be investigated by
observing whether there is a correlation between resistance or susceptibility in a specific
plant tissue and the presence or absence of a specific steroidal glycoside or steroidal
glycoside profile exists. If resistance to the pathogen is found to be associated with a
specific steroidal glycoside concentration or steroidal glycoside profile, an investigation
162
can be conducted on the exogenous application of isolated steroidal glycosides on other
plant species susceptible to the pathogen. This work can also be extended to plant
pathogenic fungi that are not pathogenic to L. longiflorum.
Quantitative analysis of steroidal glycosides in the different organs of L.
longiflorum is the first step to developing insight into the biological role these
compounds play in plant metabolism, plant development, and plant-pathogen
interactions. The results of this study will aid in the development of future studies in
animal and human health and toxicology and of commercial applications such as
functional foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals.
163
Chapter 4: Antifungal Activity and Fungal Metabolism of Steroidal Glycosides of
Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum) by the Plant Pathogenic Fungus, Botrytis cinerea
4.1. Abstract
Botrytis cinerea Pers. Fr. is a plant pathogenic fungus and the causal organism of
blossom blight of Easter lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.). Easter lily is a rich source of
steroidal glycosides, compounds which may play a role in the plant-pathogen interaction
of Easter lily. Five steroidal glycosides, including two steroidal glycoalkaloids and three
furostanol saponins, were isolated from L. longiflorum and evaluated for fungal growth
inhibition activity against B. cinerea, using an in vitro plate assay. All of the compounds
showed fungal growth inhibition activity; however, the natural acetylation of C-6′′′ of the
terminal glucose in the steroidal alkaloid, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside,
increased antifungal activity by inhibiting the rate of metabolism of the compound by the
B. cinerea. Acetylation of the glycoalkaloid may be a plant defense response to the
evolution of detoxifying mechanisms by the pathogen. The biotransformation of the
steroidal glycoalkaloids by B. cinerea led to the isolation and characterization of several
fungal metabolites. The fungal metabolites that were generated in a model system were
also identified in Easter lily tissues infected with the fungus by LC-MS. In addition, a
steroidal glycoalkaloid, (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-
-D-glucopyranoside, was identified as both a fungal metabolite of the steroidal
glycoalkaloids and as a natural product in L. longiflorum for the first time.
164
4.2. Introduction
Botrytis cinerea Pers. Fr. is a necrotrophic plant pathogenic fungus with a broad
host range and is the cause of grey mold disease, one of the most important post-harvest
diseases of fruits and vegetables worldwide. B. cinerea infects over 200 species of
economically important plants and is a causal organism of blossom blight of Easter lily
(Lilium longiflorum Thunb.) and other ornamental lily species (Wehlburg et al., 1975;
Raabe et al, 1981; Williamson et al., 2007). In contrast to Botrytis eliptica, the cause of
fire blight of Easter lily, B. cinerea typically does not infect healthy plant tissues and is
often found growing on stressed, wounded, or senescing tissues (Van Baarlen et al.,
2004). B. cinerea over winters as sclerotia in crop debris and penetrates young plant
tissues where it remains latent until the environmental conditions are conductive to
infection (Williamson et al., 2007). The fungus flourishes in cool temperatures and high
humidity, often during the end of the growing season in late summer and early fall
(McRae, 1998). In fact, it is recommended to treat Easter lily flower buds with fungicide
prior to cold storage as a post-harvest management strategy for the control of blossom
blight in potted Easter lily plants and cut flowers prior to shipment (McAvoy, 2010).
Host defense responses to B. cinerea have been investigated in many plants
including thale cress, Arabidopsis thaliana, and tomato, Solanum lycopersicum
(Williamson et al., 2007). In response to infection by B. cinerea, activation of host
defense pathways including the production of antifungal metabolites and pathogenesis
related proteins have been reported (Van Baarlen et al., 2004). In addition to the
165
activation of inducible defense pathways, steroidal glycosides including steroidal
saponins and steroidal glycoalkaloids, constitutively present in plant tissues, have been
shown to play a role in host defense in several plant species (Osbourn, 1996; Morrissey
and Osbourn, 1999; Osbourn, 1999; Papadopoulou et al, 1999; Osbourn et al., 2003;
Osbourn, 2003; Hughes et al., 2004).
Steroidal saponins are widely distributed secondary metabolites and have been
found in over 100 plant families (Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza., 2006). They are
characterized by a steroid type skeleton glycosidically linked to sugar moieties. Steroidal
glycoalkaloids are similar in structure to steroidal saponins; however, they have nitrogen
present in the steroidal aglycone. In contrast to steroidal saponins, steroidal
glycoalkaloids are only found in the Solanaceae and Liliaceae (Li et al., 2006;
Ghisalberti, 2006).
Due to the amphipathic nature of the molecules, steroidal glycosides have been
shown to disrupt cell membranes both in vitro and in vivo (Steel and Drysdale, 1988;
Roddick et al., 2001). Some studies suggest that membrane disruption may be due either
to the interaction of the aglycone with membrane bound sterols, resulting in the formation
of membrane pores (Armah et al., 1999) or the extraction of membrane bound sterols,
causing loss of lipid bilayer integrity and membrane leakage (Keukens et al., 1992;
Keukens et al., 1995). The antifungal mechanisms of steroidal glycosides remain unclear
and the exact mechanism remains to be elucidated.
Fungal plant pathogens such as Gaeumannomyces graminis and Stagonospora
avanae have the ability to enzymatically detoxify host plant saponins (Bowyer et al.,
1995; Morrissey et al., 2000). Interestingly, B. cinerea has been shown to produce
166
enzymes that can metabolize a variety of plant defense compounds from active forms to
inactive forms (Staples and Mayer et al., 1995). In tomato, B. cinerea metabolizes the
antifungal steroidal glycoalkaloid, -tomatine, to an inactive form by enzymatic cleavage
of the entire saccharide moiety, or by the cleavage of the terminal xylose by a -
xylosidase enzyme (Verhoeff and Liem, 1975; Quidde and Osbourn, 1998). In addition,
other plant pathogenic fungi such as Septoria lycopersici and Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.
lycopersici detoxify -tomatine through independent metabolic pathways (Arneson and
Durbin, 1967; Ford et al., 1977). Investigations have been conducted on the interaction of
steroidal glycosides and B. cinerea; however, to date there are no studies on the
interaction of steroidal glycosides from L. longiflorum and B. cinerea.
Easter lily is a rich source of steroidal glycosides. In the Chapter two and Chapter
three, two steroidal glycoalkaloids, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside (1), (22R,
25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside (2), and three furostanol saponins, (25R)-
26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-
(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside (3), (25R)-26-O-( -D-
glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-
arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside (4) and (25R)-26-O-( -D-
glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-
xylopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside (5) were identified and quantified in the
various plant organs of L. longiflorum. Steroidal glycosides are known to be inhibitory to
fungal growth and may play a role in the plant-pathogen interaction. The goal of this
167
study was to (1): evaluate the biological activity of five steroidal glycosides isolated from
the bulbs of L. longiflorum on the growth of the plant pathogenic fungus B. cinerea, using
an in vitro assay and (2): to use a model system to generate fungal metabolites of the
steroidal glycosides, isolate and characterize the metabolites, and determine if the fungal
metabolites were present in plant tissue infected with B. cinerea.
168
4.3. Materials and Methods
4.3.1. Plant material.
L. longiflorum, cultivar 7-4, plants were provided from the Rutgers University lily
breeding program. Young bulbs were treated with Captan (Bayer CropScience AG,
Monheim am Rhein, Germany) fungicide prior to planting. Bulbs were planted in raised
beds containing Pro-Mix (Premier Horticulture Inc., Quakertown, PA) and were grown to
mature plants under greenhouse conditions for 9 months prior to harvest. The greenhouse
temperatures were set to provide a minimum day temperature of 24 °C and a minimum
night temperature of 18 °C. Plants were fertilized biweekly with a 100 mg L-1
solution of
NPK 15-15-15 fertilizer (J.R. Peters Inc., Allentown, PA). Each plant produced 3 – 5 new
bulbs, which were used for extraction. For the purification of steroidal glycosides 1 – 5,
each plant was harvested by hand and the bulbs were manually separated, immediately
frozen under liquid nitrogen, lyophilized on a VirTis AdVantage laboratory freeze dryer
(SP Industries inc.,Warminster, PA) and stored at -80°C until extraction. For the fungal
inoculation studies, small sections of aerial stems and adjacent leaves of healthy growing
plants were chosen. Small sections were carefully excised from intact plants
approximately 5 cm below the apical meristem.
169
4.3.2. Fungal cultures.
An isolate of Botrytis cinerea was obtained from the Plant Diagnostic Laboratory
at Rutgers Cooperative Research and Extension (New Jersey Agricultural Experiment
Station). Cultures were maintained on potato dextrose agar (PDA, 39 g L-1
deionized
water) (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Fairlawn, NJ) and incubated in the dark at 25 °C.
4.3.3. Chemicals.
The following compounds were obtained commercially: Sephadex LH-20,
hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, Tween-80, chloroform-d (0.03% v/v TMS),
methanol-d4 (0.03% v/v TMS), and pyridine-d5 (0.03% v/v TMS) were purchased from
Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO); and (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-ene-3 -ol (Glycomix Ltd,
Reading, UK). All solvents (acetonitrile, chloroform, ethanol, ethyl acetate, formic acid,
n-butanol, and n-pentane) were chromatographic grade and purchased from Thermo
Fisher Scientific Inc. (Fairlawn, NJ). Potato dextrose agar and potato dextrose broth was
purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. (Fairlawn, NJ). Water was deionized (18
MΩ cm) using a Milli-Q-water purification system (Milli-Q, Bedford, MA).
170
4.3.4. Isolation and Purification of Steroidal Glycosides 1 – 5 from Lilium longiflorum.
Closely following the procedure reported in chapter two, the following five steroidal
glycosides were isolated from lyophilized L. longiflorum bulbs. The compounds were
obtained as white amorphous powders in high purity > 98%, as determined by LC-MS
and NMR.
Compound 1, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside. 1H NMR and
13C NMR were consistent
with the literature (Mimaki and Sashida, 1990).
Compound 2, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-
acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside. 1H NMR and
13C NMR were
consistent with the literature (Munafo et al., 2010).
Compound 3, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside. 1H NMR
and 13
C NMR were consistent with the literature (Ori et al., 1992).
Compound 4, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside. 1H NMR
and 13
C NMR were consistent with the literature (Munafo et al., 2010).
Compound 5, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside. 1H NMR and
13C NMR were consistent with the literature (Munafo et al., 2010).
171
4.3.4.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR).
1H NMR and
13C NMR spectra were acquired on an AMX-400 spectrometer
(Bruker, Rheinstetten, Germany). For NMR analysis, all compounds were dissolved in
pyridine-d5, except for compounds 7 and 10 which were dissolved methanol-d4 and
chloroform-d, respectively. Chemical shifts were generated as δ values with reference to
tetramethylsilane (TMS).
4.3.4.2. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS).
LC-MS analysis was performed using a HP 1100 series HPLC system (Agilent
Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, CA) equipped with an auto injector, quaternary pump,
column heater, and diode array detector, interfaced to a Bruker 6300 series ion-trap mass
spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization chamber. Chromatographic
separations were performed using a Prodigy C18 column (250mm x 4.6mm i.d.; 5.0 m
particle size) (Phenomenex, Torrance, CA). The flow rate was set to 1.0 mL min-1
and
the column temperature was set to 25 °C. The binary mobile phase composition consisted
of (A) 0.1% formic acid in deionized water and (B) 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile.
Separations were performed using a linear gradient of 15 – 43% B over 40 min and then
to 95% B over 5 min; thereafter, elution with 95% B was performed for 10 min. The re-
equilibration time was 10 min. For instrumentation control and data acquisition, HP
ChemStation and BrukerData Analysis software was used. All mass spectra were
172
acquired in positive ion mode over a scan range of m/z 100 – 2000. Ionization parameters
included: capillary voltage, 3.5 kV; end plate offset, -500V; nebulizer pressure, 50 PSI;
drying gas flow, 10 ml min-1
; and drying gas temperature, 360 °C. Trap parameters
included: ion current control, 30000; maximum accumulation time, 200 ms; trap drive,
61.2; and averages, 12 spectra.
4.3.4.3. Partial acid hydrolysis of compound 1.
Compound 1 (1 mg) was refluxed in a reaction vial (1 mL) (Reacti-Vial, Thermo
Fisher Scientific Inc., Fairlawn, NJ) at 80 °C for 2 hours in a solution of 1N HCl in
methanol (0.5 mL). After hydrolysis and titration to pH 7 with NaOH (4N), the sample
was evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure (30 °C; 1.0 x 10-3
bar) using a
Labarota 4003 rotary evaporator (Heidolph Brinkman LLC, Elk Grove Village, IL). The
residue was dissolved in ethanol and water (7:3, v/v; 2 mL), mixed on a vortex mixer (1
min) and filtered through 0.45 m PTFE syringe filter (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.,
Fairlawn, NJ) prior to LC-MS analysis (Figure 4.1).
173
Figure 4.1. Total ion chromatogram (TIC) of the partial acid-catalyzed hydrolysis
products of compound 1. Compound 9 is (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside, compound 7 is (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-
3 -yl O- -D-glucopyranoside, and compound 10 is (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -ol
(solasodine).
4.3.5. B. cinerea growth inhibition assay.
Antifungal activity was assessed by an in vitro fungal growth inhibition assay
modified from Nicol et al. (Nicol et al., 2001). Fungi were maintained on potato dextrose
agar (PDA, 39 g L-1
deionized water) and incubated in the dark at 25 °C. The cultures
were continuously maintained by transferring a 5 mm plug of mycelium cut with a cork
bore from the periphery of actively growing colonies to freshly prepared media. The
fungal growth inhibition of compounds 1 – 5 were evaluated at three concentrations (1,
10, 100 mol) in the final media. Solutions of compound 1 – 5 were prepared in ethanol
and water (7:3, v/v), filter sterilized with a 0.22 m sterile syringe filter (Thermo Fisher
0
1
2
3
7 x10
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
9
7
10
174
Scientific Inc., Fairlawn, NJ) and incorporated into autoclaved PDA that was allowed to
cool to 50 °C. The media (each plate; 5 mL) was then transferred to polystyrene Petri
dishes (50 mm x 12 mm) (VWR International Inc., West Chester, PA), and allowed to
solidify. The final concentration of carrier solvent was 1% of the final volume of media
for all treatments and control. Plates were inoculated with a 5 mm plug taken from the
periphery of an actively growing stock culture. Plates were incubated in the dark at 25 °C
and the radial growth of each colony was measured using an ABS Solar Digimatic
Caliper (Mitutoyo America Corporation, Aurora, IL). Treatment and control colonies
were measured when the control colonies reached approximately 80% of plate diameter.
The average control colony diameter minus the average treatment colony diameter was
used to calculate the relative growth inhibition. (% inhibition = (average control diameter
mm – treatment diameter mm)/average control diameter (mm).
4.3.6. In vitro fungal metabolism of compounds 1 and 2.
Solutions of compound 1 and 2 were separately prepared in ethanol and water
(7:3, v/v), filter sterilized with a 0.22 m syringe filter and incorporated into autoclaved
PDA that was allowed to cool to 50 °C. The media (each plate; 5 mL) was then
transferred to polystyrene Petri dishes (50 mm x 12 mm) and allowed to solidify. A total
of 4 plates were prepared for each compound. The final concentration for each compound
was 100 molar. Plates were inoculated in the center with a 5 mm plug taken from the
periphery of an actively growing stock culture. Plates were incubated in the dark at 25 °C
and harvested at 48 and 72 hours, respectively. At harvest, the total contents of 2 plates
175
(total; 10 mL) were transferred to a centrifuge tube (50 mL) (Thermo Fisher Scientific
Inc., Fairlawn, NJ) containing ethanol and water (7:3, v/v; 35 mL). Each sample was then
extracted on a wrist-action autoshaker (15 min) (Burrell Scientific, Pittsburg, PA),
sonicated in an ultrasonic water bath (15 min) (B3500A-DTH ultrasonic bath, VWR
International Inc., West Chester, PA), and centrifuged (5000 rpm for 10 min) (Sorvall
RC-3C Plus, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.). The supernatant was then filtered through
0.45 m PTFE syringe filter prior to LC-MS analysis
4.3.7. Scale-up fungal metabolism of compound 1.
Potato dextrose broth (PDB, 39 g L-1
deionized water) (each; 100 mL) was
prepared and transferred to an Erlenmeyer flask (250 mL) and autoclaved. Once the
broth reached room temperature, it was inoculated with B. cinerea and incubated on an
orbital platform shaker at 200 rpm for 48 hours at 25 °C. After 48 hours, compound 1 (35
mg) was dissolved in ethanol and water (7:3, v/v; 1 mL), filter sterilized with a 0.22 m
sterile syringe filter and introduced to the flask. The reaction was monitored by sampling
aliquots (each; 0.5 mL) every 24 hours for 96 hours (Figure 4.2; Figure 4.3; Figure 4.4;
Figure 4.5). Each aliquot was diluted (1:3, v/v) with ethanol and water (7:3, v/v; 1.5
mL), and filtered through 0.45 m PTFE syringe filter prior to LC-MS analysis. At the
completion of the reaction, the content of the flask was immediately frozen under liquid
nitrogen, lyophilized and stored at -80 °C until extraction.
176
Figure 4.2. Extracted ion chromatograms of m/z 885 (compound 1) from samples taken
every 24 hours over the course of 96 hours. This illustrates the decrease over time due to
its metabolism by B. cinerea.
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
18.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 Time [min]
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
8 x10
Intens.
24 hrs
72 hrs
48 hrs
96 hrs
177
Figure 4.3. Extracted ion chromatograms of m/z 723 (compound 6) of samples taken
every 24 hours over the course of 96 hours. This illustrates the increase of the fungal
metabolite, compound 6, derived from the metabolism of compound 1 by B. cinerea.
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
18.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 Time [min]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 x10
Intens.
24 hrs
72 hrs
48 hrs
96 hrs
178
Figure 4.4. Extracted ion chromatograms of m/z 577 (compound 7) of samples taken
every 24 hours over the course of 96 hours. This illustrates the increase of the fungal
metabolite, compound 7, derived from the metabolism of compound 1 by B. cinerea.
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH
O
HN
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Time [min]
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
8 x10
Intens.
24 hrs
72 hrs
48 hrs
96 hrs
179
Figure 4.5. Extracted ion chromatograms of m/z 414.6 (compound 10) of samples taken
every 24 hours over the course of 96 hours. This illustrates the increase of the fungal
metabolite, compound 10, derived from the metabolism of compound 1 by B. cinerea.
HO
O
HN
30 31 32 33 34 Time [min]
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
7 x10
24 hrs
72 hrs
48 hrs
96 hrs
Intens.
180
4.3.7.1. Semi-preparative RP-HPLC isolation of the fungal metabolites of compound 1.
The lyophilized reaction mixture, as described above, was ground into a fine
powder with a laboratory mill (IKA Labortechnik, Staufen, Germany) and extracted with
ethanol and water (7:3, v/v; 2 x 50 mL) on an autoshaker at room temperature for 15
minutes. After centrifugation (5000 rpm for 10 minutes), the supernatant was collected
and the residue discarded. The supernatant was then evaporated under reduced pressure,
dissolved in a mixture of 0.1% formic acid in deionized water and 0.1% formic acid in
acetonitrile (75:25, v/v; 5 mL), and filtered through 0.45 m PTFE syringe filtered prior
to purification. Chromatographic separations were achieved by semipreparative RP-
HPLC performed on a Luna C18 column (250 mm x 21.2 mm i.d.; 10 m particle size)
(Phenomenex, Torrance, CA). Chromatography was performed on a Shimadzu LC-6AD
liquid chromatograph (Shimadzu Scientific Instruments Inc, Columbia, MD) using a
UV/VIS detector and a 2 mL injection loop. Mixtures of (A) 0.1% formic acid in
deionized water and (B) 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile were used as the mobile phase.
The flow rate was set to 20 mL min-1
, the column temperature was 23 ± 2 °C and UV
detection was recorded at = 210 nm (Figure 4.6). Chromatography was performed
using a linear gradient of 5 – 30% B over 45 min and then to 90% B over 10 min;
thereafter, elution with 90% B was performed for 10 min. The re-equilibration time was
10 min.
181
Figure 4.6. RP-HPLC chromatogram (λ = 210 nm) of compounds 6, 7, and 10 isolated
from the biotransformation of compound 1 by B. cinerea.
The target compounds were collected, freed from solvent under reduced pressure and
lyophilized, yielding 6 (2 mg), 7 (5 mg), and 10 (1 mg) as white amorphous powders in
high purity > 98%, as determined by LC-MS (Figure 4.7) and NMR.
Compund 6. (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-
glucopyranoside. 1H NMR and
13C NMR were consistent with the literature (Mimaki and
Sashida, 1990).
Compund 7. (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -D-glucopyranoside. 1H NMR and
13C
NMR were consistent with the literature (Kim et al, 1996).
Compound 10 (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -ol. 1H NMR and
13C NMR were consistent
with the literature (Bird et al., 1979).
Inte
nsity (
210)
time (min)
30 35 40 50 45
10
20
30
40
6
7
10
182
Figure 4.7. Total ion chromatograms (TIC) of compounds 6, 7, and 10 isolated
by RP-HPLC.
0
1
2
3
4
5
8 x10
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
10
0
2
4
6
8 x10 7
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
8 x10
Intens.
6
183
4.3.8. Isolation and Purification of Compound 6 from Lilium longiflorum bulbs.
4.3.8.1. Sequential Solvent Extraction of Lyophilized L. longiflorum Bulbs.
Lyophilized lily bulbs (100 g) were frozen in liquid nitrogen, ground into a fine
powder with a laboratory mill and extracted with n-pentane (3 x 100 mL) on an
autoshaker at room temperature for 30 minutes. After centrifugation (5000 rpm for 10
minutes), the organic layers were discarded and the pellet was freed from residual
solvent. The residual material was then extracted with a mixture of ethanol and water
(7:3, v/v; 2 x 150 mL) on an autoshaker for 45 minutes at room temperature. After
centrifugation (5000 rpm for 10 minutes) and vacuum filtration through a Whatman 114
filter paper (Whatman International Ltd., Maidstone, UK), the supernatant was collected
and the residue discarded. The supernatant was then evaporated under reduced pressure
and lyophilized, yielding a crude bulb extract (12.9g). The lyophilized crude bulb extract
was then dissolved in deionized water (100 mL), washed with ethyl acetate (5 x 100 mL)
and the organic phase was discarded. The aqueous phase was then extracted with n-
butanol (5 x 100 mL) and the aqueous phase was discarded. The organic phase was then
evaporated under reduced pressure (30 °C; 1.0 x 10-3
bar) and lyophilized, yielding a
crude glycoside extract (2.2g).
184
4.3.8.2. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC).
Crude glycoside extract (1.0 g) was dissolved in a solution of ethanol and water (7:3,
v/v; 5.0 mL), filtered with a 0.45 m PTFE syringe filter and then applied onto a standard
threaded 4.8cm x 60cm glass column (Kimble Chase Life Science and Research Products
LLC, Vinland, NJ) packed with Sephadex LH-20 (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech,
Uppsala, Sweden) that was washed and conditioned in the same solvent mixture
overnight. Chromatography was performed with isocratic ethanol and water (70:30, v/v)
at a flow rate of 3.5 mL min-1
. The first 200 mL of effluent was discarded and 25
fractions (25 mL each) were collected and analyzed by LC-MS as described above. Based
on the LC-MS analysis, GPC fractions 8 through 10 contained the highest levels of
compound 6 and were combined, evaporated under reduced pressure, and lyophilized,
yielding GPC fraction A (25mg) (Figure 4.8).
185
Figure 4.8. Isolation scheme for compound 6 purified from the bulbs of L. longiflorum.
EtOH, ethanol; EtAC, ethyl acetate; n-BuOH, n-butanol; ACN, acetonitrile.
4.3.8.3 Semipreparative Reverse-Phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-
HPLC).
Purification of compound 6 from GPC fraction A was achieved by
semipreparative RP-HPLC under the same conditions as described for above (Figure
4.9).
186
Figure 4.9. RP-HPLC chromatogram (λ = 210 nm) of compound 6 isolated from L.
longiflorum bulb n-butanol extract fractionated by gel permeation chromatography
(GPC).
Compound 6 was collected, freed from solvent under reduced pressure, and lyophilized
yielding 6 (3 mg) as a white amorphous powder in high purity > 98%, as determined by
LC-MS and NMR. 1H NMR and
13C NMR were consistent with the literature (Mimaki
and Sashida, 1990).
time (min)
20 25 30 40 35
Inte
nsity (
210)
5
6
7
8
6
187
Figure 4.10. Structures of compounds 1 – 10.
O
R5OO
OH
R4O
OH3CHO OHOH
O
O
OH
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
R1O
O
HN
O
HO
OH
OH
O
HOHO
OH
R1
R4 R5
H
H
H
O
HO
OH
HO
OHS1 S3
S4
S5
S6
S2
S1
O
HO
OH
R3O
OR2
S2
R2
S4
R3
S1
O
HO
O
HO
OH
O
OH3CHO OHOH
S5 S6
S2 S4 S3
S2 S4 H
S2 H
S2 S3
H
H
S2 S1H
R1 R2 R3
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
11
1213
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
1'2'
4'
1''
1''''
1
2
3
4
56
7
8
9
10
1112
13
1415
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2324
2526
27
-D-Glcp
1
2
4
5
-L-Arap -D-Xlyp
3
8
9
10
6
7
6-Ac- -D-Glcp
H
-D-Glcp
-L-Rhap
188
4.3.9. Infection of L. Longiflorum tissue and sample preparation for LC-MS analysis.
Small sections of aerial stems were excised from intact plants approximately 5
cm below the apical meristem, including several small (~3 cm) leaves. The plant tissue
was surface sterilized (10 % bleach and 0.01% tween-80, v/v) for 10 minutes, rinsed with
sterilized DI water, and transferred aseptically to a Petri dish (90 mm x 15 mm).
Treatment tissues were inoculated with two 5 mm plugs of B. cinerea and incubated at in
the dark at 25 C. Control samples were treated under the same conditions without fungal
inoculation. Once fully colonized with mycelium (7 days) the samples were frozen under
liquid nitrogen and lyophilized. The lyophilized material was ground with a mortar and
pestle and passed through a sieve (pore size; 270 mesh) (W.S. Tyler Inc., Mentor, OH).
The fine powder (0.5 g) was transferred to a centrifuge tube (15 mL), extracted with
ethanol and water (7:3, v/v; 5 mL) on an autoshaker at room temperature for 10 minutes
and sonicated in an ultrasonic water bath (10 min). After centrifugation (5000 rpm for 10
minutes), the supernatant was collected and filtered through 0.45 m PTFE syringe
filtered prior LC-MS analysis. LC-MS analysis was performed as described above.
4.3.10. Statistical Analysis.
Data was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis
using SAS version 9.2 for Windows (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC).
189
4.4. Results and Discussion
4.4.1. Fungal growth inhibition assay.
Analysis of variance was performed to determine if there was a significant effect
of treatment (compounds 1 – 5), rate (1, 10, 100 mol), and the interaction between
treatment and rate. There was a significant interaction between treatment and rate (P <
0.0001), thus the main effects were ignored and a further investigation of the interaction
was performed (Table 4.1). An equation describing the relationship between the response
and the rate was generated for each treatment (Figure 4.10).
Table 4.1. ANOVA for treatment (compounds 1 – 5), rate (1, 10, 100 mol), and the
interaction between treatment and rate.
Source SS df MS F P-value
Treatment 0.01124694 4 0.00281174 3.88 0.0117
Rate 0.73396072 2 0.36698036 506.92 < 0.0001
Treatment x Rate 0.20059674 8 0.02507459 34.64 < 0.0001
Error 0.02171806 30 0.00072394
Corrected Total 0.96752246 44
190
Figure 4.11. Growth inhibition activity of compounds 1 – 5 on radial mycelia growth of
B. cinerea. Dashed lines represent steroidal glycoalkaloids and solid lines represent
furostanol saponins.
191
All five compounds were weakly inhibitory to B. cinerea. The furostanol
saponins, compounds 3 – 5, all had similar activity ranging from approximately 25 – 30%
growth inhibition as compared to control at the highest concentration tested. The steroidal
glycoalkaloid, compound 1, had similar inhibitory activity to the furostanol saponins. The
steroidal glycoalkaloid, compound 2, had the highest inhibitory activity of 49.2 % at the
highest concentration, approximately two times the activity of compound 1 (Figure
4.11). Steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 – 2 are similar in structure and only differ by the
presence of an acetyl group linked to the C-6′′′ hydroxy position of the terminal glucose
of carbohydrate moiety. The acetylation of the terminal glucose unit resulted in an
increased rate of fungal growth inhibition, as compared to compound 1. Similar to the
solanaceous glycoalkaloids, -chaconine and -tomatine, compounds 1 and 2 occur
together as a pair, share the same aglycone, only differ in the carbohydrate moiety, and
exhibit differential biological activity (Roddick et al., 2001). Friedman and MacDonald
suggested that glycoalkaloid pairs may occur as a plant defense response to the adaptive
ability of the pathogen to detoxify the plant‘s antifungal compounds (Friedman and
McDonald, 1997).
192
Figure 4.12. Growth inhibition activity of (A) compound 1 and (B) compound 2 on the
radial mycelia growth of B. cinerea. At the highest concentration, the mycelia growth
inhibitory activity was 24.9 and 49.2 % for compounds 1 and 2, respectively.
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
OH
HO
OH O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
O
HO
OH
O
1 2
A B
24.9% 49.2 %
control 1 mol 10 mol 100 mol control 1 mol 10 mol 100 mol
193
4.4.2. Metabolism of compound 1 and 2 by B. cinerea.
Based on the observation that compound 2 had a two-fold increase in fungal
growth inhibition as compared to compound 1, an investigation on the ability of B.
cinerea to cleave the sugar residues of compounds 1 and 2 was conducted (Figure 4.12).
Figure 4.13. ESI+–MS mass spectra of steroidal glycoalkaloids 1 and 2.
After 48 hours of in vitro metabolism of compound 1 by B. cinerea, only trace quantities
of compound 1 could be detected by LC-MS (Figure 4.13).
414.6 576.4 738.5
884.9 1
0
1
2
3
4
7 x10 Intens.
414.6576.4
738.5
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
271.3
414.3
576.4 780.5
926.9 2
0.0 0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0 2.5
7 x10
m/z
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
O
HO
OH
414.3576.4
780.5
O
Intens.
194
Figure 4.14. Metabolism of compound 1 by B. cinerea: (A) Total ion chromatogram
(TIC) of fungal media spiked with compound 1 (time = 0) and (B) TIC of metabolites of
compound 1 (48 hours).
A metabolite of compound 1, compound 6, was observed with a based peak at m/z 722.8
(Figure 4.14). This ion was consistent with a molecule containing one less glucose
molecule then compound 1. Additionally, ion fragments at 576.4 [M– Rha+H]+ and 414.5
[M–Glu–Rha+H]+ were observed and were consistent with a disaccharide moiety
containing one glucose and one rhamnose molecule.
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
8 x10
10 7
10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 Time [min]
Intens. 6
0
2
4
6
8
8 x10
1
Intens.
195
Figure 4.15. ESI+–MS mass spectra of compund 6.
Compound 6 was then isolated by semi-preparative RP-HPLC from a scale up
fermentation and subjected to further chemical and spectroscopic analysis. Based on
ESI+–MS, and comparison of
1H NMR and
13C NMR with the literature, compound 6,
was confirmed to be solasodine 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranoside
(Mimaki and Sashida, 1990), previously isolated from the bulbs of Lilium brownii
(Figure 4.15).
414.5 576.4
722.8
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
7 x10
Intens. 6
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z
196
Figure 4.16. Molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 6.
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
414.5
576.4
In addition, another metabolite, compound 7, was observed with a base peak at m/z
576.7 (Figure 4.16).
Figure 4.17. ESI+–MS mass spectra of compund 7.
414.5
576.7
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5 6
x10 7
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z
Intens.
197
The mass spectrum of the metabolite was consistent with a molecule containing one less
glucose and one less rhamnose from compound 1 or one less rhamnose from compound
6. Additionally, an ion fragment at 414.5 [M–Glu+H]+ was observed and was consistent
with a monosaccharide moiety containing one glucose molecule. Compound 7 was then
isolated by semi-preparative RP-HPLC from a scale up fermentation and subjected to
further chemical and spectroscopic analysis (Figures 6 and 7). Based on comparison of
the retention time of the partial hydrolysis products of compound 1, ESI+–MS, and
comparison of 1H NMR and
13C NMR with the literature, compound 7 was confirmed to
be solasodine 3-O- -D-glucopyranoside (Bite and Rettegi, 1967; Kim et al., 1996),
previously isolated from Solanum umbelliferum (Figure 4.17).
Figure 4.18. Molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 7.
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH
O
HN
414.5
A third metabolite, compound 10, was observed with a based peak at m/z 414.5 (Figure
4.18). The mass spectrum was consistent with a molecule containing the loss of two
glucose units and one rhamnose from compound 1, one rhamnose and one glucose from
198
compound 6, or one glucose from compound 7. Additionally, an ion fragment at m/z
271.3 was observed.
Figure 4.19. ESI+–MS mass spectra of compound 10.
Compound 10 was then isolated by semi-preparative RP-HPLC from a scale up
fermentation and subjected to further chemical and spectroscopic analysis (Figures 6 and
7). Based on comparison of the retention time with an authentic standard, ESI+–MS, and
comparison of 1H NMR and
13C NMR with the literature, compound 10 was confirmed to
be solasodine (Bird et al., 1979), a common aglycone of steroidal glycoalkaloids (Figure
4.19).
271.3
414.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
7 x10
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z
10 Intens.
199
Figure 4.20. Molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 10.
HO
O
HN
HO
m/z 271.3
271.3
Similar to the metabolism of -tomatine by Alternaria solani, sequential cleavage of all
of the sugars of the carbohydrate moiety were observed in the model system (Schlösser,
1975). In addition to compounds 6, 7 and 10, several other fungal metabolites with
differential degrees of glycosylation and regiospecific mono- and polyhydroxylation of
the aglycone were observed.
The fungal metabolism of compound 2 by B. cinerea was markedly different than
that of compound 1, as a result of acetylation of the 6′′′ hydroxy position of the terminal
glucose unit. After 48 hours of in vitro metabolism of compound 2, most of compound 2
was still present in the media (Figure 4.20), whereas after 48 hours of metabolism of
compound 1, only trace amounts were present (Figure 4.13).
200
Figure 4.21. Metabolism of compound 2 by B. cinerea: (A) Total ion chromatogram
(TIC) of fungal media spiked with compound 2 (time = 0), (B) TIC of metabolites of
compound 2 (48 hours), and (C) TIC of metabolites of compound 2 (72 hours).
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
8 x10
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
2
7
10
8
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
8 x10
2
8 7
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
8 x10
2
Intens.
201
In contrast to the metabolism of compound 1, the metabolite compound 6 was not
detected; however, a new metabolite, compound 8, was observed with a based peak at
m/z 780.5 (Figure 4.21).
Figure 4.22. ESI+–MS mass spectra of compound 8.
The mass spectrum of the metabolite was consistent a loss of rhamnose from
compound 2. Additionally, ion fragments at 576.4 [M–Glu–Ac+H]+ and 414.5 [M–2Glu–
Ac+H]+ were observed and were consistent with a disaccharide moiety containing
glucose and an acetylated glucose moiety. Based on mass spectral analysis of this
metabolite, compound 8 is likely to be (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranoside; however, preparative
isolation and full characterization is needed for unequivocal confirmation (Figure 4.22).
414.5 576.4
780.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
6 x10 8
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z
Intens.
202
Figure 4.23. Proposed molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 8.
O
HOO
OH
O
OH
O
HN
O
HO
O
HO
OH
414.5576.4O
In addition, compound 7 was detected as a metabolite of compound 2 and is
consistent with the loss of one rhamnose and an acetylated glucose moiety of compound
2, or the loss of the acetylated glucose moiety of compound 8. Compound 10, was also
observed and is consist with the metabolite of compound 1. The mass spectrum was
consistent with a molecule containing the loss of one rhamnose, one glucose and an
acetylated glucose from compound 2, the loss of one glucose and an acetylated glucose
from compound 8, or one glucose from compound 7.
Due to the fact that only a small portion of compound 2 was metabolized after 48
hours of incubation, the metabolism experiment was continued for an additional 24
hours. After 72 hours of metabolism of compound 2 by B. cinerea, compound 2 was still
present in the media (Figure 8) as compared to the metabolism of compound 1 which
only trace amount were present after 48 hours (Figure 4). The decreased metabolism rate
of compound 2 may play a role in the increased fungal growth inhibition of compound 2
as compared to compound 1. Interestingly, after 72 hours, compound 10 increased and
203
small amounts of compound 9 and compound 1 were detected (Figure 8). Compound 9
had a base peak m/z 738.8 (Figure 4.23).
Figure 4.24. ESI+–MS mass spectra of compound 9.
This ion was consistent with the de-acetylation of compound 8. Ion fragments at
576.4 [M–Glu+H]+ and 414.5 [M–2Glu+H]
+ were observed and were consistent with a
disaccharide moiety containing a two glucose moieties. Additionally, Compound 9 had
the same retention time and mass spectrum as the product of the partial acid hydrolysis of
compound 1 (Figure 4.24).
414.5 576.4
738.8
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25 6 x10 9
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 m/z
Intens.
204
Figure 4.25. (A)Total ion chromatogram (TIC) of the metabolites of compound 2 (72
hours), (B) extracted ion chromatogram (EIC) for compound 9 (m/z 738.8) from the
metabolite mixture derived from compound 2, and (C) TIC of the partial acid-catalyzed
hydrolysis products of compound 1.
0
1
2
3
7 x10
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
9
7
10
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
6 x10
9
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
8 x10
2
7
10
8
9
Intens.
205
Accordingly, compound 9 is likely to be (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -D-
glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside; however, preparative isolation and full
characterization is needed for unequivocal confirmation (Figure 4.25). The presence of
small amounts of compound 1 and compound 9 after 72 hours of incubation suggests
acetylase activity; however, due to the presence of a greater abundance of compound 8,
the cleavage of the rhamnose moiety at the C-2′ position of the inner glucose is favored
over de-acetylation of the acetyl moiety of the C-6′′′ position of the terminal glucose
under these conditions.
Figure 4.26. Proposed molecular structure and fragmentation of compound 9
414.5576.4
O
HOO
OH
O
OH
O
HN
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
Based on these data, the metabolism of compound 1 occurs by the sequential
removal of the sugars of the trisaccharide moiety with compounds 6, 7 and 10 as
intermediates (pathway A; Figure 4.27). In parallel, hydroxylation of the aglycone
occurs. Regiospecific microbial hydroxylation of diosgenin and solasodine is well known
and is utilized for production of pharmaceutical steroids (Sato and Hayakawa, 1963a;
Sato and Hayakawa, 1963b). In tomato, B. cinerea has been shown to metabolize the
steroidal glycoalkaloid, -tomatine, by both cleavage of the entire carbohydrate moiety
206
and by the cleavage of the terminal xylose (Verhoeff and Liem, 1975; Quidde et al.,
1998). Sequential sugar cleavage in compound 1 is similar to the metabolism of -
tomatine by Alternaria solani, where all four sugars of the tetrasaccharide moiety are
sequentially cleaved (Schlösser, 1975). In the case of compound 2, acetylation of the
terminal glucose moiety inhibits cleavage from the inner glucose and metabolism
proceeds through the cleavage the rhamnose at the C-2′ position of the inner glucose. The
major metabolic pathway proceeds sequentially with compounds 8, 7, and 10 as
intermediates (pathway B; Figure 4.26). Alternatively, evidence of acetylase activity
was observed, and two minor metabolic pathways of compound 2 are proposed. One
minor metabolic pathway may proceed with de-acetylation of compound 2 with
compounds 8, 9, 7, and 10 as intermediates (pathway B1; Figure 4.26) and a second
minor metabolic pathway may proceed with compounds 1, 6, 7, and 10 as intermediates
(pathway B2; Figure 4.26).
207
Figure 4.27. Proposed partial metabolic pathways for compounds 1 and 2 (thick arrows):
(A) Major metabolic pathway for compound 1. (B) Major metabolic pathway for
compound 2. (B1 and B2) Minor metabolic pathways for compound 2. De-Ac, de-
acetylation; R-OH, mono/poly- hydroxylation of aglycone.
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
O
HO
OH
O
O
HOO
OH
O
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HO
OH
HO
OH
O
HOO
OH
O
OH
O
HN
O
HO
O
HO
OH
O
O
HOO
OH
HO
OH3CHO
OH OH
O
O
HN
O
HOO
OH
O
OH
O
HN
O
HO
OH
HO
OHO
HOO
OH
HO
OH
O
HN
HO
O
HN
1
2
6
7
8
9
10
B1 De-Ac
De-Ac
A B
B2
R-OH
R-OH
R-OH
R-OH
R-OH
208
4.4.3. In planta identification of compounds 6 – 10 by LC-MS.
Based on the in vitro fungal growth inhibition studies and the characterization of the
fungal metabolites of compounds 1 and 2, the objective of this part of the study was to
determine if B. cinerea has the ability to metabolize compounds 1 and 2, in planta, into
the fungal metabolites that were identified in the model system. In order to investigate
this question, plant tissue that was infected with B. cinerea was compared to a control
tissue by LC-MS analysis. All fungal metabolites that were characterized in the model
system were detected in the infected plant tissue (Figure 4.27; Figure 4.28; Figure 4.29;
Figure 4.30; Figure 4.31). None of the metabolites were detected in the control tissue
with the exception of compound 6. Although the infected tissue had elevated levels of
compound 6 as compared to the control, interestingly, compound 6 was also present in
the control sample that was not infected with B. cinerea (Figure 4.31).
209
Figure 4.28. (A) Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 8 (m/z 780.5) of
control plant tissue, and (B) plant tissue infected with B. cinerea.
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
7 x10
8
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
B
0
2
4
6
7 x10 A
210
Figure 4.29. (A) Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 9 (m/z 738.8) of
control plant tissue, and (B) plant tissue infected with B. cinerea.
0.0
0.5
1.0
8 x10
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
9 B
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
7 x10 A
211
Figure 4.30. (A) Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 7 (m/z 576.7) of
control plant tissue, and (B) plant tissue infected with B. cinerea.
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
8 x10 7
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
B
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
8 x10 A
212
Figure 4.31. (A) Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 10 (m/z 414.6) of
control plant tissue, and (B) plant tissue infected with B. cinerea.
0
1
2
3
4
5
8 x10
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
10
B
0
2
4
6
7 x10 A
213
Figure 4.32. (A) Extracted ion chromatograms (EIC) for compound 6 (m/z 722.8) of
control plant tissue, and (B) plant tissue infected with B. cinerea.
0
1
2
3
8 x10
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
6
B
0
1
2
3
4
8 x10
6
A
214
4.4.4. Isolation and identification of compound 6 from L. Longiflorum bulbs.
In order to confirm the presence of compound 6 as a natural product in L.
Longiflorum, compound 6 was isolated and purified from L. Longiflorum bulbs. Briefly,
lyophilized lily bulbs were washed with n-pentane and extracted with ethanol and water.
After the removal of solvent, the extract was dissolved in deionized water, washed with
ethyl acetate and extracted with n-butanol yielding a crude steroidal glycoside extract.
The crude glycoside extract was fractionated by gel permeation chromatography and
repeated semi-preparative RP-HPLC to yield compound 6 (Figure 4.32). Based on 1H
NMR and 13
C NMR, compound 6 was confirmed as (22,R 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O-
-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranoside, previously isolated from L. brownii
(Mimaki and Sashida, 1990). These data confirms that compound 6 is not only a fungal
metabolite of compounds 1 and 2, but it is also constitutively present in L. longiflorum.
Figure 4.33. Total ion chromatogram (TIC) of compound 6 isolated by RP-HPLC from L.
longiflorum bulbs.
10 15 20 25 30 Time [min]
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
8 x10
6
Intens.
215
4.5. Conclusion
In this chapter, two steroidal glycoalkaloids and three furostanol saponins,
isolated from L. longiflorum, were evaluated for fungal growth inhibition of the plant
pathogenic fungus, B. cinerea. All compounds showed weak fungal growth inhibition
activity. In addition, five fungal metabolites of the glycoalkaloids 1 and 2, were
characterized from a model system and were observed in living plant tissue infected with
the fungus. Furthermore, a structure-function relationship for the fungal growth inhibition
for compounds 1 and 2 was established based on the acteylation of the terminal glucose
moiety. On the basis of these results, B. cinerea can metabolize compounds 1 and 2 by
the sequential removal of the sugars of the trisaccharide moiety. Additionally, these data
suggests that a decreased rate of metabolism of compound 2 may play a role it the
increased fungal growth inhibition activity. Moreover, compound 6 was determined to be
both a fungal metabolite of compounds 1 and 2 and a natural product constitutively
present in L. longiflorum. This is the first report of compound 6 from L. longiflorum. This
study can be used as a model of characterizing fungal metabolites of plant derived natural
products and a means for the generation of new natural products with novel biological
activities. In addition, the antifungal activity of the compounds can be pursued further
with pathogenic organisms not active in L. longiflorum.
216
Summary and Concluding Remarks
This research project was designed to: (1) Isolate and characterize new steroidal
glycosides from the bulbs of L. longiflorum, (2) quantify their contents in all of the
organs of L. longiflorum, and (3) perform studies on the antifungal activity and fungal
metabolism of the compounds. The results of this study led to the discovery of new
steroidal glycosides, a better understanding of their distribution within the different plant
organs, and provided insight into structure-function relationships and fungal metabolism
of the compounds.
Based on novel isolation methodologies and a combination of extensive
spectroscopic and chemical analyses including 1D and 2D NMR, IR, HRESI–TOFMS,
ESI-MS, GC-MS, entantioselective GC-FID, chromatographic data, chemical analysis,
and chemical transformations, several novel steroidal glycosides were isolated from L.
longiflorum and structures elucidated. L. longiflorum contains two types of steroidal
glycosides: steroidal glycoalkaloids and steroidal saponins. A new acetylated steroidal
glycoalkaloid and two new furostanol saponins, along with three known steroidal
glycosides, were isolated from the bulbs of L. longiflorum. The new steroidal
glycoalkaloid was identified as (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-
(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside. The new
furostanol saponins were identified as (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-
3 22 -triol 3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-arabinopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-
glucopyranoside and (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol 3-O-
-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -L-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)- -D-glucopyranoside.
Additionally, two known steroidal glycoalkaloids, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -
217
L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside and (22,R
25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranoside, and a
known furostanol saponin, (25R)-26-O-( -D-glucopyranosyl)-furost-5-en-3 22 -triol
3-O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)- -D-glucopyranoside,
were isolated from L. longiflorum for the first time.
In order to investigate the natural distribution of the newly identified compounds
within the plant, a LC-MS/MS method performed in multiple reaction monitoring
(MRM) mode was developed for the simultaneous quantitative analysis of the five new
steroidal glycosides in the different organs of L. longiflorum. The highest concentrations
of total steroidal glycosides were detected in flower buds, lower stems, and leaves. The
steroidal glycoalkaloids were detected in higher concentrations as compared to the
furostanol saponins in all of the plant organs except for the fibrous and fleshy roots. The
proportions of steroidal glycoalkaloids to furostanol saponins were higher in the plant
organs exposed to light and decreased in proportion from the aboveground organs to the
underground organs. The highest concentrations of the steroidal glycoalkaloids were
detected in flower buds, leaves, and bulbs. Both steroidal glycoalkaloids had a similar
pattern of distribution in the various plant organs; however, the acetylated derivative
occurred at lower levels. The furostanol saponins were detected in the highest
concentrations in the lower stems, fleshy roots, and flower buds. In the bulbs, the
steroidal glycosides were not distributed uniformly throughout the bulb scale tissue, but
accumulated in the basal plate, bulb scale epidermal cells, and vascular bundles. This
work has led to a better understanding of the natural distribution of these compounds
within the different plant organs and plant tissues of L. longiflorum.
218
To gain insight into the plant-pathogen interaction, purified steroidal glycosides
were evaluated for fungal growth inhibition activity against the plant pathogenic fungus,
Botrytis cinerea, using an in vitro plate assay. All of the compounds showed weak fungal
growth inhibition activity; however, the natural acetylation of C-6′′′ of the terminal
glucose in the steroidal alkaloid, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside,
increased the antifungal activity by inhibiting the rate of metabolism of the compound by
the B. cinerea. Acetylation of the glycoalkaloid may be a plant defense response to the
evolution of detoxifying mechanisms by the pathogen. A model system was developed to
generate fungal metabolites of the steroidal glycoalkaloids which led to the identification
of several new fungal metabolites. The fungal metabolites characterized from the model
system were subsequently identified by LC-MS to naturally occur in Easter lily tissues
infected with the fungus.
The extraction and purification procedures reported in this work may be used for
the production of sufficient quantities of pure compounds for biological investigations.
These new compounds from L. longiflorum can be used for studies on the biological role
of steroidal glycosides in plant development and plant-pathogen interactions, as well as
for studies in food and human health. Furthermore, the quantitative analysis of steroidal
glycosides in the different organs of L. longiflorum is the first step to developing insight
into the biological role these compounds play in plant metabolism, plant development,
and plant-pathogen interactions. An understanding of the distribution of steroidal
glycosides in the different organs of L. longiflorum may aid in the development of
optimized extraction and purification methodologies for food, health, and industrial
219
applications. Moreover, the results from the fungal metabolism work can be used as a
model for characterizing fungal metabolites of plant derived defense compounds, gaining
insight into plant-pathogen interactions, and a means for the generation of new natural
products with novel biological activities. The structural modification of plant defense
compounds may be an adaptive response to plant pathogens and the acetylation of the
glycoalkaloid, (22R, 25R)-spirosol-5-en-3 -yl O- -L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-[6-O-
acetyl- -D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]- -D-glucopyranoside, may be a plant defense
response to the evolution of detoxifying mechanisms by the pathogen. A plant defense
strategy aimed at inhibiting the pathogen‘s ability to detoxify plant defense compounds
may be an alternative strategy in plant defense. The characterization of detoxification
pathways utilized by plant pathogenic fungi helps to provide a fundamental
understanding of the plant-pathogen interaction and suggests strategies to chemically
modify these anti-fungal compounds to prevent pathogen degradation.
.
220
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CURRICULUM VITA
John Peter Munafo, Jr
Education
2011 Ph. D. Plant Biology, Department of Plant Biology and Pathology,
Rutgers - The State University of New Jersey
1998 B. S. Biology, The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey
Professional Experience
2007–Present Flavor Research Scientist, Mars Chocolate North America LLC
2006–2007 Flavor Chemistry Technician, Masterfoods USA
2005–2006 Natural Products Chemistry Technician, Masterfoods USA (Contractor)
1999–2005 Manager Member, Medicinal Natural Products LLC
Publications
Munafo, J.; Ramanthan, A.; Jimenez, L.; Gianfagna, T. Isolation and structural
determination of steroidal glycosides from the bulbs of Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum
Thunb.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 8806–8813.
Munafo, J.; Gianfagna, T. Quantitative Analysis of Steroidal Glycosides in Different
Organs of Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.) by LC-MS/MS. J. Agric. Food Chem.
2010, 59, 995–1004.
Munafo, J; Gianfagna, T. Antifungal Activity and Fungal Metabolism of Steroidal
Glycosides of Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum) by the Plant Pathogenic Fungus, Botrytis
cinerea. J. Agric. Food Chem. - In Press