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(India's journal of rural development)

VoL XXX \

N o . 1 0

February 16-28, .1982

Magbo 27, 1903

H u r u k s h e l r a

Editorial

T HE POPULATION of our country in 1981 was esti.

mated to be 683 million' as agai'nst. 361 million

in 1951. In other words it nearly doubled during the

last. 30 years. A nation-wide family planning' pro-

gramme has been in operation for years, and we are

intent to implement it more vigorously in the yearsto come. Even if we achieve the small family nonn

set by the planners for the counry, our population is

likely to be arouud 1231 miIIiou iu 2031 A.D. This

is thc more optimistic of the two popula.tion projec-

tio~ made by the Planning Commission,

On the basis of per capita requirement of 225 kg.

per year, the country would then need to produce at

least 277 millio'n tonnes of foodgrains annually. This

means doubling our present food production, On

the .face of it, it. appears to be a gigantic task.

The instant reaetion of many to this would be that

this may not be possible to achieve. Becanse with

the increase of population there will be greater

pressure on land; greater sub-division and fragmenta-

tion of land holdings resulting in lesser productivity.

The size of our operational land holding has already

reached';n all-time low of about one hectare in States

like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Increasing pressure

on land wilh growing population may block a greater

stumbling block in the efficient use of land in the years

to come making it iinpossible for us to grow enough, -

foodgrains,

Dr. M, S, Swaminathan, Member, Planning Comniis-

sion and distinguished' agricultural scientist answers

this question in '''Our Agricultural Future" "inside. He

do~s not share tIiispessimistic view. On the c9n-

trary, he feels that it should not be difficult to produce

277 millioh tonnes of foodgrajns by 2030 A.D. ".since

we are now reaping the benefit of only about 25 to

30 per cent of the production potential available even

a1 current" levels of technology". There' are vast

. areas of the country where the agricultural potential

has yet to be tapped. As an instance he says. that

while' in punjab .foodgrain productioh increased by

8.01 per cent per year, in Orissa growth rate has been

1.1 per cent per year, InBihar the annual growth

rate of agric~ltural production has .been even. less

than 1.per cent. With greater utilisation of the unuti- .

. lised potential j'n areas like Bihar and Orissa, it is not

difficult to meet the increasing food needs of the

country, Dr. Swaminathan spells out in this article

. how best this can be done.

Enquiries rega~ding Subscriptioll!.. .Ageocles. e~

. Bosiness Manager. PobUcations Division

. Patiala House, New DeJbl-l100oi

T e' : 38 79 83

COVER

!IVAN ADAUA

SUB-EDITOR PARAMJEET G. SINGH

ASSTT, EDITOR

N. N.'SHARMA

EDITOR

(MRS.),RATIlA JUNEJA

OUR AGRICULTURAL FUTURE

M . S. Swaminathan

THEY SHOW THE WAY.

RURAL ARTISANS AND MODERN

TECHNOLOGY

S. S. Solanki

SINGLE COPY: Re. 1

SUBSCRJPl'ION F0.R ONE YEAR: Rs. 20

CONTENTS

Editorial Office: Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi-11000!

Te'ephoDes : 384888 &.382406

. Editor's Re!id'euce: 615920

DETERMINING PRICES OF AGRICUL- .

TURAL COMMODITIES B. Rumba/wadi, M. K. Narasimhan and N. S.

Vishwanath

ADOPTION OF NEW FARM TECHNOLOGY~

B. S. Bangarwa, Raj Singh and R. S. [(adian]

4

8

14

1 8

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OUR AGRlCULTURAL PROGRESS since Independencehas heIped to generate the self-confidence essen-

tial for greater' achievements. While the first 50 years'

of this century were characterised by a relative stage

. na,tion in agricultural growth, the next 30 years marked

thebegimiing of 'all era of modernisation of land

.and water-based occupations_based on the introduction

of appropriate' packages 'of technology, servil;es and'

public policies. ' The. beginning of the eighties gave

birth to a new development in pur agriculture, viz.

an increasing degree of organiS'ation of what tradi-

tionally has been an unorganised sector, Farmers

are now getting organised to agitate for issues likefair prices, non-exploitative marketing facilities 'and

,better water and fertilizer distribution; These are

signs of hope. , One implication of farmers' agitations

is ,that more farmers Wish to take advantage of new

tec!inology in~o]ving c'ash inputs, Under ~conditions

where land is individually owned, investment decisions

will natura.J1ybe based upon the cost, risk 'and return

structure of the farming enterprise. It is in the con-

text of this emerging scenario, where public policies

will largely determine the direction of 'change, that we

should look at our agricultural future.

/

In my view, the following five factors deserve greater

attention:

(a) The impact of population growth on the size of

the land holding as well as on land fragmentation;

(h) The social engineering aspects.of improving the

efficiency of management 0 1 ' small farms as measur~

..ed by productivity per day arid per units of land

'and water;

.Seventeenth Shri Ram Memorial Lecttlte delivered in

Now Delhi on January 16, 1982

i

•

Our agricultural futureM.S.SWAMINATHAN

Member, Planning Commission, New ,Delhi

(e), Diversification of labour use leading to a gradualWithdrawal of as many landless labour fainilies as

possible from the routine operations of farming to

subsidiary occup"iions leading to increased earning

and less drudgery; ,

(d) Safeguarding the renewable nature of agricul-

tural operations by'protecting the soil and water

resources and conserving genetic variability in .plants

and animals; and .

';.(~) Enlarging home and external trade in agficul-'

. tural commodities on lines which will protect the

interests of producers and consumers. '

. .

There are obviously many other factors which, also'

merit consideration but I consider the above five

groups of factors 'as relatively more important f~om

the point of view of urgent attention.

Population growth and size of h~ldings

POPULATION PROJECTIONS made in the Planning

, Commission, using two different alternatives (i.e. !

NRR=I by 1996 or 2010) show that in 50 years from

now ,we may have •• population of about 123'1 or 1375

million (Table 1). If the programmes now planned

for improving female literacy, economic emancipation

of women and for widespread voluntary adoption of

the small family norm succeed, it should be possible

to contain'the population size at 1231 million in AD

2030-31. We will then need to produce 277 million

ton"nes of foodgrains t o meet a per capita require-

ment of 225 kg per year. It should not be difficult to

produce this quantity. of foodgr~ins, since we are now'

reaping the benefit of only about 25 to 30 per cent of • tge production potential available even at current

levels of technology.

KURUKSHETRA February, 16, 198~

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TABLE I

Estimated Population of Iildia

Year Assumptionl Populat ion . Dependency

(Million) Ratio2

1981 683.8 0'842001 A 940.3 0.58 ,2001 B 1003.1 0.672031 A 1231.7 i)'57

2031 B i315 . 4 0.56

IAssumption A : NRR~ 1 in 1996 '

Assumption B: NRR= 1 in 2010

(0-14+60)2 Dependency ratio : - - - ' o _ _ . ~ _

15-59

The age structure of our population is such that

large numbers of young people will need opportunities

for gainful employment. Currently we are a nation

consisting predominantly of young persons but the

dependency ratio will gradually decline (Table I).

In other words, we should. strive to avoid not onlyfamines of food, bntalso, famines of jobs. Without,

jobs the purchasing power needed for bnying food will

not exist. Being a large country, we should also, be

prepa.red for local disasters arising from natUral cala-

mities. Agricultural strategies should hence aim at

elevating and stabilising food production and generatingopportunities for gainful employment:

Size of operational holdings

THE RAPID GROWTH. ~ populati~n re~ulting.in in-

creasing fragmentatIOn of holdings IS making thesize of operational units smaller and smaller. The size

~f an operational holding has now reached about one

hectare In States like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. There-

fore, the number of families which have to make a

contribution for achieving a specific production target

is increasing. The size of the landless labour popu-

lation is also growing. While in a State like Punjab,

foodgrain production' increased between 1960-61

and 1978-79 by 8.01 p'er cent per year, this growth was

only 1.19 per cent in Orissa. The annual growth rate

for total agricultural production for Punjab during thc

period 1952-53 to 1969~70 was 6.6 per cent as against

0.7 per :cent for Bihar. Minimising regional disparities

and extending the benefits of new technology. to all

classes of farmers, therefore, become areas' q f priority<concem.-'

Another major issue facing Us now is the whole area

of land reform and agrarian Structure. Land reformhas so far been mainly looked' at from the point of

and ownership, land ceiling and security of tenure:

For enabling small and marginal farmers to produce

more, land reform' will have to be given an ownershiP-

cum-production -interpretation covering steps whichwill facilitate the more efficient use of land. For

example, without land consolidation' and levelling, it

KURUKSHETRA February 16, 1982

'becomes <iifficuit to m~n'age water properiy and there-

by deriv~ full benefit from our investment on Irri-

gation. Hence land reform in our country should

include steps not .only relating to the eqUItable dIS-

tribution of available land resources. among all

,sections of the rural community but also measures

such as consolidation of holdings, land levelling and

soil health care which are essential for sustained agri-

cultural productivity. Land ownership and !lind pro-ductivity should both become integral components

of the 'reform measures.

Ail important constraint under conditions of smallholdings with individual land ownership is the difficulty

of achieving a liigh level of farm management effi-

ciency., For example, if two neighbouring farmers

adopt totally divergent approaches in the field of pestcontrol, the farmer who wishes to achieve high levels

of production may have to resort to a larger number of

sprays of pesticides than' would otherwise have beennecessary. Hence a challenge to development plan-

ners and administrators dealing with small farm con-

ditions lies in introducing suitable packages of ser-

vices which can help to introduce a community/area

approach in management wherever this is necessary.

Extension strategies' should be re-oriented to promote

collect~ve endeavour among fa(mers, living in '3 water-

shed or ,command area in fields like water conservation

and use, plant protection and post-harvest technology.

This will call for greater efforts in the field of

soci'al engineering as applied to the promotion of

com~utiity action.

For C1Ptimumefficiency, a blend of cash and non-

cash'inputs will be necessary .. Area based services are

best provided by farmers' Own organisations supported

by.appropriate tr?ining, credit and marketing assistartce

from' Government. The organisation of community

nurseries in crops like rice where transpl~nting is done,

the introduction of rotational distribution of water in.

the command areas of irrigation piojectsso that all

farmers in the command area get equal quantities of water and the supply' of credit and the needed inputs

before the sowing season in properly organised credit-

cum-input supply village fairs are examples of the

approaches which have been found useful.

Learning from successes is equally important in pro-

gramme formulation. If Punjab made striking ad-vances in crop production after the release of dwarf

varieties of wheat and rice, this is because the. State

already possessed the substrate requirements essential

for new technology to fin.dwidespread adoption. Four

of ihe major technology diffusion substrate needs

which Punjab possessed in midsixties were : owner cu!-'

tivation, land consolidation, rural communication and

rural electrification. Roads and energy supply' areexceedingly important inputs.

5

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Diversification of labour use

AT PRESENT, far too m~y people are dependent for

their living on ,the routine operations of farming,

'such as ploughing, weeding, reaping, etc. This' is

particularly true of women farm labour. While imme-

diately the only way of helping unskilled agricultural

labour surviving on daily wage status is the' enforce-

ment of minimum wages and the extension of the National Rural Employment Project, we must simul,

taneously develOil'methods which will help to provide

alternative source of employment to this category of

labour. Such alternative employment will have to be

provided in the area's where they are living in order

to render unplanned migration to urban area5 unneces-

.sary. This, would imply a much greater attention

to :

(a) Post-harvest technology designed to produce

value-added products in the village; .

(b) Institutional devices for helping small farmers

and fishermen' like the organisation of Horticultural

Estates, Aquaculture Estates, etc. which can help to

generate additional employment and to promote'

producer-oriented marketing; and

(c) Careful assessment of the "additional opportuni-

ties available for promoting cottage and village in-

dustries.

I would like to cite an example as to how we can

bring about a radical ch'a.ngefrom past notions. 'There

is an old saying all over Asia that "paddy and povertygo together." This is because paddy being a basic

staple will not get IIhigh price in contrast to commer-

cial crops. Also paddy straw being poor in nutriti\'e

quality could not support a profitable subsidiary occu-

pation like dairying. Today we can substitute the ,

old saying with a new one, viz. '''paddy and prosperity

go together". This is bec'ause of the following .faciors:

(i) Paddy yield can be doubled or trebled by using

improved technology;

'(ii) Paddy straw can be suitably fortified with ureaand 'molasses and made into a cODlplete food for

animals. Such fortified and chemically treated

straw could be. used in small-scale dairy enterprises

based on high yielding croSs-bred cows;

(iii) Rice bran oil can' be extracted and de-oiled

bran can be fortified and utilised as animal feed;

there is at present a large gap both between the

potential and actual qnantities of rice bran used

for oil extraction and between the quantities used

for extraction of edible grade bran' oil and the total

quantities used for oil extraction;

(iv) Solar grade silicon could be extracted from

rice husk and utilised ,for the manufacture of ,photo-

. voltaic cells. Also, rice husk ~an be used for manu-'

6

facture of c~ment and for deeentralised power'

generation.

In other words, rice-based farming systems could

become catalysts of change in' rural occupations,

Based on cariful techno-economic studies, Industrial

Estates based on rice farming could be organised in

areas where the dominant crop is rice. A similar ex-

ercise ca;' be done iIi other crops. What we noW pro:duce is Just not 133 million tonnes of foodgrains but

about 400 million tonnes ,of total dry matter. Arc

we using the remaining 270 million tonnes of plant'

material properly? _

,The two immediate requirements for enhancing

agricultural incomes are: first, organisation of small

farmers both for improving farm management efficiency

through community action in water and soil conserva-

tion and management" pest control and post-harvest

technology and for ensuring that the producer gets

a high' proportion of the price paid by the consumer;secondly, a well-pla!,ned pro'gramme of diversification

of employment and income generation opportunities in

rural areas so that a part of the farm labour can get

'absorbed in the secondary and tertiary sectors. This

will call for a more detailed planning of the scientific

utilisation of local resources.

Protectin,g renewable base of agriculture'. '

I N THE ULTIMATE ANALYSES, our agricultural future

will depend upon how fast and hew well we are

able to protect the renewable base of land and water-

based professions. Today agriculture provides 40%

,of the national income and over 70% of jobs, only at

the cost of about 10% of the total commercial energy

use. The growing threats to our agriculture arising

from deforestation, soil erosion, siltation 'of rivers and reservoirs, salinization and other forlllS of desertifica-

tion are well known. Generosion has also to be

guarded against" since it will lead to our losing the

fruits of thousands of years of natural and" human

selection. In every developmental project, we must

have a lJ1onitoring mechanism which will provide us >

with continuous information both on their :positive

'and negative impact. For example, in' irrigation pro-

jects we can measure the positive impact in, terms of

additional production per units of water, land and.,

time and additional income and employment generat-

ed. There is no purpose in just giving figures on areaunder irrigation, without an 'accompanying statement

'on the impact of water on productivity, intensity of

cropping, diversification of labour use and agrarian

prosperity: 'The analysis of the negative impact of . irrigation should cover fields such 'as waterlogging,

salinization anderosicn.' The public health aspects

should also receive equal attention, since there is

growing evidence that irrigation projects could also

lead to the spread of vector borne diseases like filaria


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and niabria. Other health' pioble'ms like skeletal

Buorosi;;.observed in the Nagarjuria~agar project area'

may also arise. aimate impact studies of irrigation projects will need careful monitoring. This is why

ecological ~ecurity will have to be an integral part o'f

a national food security system. .

Enlarging trade in agricultural

. . commodities

I N ViEW OF THE LOW SONSUMPTJON BASE in' the

country, we find that even small .increases or

.drops In production causes either gluts or uncomfor-

table shortages necessitating imports. Fall in Prices

generally harms only the producer since the extent of

drop in prices when the crops are good gionerallytends

to be higher at the level of the producer. In contrast,

retail prices have the tendency to move up. The best

fertilizer to the farmer is remunerative and assured

marketing. For marginal fart!1ers, the most profitable

form of land use will be the cultivation of vegetables,flowers and fruits. Horticultural prooucts being peri-

shable require greater marketing and processing.

support. This is why a Committee appointed by the

Ministry'of Agriculture recommended the establish-

ment of a National HortlculturalBoard and the pro-

motion of production, proces~ingand trirlrketing on co-

operative lines. . .

We have to increase both production and consump-

tion. Input-{)utput pricing policies have to be tailored

to achieve this dual aim. 'When agriculture moves

forWard, more and more faroters will bave commodi-ties to sell. Small and marginal farmers will, bowever,

have .only small quantities' for the. market. Hence

produce-oriented marketiJJg becomes essential for en-

suring them a fair return. The Rural Godown Scbeme

of the Ministry of Rural' Reconstruction was' designed'

for this purpose. . lis implementation needs improve-

'ment, since a national grid of rural godowns can belp

to . prevent distress' sale by' farmers and panic pur-chase by affiuen! COnsumers:

Unless agriculture. becomes a. commerCial activity,

rural stagnation will continue. We. need more influxof brain and money in rural India. We should bence

capitalise upon our competitive advantages.. The Sixtb

plan pra'vid~sfor tbe stepping ~p of tbe export of agri-

cultural commodities. Security of supply, quality o'f

product and competitiveness of price will deteni:J.ine

whether we can succeed on capitalisin,g on our con-siderable "green power"._

TH E YE AR 1982 bas been designated as a year of

--. a national productivity drive in agriculture, indus-

try and infrastructural facilities like .transport, ports,

etc. Fortunately the gap between potential and actual producth~ty is bigb in most areaS' of economic

KURUKSHETRA Febrniu-y16, 1982

j

activity. .For gtvmg meaning and content to the

productivity movement, it. will be necessary to identify

the precise eonstrainis responsible for the gap. For

example, in the ficld of irrigation where' we are wisely

making a major investment, it is essential that . the

physical engineering features of the project and agricul-

tural development are closely linked right from the

planning stage. Studies by the Se~ond Irrigation

Coniniission. (1972) and the National Commission onAgriculture (1976) have shown that the following are

some of the major defiCienciesin the major' and medi-um irrigation projects :

Need for .modernisation of the pre-plan and early

plan systems to provide water at the outlet delivery

points to farmers at the right. time and in right,quantity.

2

Lack of adequate drainage resulting In waterlogging.conditions .due to excess water used in irrigating

crops as well as due to soil factors.

, 3

The absence of a distribution ~ystem within .tbe

outlet and the non-introduction of rotational distri-

bulion of water to the fanp.ers.

4Inadequate attention to land consolidation, levelling

and all.other aspects which can promote a better on-farm .management' of, water.

5,

.Lack of anticipatory research on opiimum water use

particularly in black soils with considerable moistureretention capacity.

6Lack of suitable infrastructure' and extension service,'

7Poor co-ordination hetween the concerned Govern-

ment organisatic.ms in the .command' areas.

.If We attend to the numerous small' details in pro-

ject implementation wbich contribute to enhanced pro-

ductivity, we should be able to increase agricultltral-

production substantiaHy even from the already avail-

able irrigated' area, . For acbieving such improve-

ments, the farmers of an irrigation command or water-

shed area and the Government departments concern"

cd should work together. Management will. then

become a joint seetor activity. Our agriCultural futu~ewill largely depend upon bow much momentum . we

can impart to .the co-operative manage.ment of various

. stages of production and post-barvest iechnology withinthe confines of an Individual land ownership system.

''1

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MORE THAN THREE HUNDRED YEARS of British

colonialism in India. had a tremendous impact

upon the development process of tradition~l agricul-

ture and industrial structures leading to the introduc-

tion of modern technology to support British com-

merce and industry, .Otre of the consequences of.the

British rule was the gradual elimination of traditional

crafts and craftsmen in the village society through un-

eqi"r1 economic competition.' In the context of the

, rural society, development means changes' in the'socio-

economic structure in the rural areas in order to bring. about human welfare which is the prime goal of deve-

lopment, and that the society is able to absorb .the

necessary changes in the field of technology. Gandhiji

wanted the developmental efforts to be concentrated

on villages. He emphasized stabilization and enrich-

ment of the 'triiditional. way of 'life' by the use of

labour-intensive manufactures.

The initiation of Community Development Prog-

ramme (CDP) in 1952 was part 'of the' strategy of

overall development for improving -the'socio-economic

conditions of the people in the rural areas. It was acomprehensive programme which included develop'

ment of education; housing, health, agriculture, skills

and cottage industries. The Government' of India

alSo took initiative in implementing more programrnes

by establishing institutions for uplift of the rural

people through mutual cooperation and understand-

ing. The states were also assumed to play a cataiy-

The views expressed in this paper are those of the author

and not necessarily of the organization to which he belongs.

1. Chowdhury, P. N. : Rural Development-An Appropriate

Approach in Proceedings of the .Workshop "Gaon Ke'

Karigar Am Science," held at . Sewagram (Wardha)

organized by M. D. D., _Planning Division, C.S.l.R.,

New Delhi,. November, 1978.

8

R u ra l 'a rtis an s a nd

nlodern technologys. S. SOLANKI

Centre for Stud)' of Science, Tech. & Dcyclopmcnt, New Delhi

tic role in the promotion of the activities for develop-

ment. The objective of these programmes was to up-

grade technological skills for higher productivity and

profits, which, in turn, would lead to further improve-

ments in- technologicaI" cap~bilities 'and living condi-

tions and opportunities. for rural workers.' These

programmes did bring economic growth, technological

change and generate employment in the rural scene.

Unfortunately, most of the benefits of the growth have

gone to the privileged 'sections of the rural society.

Isolation of artisans

I NDIAN ECONOMY h as shown a positive rate of

, gr,,,,ith sinceI95(}-51.1'here has-been growth'in

all sec'tors, but agriculture has remained the most im-

portant in terms of share of national income as well

as empioyinent. Agriculture contributes abou~ 40

per cent to the Domestic Gross National Product.'

Economic growth in rural areas; has different effect' on

different classes and social categories; some gain more

and ,some .less, while few others do not get any bene-

,fit at all.. So far as the impact of modem science and technology on the' improvement.of traditional crafts,is

concerned, it is negligible. From tlie point of view

of the market, the industrialisation .was on the dem,)nd

of. the privileged minorities which constitute between

15 to 20 per cent of the total population in India: and , '

hold the most of the economic .,arid' political pm"er.

These TI?inorities are. predominantly urban and essen-

tially follow the cultural' habits, values and pattern, of

.the consumer society of the industrialised world. The

rest of the populatiOn, inostly rural in the country has

2. R~hman,A.: Science, Technology and Rural Development. , Science Toddy, March 197? 13.(9),~O-.ll.'

3. World Bank: World Development Report, 198.0. New

york, 1980.

KURUJ(,SHETRAFebruary 16, 1982

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- ~... "'-'-So.""'"''''''';'''" "-6,

~remained ';ntouched by modernization:"

this process

has adversely affected artisans and their work. Most

of them had no other alternative'but to'abandon their

traditional occupations as they lacked the new skills.

Consequently, the traditi'onal crafts becaine isolated

from national R&D systcm and hence the artisans

could not be integrated with the process of moderniza-

tion of agriculture. The development programmes and

activities in India have also been confounded with cul-tural impediments which n'oed to be come .over. For

example, the Central Building Research Institute (CB-

RI) was to demonstrate new techniques for building

of houses for .Iow income groups with the help of

district, authorities. The CBRI staff was accordingly

moved to the site but the villagers did not allow the

construction to proceed because they did not consider

the day and morith auspicious for house buildiug.' An-

other such example is the slow adoptiou of biogas plants

in Haryana and Punjab.G This was again due to insuffi~

cient knowledge among the farmers who were not

fully familiar with the new technology. They werc

also not traditionally trained to operate and maintain

the biogas' technology. Alternatively, the recourse to

adoptioJ) of new technology could be tilted in favour

of village artisans who with moderate training could

utilize it successfully in the rural areas. Thus, the

involvcment of the artisans would have contriouted

significantly to the solution of the problems faced by

the villagers and helped in the diffusion of moderntechnology in rural areas.

, Place of artisans

THE ART]SAN HAS BEEN a signi~cant actor and

pillar of the rural society. It was the artisan

alone who contributed 'considerably to the develop-

ment of-techniques of making a bullockcart; a chaff-

cutter, plough, agricultural tools, pottery, etc. These

techniques emanating from his indigenous skill werc-, . - . . /

duly accepted by the rural masses, because the artisan

had always, fully involvcd himself in the development

of native technologies, .He received encouragement

from fellow villagers who had confidence in him and,

his .ability to do the required job.. There is. always

the scope of enhancing his traditional skill through'

the application of modern techriology. Lack of ap-

plication of new technology m rural areas is serious

4. Herrepa, Amilcar 0: ScicnWic" and Traditional Techno•

. logies in" Developing Countries, Lecture delivered at

the Centre for the Study of Science, Technology and

Development, C.S.I.R., New Delhi, January, 1975.

5. Nayudamma, Y.": Current Imperatives for Rural

Development; C.S.I.R., New Delhi,

6. Randhawa, M, S.: Inaugural address delivered at the

Seminar on "Biogas Technology," organized by PunjabAgricultural University. at Ludhiana from Jilly 9-11,

1981.

~KURtJKSHETRA February 16, 1982

which reduces the iinpaci o f sclence and technology

in dealing more effectively with the economic, cultural

and social probl~ms that stalk rural 'India. For

success of application of new technology in' the rural

areas, it requires not only financial support for S&T

activities but continuous links among various groups

of village society. The lacuna so far has been that

in almost all development programmes, the rural arti-

sans were not given their due place.~ They were neg-lected .as irrelevant, unsophisticated and unproductiv~

workers. The present technological development has.

'broken the traditional. linkages between, tbe farmers

and artisans, the linkages that could help in the crea-

tion of more 'employment opportunities and iu the

reduction . of 'drudgery of village and agricultural

shores.' In .Japan, after the Meiji Restoration in

1868, there was drastic socio-cconomic development

on capitalist lines. This development converted arti-

san production into ,commodity production. Rural

industries expanded and many new ones. were estab-

lished. In. many cases, small industries employed one

or ,two workers each, providing part-time or subsidiary

employment to peasants.' Such a development could

have also occurred in a mixed economy' if pursued

with appropriate' policies and commitmcnt. It would,

t!terefore, have been more benefitting and approprJate

if rural artisans and craftsmen were given the oppor-

tunity to adopt new technologies first and then trans'

fer them to user-groups 'in' the villages throught a

system~tised liaison with the government.

Reducing joblessness

THOUGH, SINCE THE BEGINNING of this century

\ there has been an increase in the total workforce,

yet there' is ,a definite decrease in the workforce

,engaged, in rural technologies. From, 18 per cent

of the .workforce employed in rural technologies in

1910, it reduced to 7 per cent in 19708 According to

the All India Debt and Investment Survey 1971-72,

conducted by the Reserve Bank of India" the estimated

number of rural households, in the country was

7,70,35,000 of whom 18,68,000 (Or just 2.4 per

cent)" were rural artisan households." The presenteconomic conditions of. the .rural artisans are awfully

bad. .Financial resources ,at their disposal are inade-

quate. They are found living in one or two rooin hut-

ments which is also their working place or the work-shop.

7. Gill, S. S. : Development and its Impact on Rural Artisans

Mainstream, 12th"January 1980, 18(20), 23~26. ~

8. Rahman, A.; Qureshi, M. A.; Solanki, S. S.;

Vashist, V. N.: Influence of Metropolitan 'Proximity

on Skill Formation of Rural Workers---:-A case study of

Haryana Villages; Accepted for Publication in the Septem-

ber 1981issue of "Man and Development". .J

9. Nagaiya, D. :"Development Strategy for Rural Artisans,

Kurukshetra, September, 1980 23(28), 20-23.

' 9

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No. of Rural Artisans in selected villages

TABLE 1

.District~viseDist~ibution of Occupations in The Sample

. Interviews with the respondents were held in local

language and l-he information was noted personally by

l~e investigator. -

Sonepat, Rohtak and durgaon, have been seieeted.

Stratified sampling design was employed to select the

artisan respondents in the selected villages so as to

give equal representation to different types of ~rtisa:ns.

Out of the total population of 230 households of rural

artisans, a sample of 5,6rural artisans households was

selected with' about 24 per cent representation of the. _

artisaps in these villages.

AU these villages have primary schools and are well

connected with nearby towns through metalled roads.

The districtwise distribution of various artisans in-

cluded in the sample is given ill Table 1.

9

56

15

10

5

5

2

3 9

2 9

19

.2 ,4

9

2

Gurgaon Rolltak TotalS. Typeo!

No. Artisans Sonepat

1. Carpenters 8

2. Blacksmiths 5

3. Potters 5

4. Weavers 7

5. Cobblers 2

6. Telis. 1

Total. 28

.ijthough, governmental expenditure and develop-

ment programmes' have substantially increased over

. the last 30 years, the gains of developmenPhave not

reached the rural artisans.. Between 1961 and 1971,

the .number of laudlesj;jlgricultural labourers have in-

creased froni 30 inillion to 47 million, .Simultane-

. ously, the number of people below the poverty line

(Rs. 30 per capita per month). has also increased by

25 per cent over the period."'.

. In Punjab, due to adverse effect o f modern techno-

logy, a large number of artisans had to join the ranks

of the rural proletariat at an alarming rate, which has

doubled tbe agriculture male-workforce fro;" 93,18

per cent in 1961 to 210.85 per cent in 1971."

TheBOW decay of th" traditional bounds of society

and decline in the importance of the panchayat also

compelled many Of' the artisans to inigrate to other'

pr9fessions. In the specific conditions of Haryami,

grow:thprocess of capitalist development in rural areashas operated in a different way. Here, instead of

transforming artisans' production into commodity pro-

duction, it has been allowed to disintegrate by lack 'Of

providing necessary skill to them: Under the circum-

stances, most of the artisalls have had to shift from

their traditional occupations to other professions for

their livelihood.

, jt is generally assumed that .tl.'e rural artisans are

competent to meet the requirements of the rural deve-

lopment strategies, ignoring the .fact that there is need

to pass certain knowledge and skill to them. In vieWof the development strategies for rural areas which

demand more skilled labour, it is essential to give due

emphasis to skill formation of rural artisans.

. One of the national aims is to give purchasing power

to the rural people by providing .them suita!)le em-

ployment after increasing productive activities in the

. villages. In this context, development and innovations

,in the traditional occupations need to be supported

on some 'priority basis. The essential cOIllPonentof

any social development programme is the develop-ment of manpower resources. In a labour . surplus

economy, there is .a tendency to adopt a complacent

attitude towards skill development, particularly in the

rural areas; .

. A study of Haryana artisans

I NTHE ABOVECONTEXTan attempt has been made

to asseS' the impact of technological development

. on rural artisans. In this case study of nine villages,

three came from three districts of Haryana, namely,

10. Solaokis. S. -Impact of Rural Development Programme

on Khadi Gramodyog, April 1981, 27(7),. 361- 369.

II. Ibid, 7.

Educational level of rural artisans

AFTER INDEPENDENCEthe Government of India

. provided several opportunities in rural areas for

educating the rural workers. In order to find out as

to how far this has influenced rural artisans, the edu-

cational levels of the artisans contacted during this

survey were taken note of. It was noticed that amongthe respondents about 46 per cent. were literate who

. received education ranging from primary to matricuia-

tion. About 39 per cent of them studied below mat-

riculation and 7 per cent were matriculates. Abollt

36 per cent of the respondents received their' educa-

tion at their respective..villages and only 10 per cent

of them at the nearest district town. None of them

had obtained .any techl)ical education/training. How-

ever, little less than half of the respondents, as men-

tioned above, were literate, is quite' an encouraging

phenomenon. This level of literacy. could have been

augmented for breaking new grounds to stimulate

technical innovation particularly in the traditional

rural artisens. It was further noted that the educa-

10 KlJRUKSHETRA February 16, 1982

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Occupational training,

*Includes b~ngle-making, P~inting, Plastic work', electrical.

welding, nickle plati'ng, mason work and hand and tube-well pump fittings.' v.

tionaI facilities were not in easy reach of the ~ rural

artisans, except prill;J.(~ryeducation, These institutions

for higher 'education an,d technicaI training were

largely set up in the urban areas and thus lot of finan-

cial hardships were faced by the rural artisans who

could never think of going for training or education

that would help boost their traditional skills. The

present system of education has been successful in in-

spiring the rllral workers for seeking white collar jobs,

rather than'improving the traditional crafts to their

advantagc. The villages Covered in the survey pre-

sented a tcchnically backward background.

OCCUPATIONAL TRAINING could be imparted through

formal and informal' means. The formal training

is given through specific training institutions, such/as

District Industrial Centre (DIC), Industrial Training

Institute (ITI) and ,Khadi and, Village 'Industries Com-

mission (KVIC), etc. Informal training is mostly ac-quired through family' members, villagers and rela-

tions, only one respondent had, recei~ed formal train-

ing from DIC on modern farming technology. Rest

of the. rural artisans had informal training from tbeir

respective villages or nearby towns. There was no

one Irained from ID.

I! was observed that the rural artisans who had

takell informal training in village traditional crafts or

• tcchnical jobs such ~s bangle-making, printing, plastic

work, electrical welding and others are working either

in the fields as agricultural labour or in nearby indus-

tries as unskilled, workers because either they had not

. been provided adequate opportunities sqitable' to their

tradilional professions or held back due to lack of

. sufficient training or funds to invest in their pr;fession.

Table 2 shows break-up of ~ormaLand inform'al occu-

'pational trainIng received by the rural artisans.

I! was observed that very few traditional crafts were

included in the curriculum ,of available formal occupa-

tion'al training programmes started at the ITI, DIe,

KVIC levels. I! was also noticed that the prospective

artisans faced lot of problems at the time of admission

to these courses either due to lack of insufficient basic

educa:tion, confidence and knowledge of future pros-

pects; Moreover, they have to compete with the

urban 'candidates seeking admission along with them,

who always score over them and grab the opportunitiesfor admission. Thus the purpose of occupational

training programmes has not succeeded' in fulfilling the

needs of the rural areas particularly of ,the rural

artisans ..•

.Communication pattern

THE SOURCE OF INFORMATION to. the artisans.

could be grouped intwo categories-informal and

formal. The informa.l sources of information are

villagers, .family mempers, relatives, friends, visits to

nearest town and agricultural/industrial fairs. The for-mal sources of information are government institutions,

radio, newspaper, extension literature, television and

. functionaries for rural development. Informal sources

are integral part of Ihe socio-economic and cultural

life of the villages. These sources occupy prominent

place in the communication structure of the village life.

Every day meeting and verbal e,:changes of ideas and

knowledge among the villagers including family mem-

bers 'are significant means of c;ommunication. Acquisi-

tion of information by the villagers through informal

modes was considered to be the most useful and

authentic information.' Further, successful innovationstbrough the, informal communication pattern can easily

be diffused in the rural set-up. Informal sources have

been mentioned by the respondents as the most effec-

tive sources of informaiion. It is significant to note

that information about 94 per cent of respondents has

becn found to have got information from these sources.

Amo~g the formal sources of information, news-

paper, extension literature, radio and television, did

.not seem to have significant impact on the artisans.

Ouly 18 per cent respondents appeared to have ob-

tained some information from these sources. Lack of awareness for the need of new information, non-avail-

ability of time and technicaJ edu'cation appear to be

-the main reasons for the backwardness of artisan

class. Also the government institutions like. block

offices, Krishi Gyan Kendras, Co-operative Banks,

district industries centres and in~ustrial training insti-

• tutes could' not extend much support to them. Dur-

ing the course of interviews, it was clear that initial

guidance which was required for technical innova- -

, tions was not generally made available by these insti-

, tutions to the artisans. The artisans' pointed, out that

the facilities of these institutions were largely madeavailable to resourceful and infiuential persons. Hence

Informal

Village TaWil

Vii/age Town

DIe ITl

3

35 3

1 1

36 7

Occupational

Training

Total

1. Modern Farming

Technology

2.. Village Tradi-

tional crafts

3. Other technical

Jobs*

Formal

TABLE 2

OCcupational Training of Artisans

KURUKSHETRA February 16, 1982 II

•

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TABLE 3

Respondents on Choice of Industries

Craft-based industrialization

The present institutional structure"for rural deve-

lopment has not triggered off the chain of technical

innovations. It is apprehended that there is an apa- '

thy and lack of efficiency on the part of government

ancl policy-makers in the development of tradition'al

crafts, which explains the present serious unemploy-

ment 'situation. in the villages.

How rural artisans take to technology

The carpionters have shown keen interest in setting

up carpentry workshop, agro-bl!sed production units;

small saw mill and masonry work. The blacksmiths

showed their interest iiI agro-based industries and

blacksmithy. The potters wanted to improve the ace

ceptability of their products with the help of pointing

and using better quality clay, etc. Telis (Oilmen)

mainly evinced their interest. in upscaling traditional'

production by transforming into small scale factoties

if mechanically operated oil crushers, etc. are provid-

ed ,to them. Likewise the other classes of artisans

like weavers and shoe-makers wished to set up simi-

lar cottage/small scale industries if the modern means

and machinery were at their disposal. However, the

artisans who have acquired the skills by which' they

can upgrade production Iiased on traditional techno-

logies could not do 'so due' to the following reasons :

(i) .Non-availability of financial resources to pur-,

chase new tools;, (il) the artisans were not fully aware

of the entrepreneurial and management problems in-

volved in setting up of an.industry; (iii) Lack of mar-keting ability; and (iv) ,unable to de.rive much bene-

fits from the facilities Greated for the development of

artisans undcrvariqus programmes.

OUT OF. THE TOTAL ARTISANS CONTACTED) only 38

per cent were found to' have been' continued in

their .traditional occupations. Majority of them i'ere

old who were left with no other opportunity than,

sticking to their traditional work. It was observed

that among the first arid second generations of ruralartisans, i.e: of 'grand-father's and father's', 'there'

still existed stability and continuity in. their occupa-

tions bccause till then. the artisans were the sole

makes and supplies of tools, handicrafts and house-

hold goods for use in the villages. Today, the rural

scene has been continuously changing as' demand for

better quality goods and services is ,gradually in-

creasing in the rural areas. The economic prosperity

of the farmers.has changed their consumption re-

. quirements. They now find the manufactured com-

modities of the industry cheap and better in qualityas compared to those produced by the rural artisans.

The rural artisans who lack in modem skills are un-. .

able to meet the new requirements. that are essen-

tial to keep pace with the timcs. Thus, due to dwind-

ling demand of their traditional products many of

the artisans drifted away from their ancestral

occupations and were compelled to shift to other oc- .

'cupations in order to earn their livelihood. Out of

56 households, only 21 were engaged in their tradi- .

tional occupations.' The remaining 35 households

(62 per cent) had given up their traditional oc~upa-

tions and were now engaged . .in occupations otherthan traditiOIlal occupations. Table '4 indicates the

ch.aracter of. ch~ngesin the occupatIons.

!

KURUKSHETRA February, 16, .1982

•

Respondents st lis for'

.s~!tjngup il1d/lstri~s.

0) Agro-based industries

(Part of the modern' Agri-

c~lturalinputs).

(ii) Blacksmithy.

(i) Pottery work

(ii) Painting workshop on pottery.

(i) Shoemaking.

.(ij) Plastic work.

(i) . "VI/caving

,(ii) .I?rinting.'

(i) . Carpentry workshop

(ii) Agro.based industries

(iii) Small saw.Mill

( iv) Masonry w ork

. (i) Oil crusher.

5, Cobblers

6. Teli

3. Potters

4. Weavers

2. Bl acksmi ths .

1. Carpenters

Type-o! Respondents

12

THE RESPONDENTS have shown much interest in

starting small scale industries based on' tradi-

tional cr~fts:'in the villages, provided they are given

financial support, technical knowledge and other faci-

lities .for the purpose. Table 3 indicates the skills

of the respondents in which they have expressed their

~bilities 'to set up' small scale industries in' the vil-

lages.

the majority of them could not fully avltil of these

formal, sourccs of information, There !l1aybe other

unknown factors due. to which these institutions and

functionaries were not effective in the case of arti-

sans than was expected of them at the time of their

initiation, These factors could be political, econo-

mic, cultural and informational in nature.. Each of

these factors require in-depth analysis to unfold' the

reasqlls of their ineffectivenQss.

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-- --

T A B L E 4 •

.P_attem of Shifting. of Rural Artisans to New Occupations

Traditional H~llseholds Shifting' to new occupations, . . . . -.A- --. --~-- -----,

Caregories ofartisa#s No. of. T,:aditional Agricultural Techriical Tenants Unskilled Govt.jPvt. Households. Occupations workers job in TOWlls workers Service

Carpenters 15 7 3 2 1 . 1

BI~cksmiths 10 4 2 . 1 3

IPotter 9 5 3 1,

Weavers 9 3 5 ,

1

'Cobblers 9 2 4 1 2.

Telis . 4 2 1

TOTAL 56 21 19 3 2 2. 9

About .72 per cent of the respmidents mentioned

that they did not .like their children to remain in

their traditional occupations. An overwhehning pro-

portion of them (63 %) have shown their inclina-

tion towards government service. Only 8 per cent

of them expressed their desire for technical jobs to.their children.

other professions for them. Table 5 shows the com-

mitment of the artisans to their professions.

The largest number of these households were en.

:gaged as agricultural labour which.is indicative of

'worsening economic conditions of the. artisans, parti-

-cularly the shoe-makers, weavers and telis. In order

.o( importance the second incidence of shifting of -occupation has been towards government/private

:service. ' j

Those presently engaged in traditional .rural tech-

11010gieswere also thinking to gradually .follow suit.

The data collected dit! not present a single case where

a person sought employment in the industry as a .In the case of carpenters and blacksmiths, it was

technical or a skilled worker. It was noted that some intercsting to note that about 50 per cent of them

<categories like weavers, cobblers, telis, etc. are fast were in favour of adopting traditional profession for

reducing in number, while carpenters, blacks.miths, their children, but in the case of potters, weavers,

TABLE 5

P.rofessions Desired b~'Various Categories of Rural Artisans for their Children

S. Category of

No. Rural ArE/sans

1. C ar-penters .

2. Blacksmiths .

3. Potters

4. Weavers

5. Cobblers

-6. TeJis' (Oilmen)

Total CaJpen.

Responde!ds lers

15 7

10

9

9

9

4

Black~

smiths

2

6

Potters. Weavers Cobblers Telis Govt.fPV1.

Service

3 4 5 6 7

7

4

2. 6

7

8

3

Tech. Unable

work ;0 reply

8 9

1

1

1 1

TOTAL 56 7 6. 2 35 3 2

pottcrs etc. have exhibited relative stability in their

ancestral profession. If this trend is allowed. to

-continue, the time is not far when there will occur a

complete transfonuation of the local artisans class.

This unhealthy change is not favourable to the -rural

masses. . ~

cobblers and telis only. 11 per cenrwanteu their ,chil-.

dren to continue ~ith their professions. However,

almost. all of them were in high state of frustration,

particnlarly. in the context of the shrinking market

of their products due \0 which they have been facing

severe economic hardships. .

THE DESIRE of artisans for their children to re-

main in their- traditional professions has .been'.

considered as, an index of their satisfaction. The res-

pondents were asked to indicate whether Ihey would like their children to remain in the same. professions

in which they were presently engaged or prefer some

Conclusion.

THE ARTISANS have been gradually isolated frOm

the rural development programmes. It appearsthat the village crafts were not given due attention

, . (Contd. on p. 20) :-

KURUKSHETRA 'February 16, 1982 13

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THE REGION NOW COMPRISING HARYANA was com-

paratively less . developed within the erstwhIle

. State of Punjab. The state was deficit in foodgrains

and had a very poor industrial growth, .Because of

all these, the per capita income of the people of

Haryana was only slightly higher, than the national

. average and its position was fifth among the states dur-

ing 1965-66. The State lacked even in elementaryinfrastructure for over-all development. Moreover,

area under irrigation was only 40 per 'cen( of the total

cropped area and farmers were mainly growing desi

varieties and rollowed more or less the age-old cropping

pattern. However, since its inception in November..

1966, the State made tremendous progress in almost

all walks of life leading to a phenomenal increase in

its economic status. In addition, it attained unique

distinction of achieving hundred per cent rural elec-

trification and linking all its villages with metalled

roads. The use of high yielding variety seeds of cerea!

crops, fertilizers, and plant protection meaSUres in-creased considerably. The process of mechanisation

of agricnltural operations also registered phenomenal

changes. As a result of these developments, the

production' of paddy, wheat, sugarcane, total kharif

cereals, total foodgrains and all crops increased by

211, 68, 39, 70, 45' and 44 per cent respectively .in

1977-78, over. the base period of 1966-67. Taking

the same base period again, the indices of area uuder

,crops, net area sown, cropping intensity. yield, pro-

ductivity and agricultural pr')duction in 1977-78 in-

creased to 117, 107, 109,112, 136 and 144 per cent

respectively. Because of these, per capita income of Raryana ,increased to Rs. 1776 and attained second

position in the country only next to Punjab.•

14

A Haryana study

Adoption of newfarm technology

B. S, BANGARWA, RAJ SINGH and R. S. KADIANHaryana Agricultural Uniycrsity, His~ar-

Nq ' DOUBT TIll? "STATE HAS madf? tremendous pro~.

gress, however, it has to accelerate and consoli-

date the process of its development for maintaining th",

teinpo of progress in the light of high population

growth. SpeCiallywhen most of th" cultivable land 1S

already under the plough, hence, scope for augment_.

ing the availability of land is almost ruled out. There-fore, the scope for enhancing production in agrieulinre'

lies in providing for more irrigation facilities and mak~

ing.farmers of all farm size group~r~ady to adopt ncw

farm .technology. Here an attempt is being made to

.understand the scope for enhancing agricultural pro-

duction by examining the nature and exte'nt of farm

technology adopted by farmers under different farm

size groups and to cgrrelate the average yield obtained

under such farm size '. groups. Reddy and Reddy.

(1972) found that the size of the farm was positivelyrelated to the adoption of farni practices., The view

was a!so shared by Madalia and Rajwadi (1976).

Sachchidananda (1972) observed that a number of

new seeds and fertilizers were not adopted due to lack

of irrigation and poor finance. Muthiah et a!. (1978)

concluded that the different farm size groups adopted

recommended practices irrespective of their .different

sizes. Aggarwal (1980) found that the large farm size

was negatively related to crop yield because of greater

sUp'ervision constraints and the agro-dimatic conditionsand irrigation facilities positively related with farm.

yield. Singh (1981) observed that the level of fertilizer


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,

Large

Results and discussion

2 3(5)

11

(18)

18 56 ', (93)

35(58)

12 35(58)

12 35(58)

M . Tolal

5 14(23)

19 51(85)

7(12)

20(33)

sharing next one-third of the 10tai area were iermed a s

the medium farmers, and the farmers from the bollom

of the list accounting for the remaining one-third of

the area were ter~ed as large far~mers. 'Hence

in Mahendragarh district" farmers with size of opera-

tiona; holding below 1,6 hectares, 1.60 to 3.20 hec-

tares and abgve- 3.20 hectares were categorised into

small, medium, and large farm groups respectively.

Howevcr, in case of lind and Karnal districts the size,of operational holding of the small, u',edium ;nd large

farm group was fonnd to be below 2.40 heelares 2.40

to 4.80' hectares and above 4.80 hectares, respec'lively.

From eacheluster 60 farmers, i.e. 20 each from the

small, medium and large farm size groups ~ere selected

,randomly. In this way, one hundred and eighty far-

mers were selected as respo"ndents for the present

study, The number o f farmers of va~ious size-groups

selected from the sample villages was in probability

. proportional. to the number Q f farmers in each size

group. These r~spondents were interviewed with the

help of a structural schedule, for collecting primarydata in the year 1979-80. Data thns collected was

converted into tabular form and percentages were cal-

culated for drawing infere'nce_s,

3S 4 19(58)

30 ' 4 19(50)

41 20 18(68)

25 20 14(41)

1 1(2)

2 11

, (3)

S

7

M Tolal K J,

3 11 2 7(18),

4" 26 20 12(43)

1 1 4 2.(2)

2 14 20(23)

13

6

1

S

J

5

Methodology

17

18

19

4

4

19

12

19

K

3

.1 7

Kharif

Kharif

5. Improved seeds purchased

Rabi .

Kharif

3. Tractor

1. Land Improvement

6. Fertilizers

Rabi •

4, Thresher

7. Insecticides/pesticides

Rabi .

2. Tubewell

s.~ No. Telihn%gylFarmers

cblisumption and adoption of high yieiding variety

seeds was positively related with assured irrigation

facilities.

THE PRESENT SAMPLE STUDY was conducted ..in

rural Haryana. Keeping in mind the agro-cli-

matic considerations, the State was divided into threezones: Zone I consisting of Ambala. Ku~ukshetra,

, Karnal and Sonepa! districts has more assmed irriga-

tio'n' and fertile land. In contrast :to ihis zone, areas

comprisinj!; of Bhiwani, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon and'

Faridabad having relatively less irrigation facilities and

,sandy soils could be characterised as dry farming(Zone' II). In between these two Z<'ineslies Sirsa,

Hissar, Jind and Rohtak districts forming the Zone III

which is superior'to south-western districts of the dry

fanning zone but inferior to agriculturally advanced

north-western zone depicting the intermediate situation

between the two contrasting zones. To represent the

three broad agre-c1imatic regions' of the State, Baawal,

Jind and.Karnal. Tehsils were selected 'purposively

from Mahendrag-arh, Jind and Karnal districts, respec-

, lively. From each Tehsil, one cluster of fom contigu-

.ous villages was selected. A list of farmers in ascend-

ing order of their holding sizes was prepared for each W HlLE MEASURING THE NATURE of adoption of

cluster of 'four selected villages. These farmers were farm technology mechanization-eum-qualitative

categorised into small, medium and large farm size improvement of farms and the use of farm inputs like

groups. For determining the range of holding falling seeds. fertilizers and plant protection measures were

, into small, medium and large farm groups, the farmers .studied. Table 1 details the adoption of farm tech-

from the top of the list accounting for one-third of the nology by respondents belonging to different farm sizetotal cultivated area of the sample vill~ges were termed groups and 'representing all the three agro-c1imatic

as small farmers. Farmers from the middle of the list and soil zo'nes of Haryana. ' ~

TABLE 1 : Adoption of Farm Technology by Farmers

Small Medium

Figures in parenthesis denote percentages ..

K=Kamal. J=Jind. M=Mahendragarh ..

KURUKSHETRA February 16, 1982 15

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A ', NALYSIS ~F Table"ireveals that respondents repre

sonting ,different farm size groups did adopt all

the above aspects of farm technology when seen in

totality, Furthermore the adoption of technologies like

tubewell, tractor, thresher, improved seed purchases,

fertilizers and plant protection measures increased with

the increase in farm size. However, in case of

land improvement, medium size 'group respondents ex-

,celled both the categories represented by large and small farm size groups. Reddy and Reddy (1972)

and Mildalia and Rajwadi (1976) also found positive

relationship between adoption of improved farm prac-

tices and size of farms. However, intra -zO Ii.e com-

parison of the technology adopted by the respondents

indicates the following trends; Iu case of land im-

provements, respondents representing all the farm size

groups in Zone II excelled in its adoption folJowedby

the respondents belonging to the Zone III and Zone 1.

The probable reason for this situation may be the,

agro-climatic conditions and assured irrigation in Zone.

I, however, in Zone 1 1 and Zone III these conditions

warrant the use of this technology. In case cif tube-

wells inst'allation farmers belonging to all farm 'size

groups representing Zone I: variation in number was

almost negligible indicating the need felt by farmers

for assured irrigation. However, in case of Zone II

and III',and among different farm size groups marked

. distinction in its installation were noticed. Respondents

in Zone III representing medium and large size farm

groups installed more lubewells compared to those

represcnting Zone II indicating the percolation of this

technology in zOne III. Respcndents representing alI. farm sizc groups and falling under Zone J purchased

threshers more or less uniformly but in case of zo.ne-

II and III farmcrs belonging to large farm size groUJP

adopted these in larger numbers. -' It reflects the

Small

S e .f e c te d c r o p sM Av.K J

2 3 4 5

Wheat 1046 , 671 810 842

Bajra 107 106 106 '

Gram 120 120

Paddy 1672 1672

Cotton 71 71

~arley 556 556

K=Karnal, J =Jind,

prosperity and Intensive cuitivation in Zone 1 . Res-

pondents representing Zone -II'purch~sed more impro-

ved seeds in larger number under different farlh size

groups followed by those representing Zone III and

Zone 1. II is probably due to the fact that reS-

pondents representing zone I need not purchase

, improved seeds because most respondents were already

having most kharif and rabi season crops under

improved seeds. Fertilizer consumption in Zone Icovering all farm size groups was more compared to

.Jhose in Zone II in case' of kharif crops and among

small farmers, however, in rabi crops all fa,rm' size

groups farmers used fertilizers substantially. Siinilarly,

in case of Zone-III farmers represenl;ng to medium

and I'argc farm size groups also used .chemical fertili-

zers exlensively in rabi crops whereas Ihose represen-

ting small farm size group used vcry little. In kharif

crops farmers representing Zone III and all farm size'

groups used minimum chemical fertilizers. Poot irri,-

gation facilities lead to its low consumption in Zone,

III followed by Z{)neII and under all farm size groups.

Sachchidananda (l97;!) and Singh (1981) also noticed

similar trends in fertilizer consumption. Plant pro-

tection meas.ures were practised by a few' farmers re-

presenting different farm size groups under all, the

Ihree Zones and specially in rabi crops. However,

in case oi kharif crops, farmers of Zone II and repre-'

senting medium and large' farm size groups used

comparatively more plant protection measures, th~m

in other zones, indicating its-poor dissimination among

farmers 'of Haryana,Muthiah et 31.(1978) reported

partial adoption of thesc technologies .

TABLE 2 El.ABORATES'THE AVERAGE YIEl.D obtained

, ',by farmers r~resenting different zones and. farm

size groups in respect of major crops like wheat, bajra,

gram, paddy, c'otton and barley.

Large

-------------

K J M Av. K J M Av.

6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13

893 959 662, 838 996' 819 408 741

256 108 182 182 80 131220 100 160 128 140 134

1620 1620 1552 465 1008

213 213 260 260

534 534 420 420

M=Mahendragarh, Av. _Average.

Overall analysis of Table 2 reveals that the average

yield obtained by medium size farms was maximum

followed by small and large farm size groups indicae

ting the optimum size of land holding for attaining

maximum 'output per unit of land under medium size

groups i.e. 1.60 to 3.20 hectares in Zone I arid IIand 2.40 to 4.-80 hectares in' Zone III. Aggarwal

(1980) also found that farm size was negatively re-

lated to yield. The findings suggest that the medium'

16

size farmers were solely dependent on la,nd holdings

for livelihood because they 'could ljeherate cnough

output to sustain their, families whereas lhe sm-all size

holders could not obtain the required (mtput hence.

looked for other sources for employil1ent/earning to

sustain their fawlies. On the othcr' hand large farmers

could not oblain maximum 'output per unit area because of management problems and lack of inten'sive

culti"vation per unit area a~.compared to medium and

,KURUKSBETRA February 16, 1982

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small farmers. The analysis of avei'age yield of diffe-

rent crops and under different zones indicate the fol-

lowing trends: Small farmers in Zone I obtained maxi-

mum average yield in case of wheat and paddy follow-

ed by medium and large farmers. In Zime II, farmers

representing medium; large and small farm size groups

obtained maximum average yield .in case of wheat

whereas in ZOne III small farmers excelled' in obtaining'

maximum yield of wheat followed by medium and

large farmers. AggarWal (i980) reported the detri-

mental role played by agro-cliinatic and 'irrigation

facilities in affecting the yield per unit area. In

case of Bajra, farmers representing Zone II and of

medium size group obtained. maximum av.erage

yield followed by la.rgeand small farmers whereas

in case of Zime III, those representing medium size'

group obtained maximum yield followed by small and

large size groups.- Farmers representing Zone II and

belonging to large farm size group, obtained maximum'

yield of cotton followed by those representing medium

and small farm size groups. In case of'Barley; farmersrepresenting Zone III and small farm'size group .ob-

tained maximum average yield followed by medium

"'td Iarge' farm size groups. '

Implication

BASEDUPON FACTSPRESENTEDABOVEthe 'following

implications emerge which need immediate atten-

tion of the policy planners, extension agencies and

farm administrators to recast their programmes to'

attain maximum output per .unit area.

1

It was noticed tliat the exteDt of adoption or' farm

technology by small farmers was comparatively less

than the medium and large farmers but their pro-'

'portion among the total," operational holding in'

Haryana, is on the "increase (Statistical Abstracts of

,Haryana, 1979-80). Therefore, it is emphasised. that

programmes 'and' pOlicies relating to, agricultural deve-

lopment must be directed to enhance' the adoption of

appropriate technologies like improved seeds;fertilizers

an9- plant protection'. measures, towards small. and .

,medium farmers. The prerequisite for the adoption,

of these .technologies, the provision of assured irrigation,

facilities, hence, .need not be o'';erlookcd in enhanCing

-rural development.

2

The fear expresscd in the earlier times by mallY

authors that small, and medium farmers are not very

innovative in' the -adoption of m~dern technology,

stands dispelled, '. They adopted iechnologies which

were economical and culturally compatible to their

size of land holding and within their financial capabi-

.lities. Hence they must. be attended properly by the

developmental agencies while ,disseminating informa-

tion and innovations.-

3

Finally, the average yield obtained by medium size

farm groups, was relatively better than those obtained

by large and small farm size respondents,' indicating ,

medium size" of landholding as an 'optimum farm

size group. Therefore, it is advoc-ated that in order to. attain max~mum output pc"r unit cultivated -area,

the practice of .large and small farm sizes should

be discouraged lJy enacting appropriate legislation.

REFERENCES

Aggarwal, B. 1980. Effects of Agricultural Mechanization on

Crop Output (A study of the operationwise effects for

. high yielding variety wheat in 'Punjab). Indian Eco~lOmic

Rel'ieW'(l) : 21.

Madalia, V. K. and,Rajwadi, R. V. 1976. Adoption of Agri4

cultural Innovations. Kurukshetra, 24: 9.

Muthiah, G. BeruJ!lal"and Somasunderam, S. 1978. Influence

of Periptatetic Training Programme on the Adoption of

" Recommended "Farm 'Practices, Indian, Journal of Exten-

sion Education, 'XIV,. June, 1978.

Reddy, K." G. .and~ Rddy, G. B.. 1972. Adoption of

Improved Agricultural Practices in Andhra Pradesh.

Indian Journal of Extension Edit., V.HI (1- 2) : 17-:-,20.

Sachchidananda 1972. Social Dimensions in Agricultural

Development.

Singh, D. 1981.. Imbalances in Agricultural Growth. Indian

Journal of Agrk.ultflral _Ero"nomics, Jan-March 19?J.

XXXVI. ., •

Statistical Abstracts of Hdryana, \1978.79 and 1979-~O. 'Depart-

ment of Statist~cs, Government of Haryana .

•

,A SMALL FAMILY IS A'HAPPYFAMILY

\. . . .

"i


...

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Determining prices of agricultural commodities

B. HUMBARWADI, M. K. NARASIMHAN and N. S. VISHWAt'lATH

Kamataka State -Agricultural Marketing Board, Bangalore

IT IS SAID THAT WHIL~ determining the agricultural

prices, cost of cultivatiOn, trends m free market

prices: inter crop price balance and rate of inflation

have to be examined with careful attention, Economic

theories suggest that- unde-r ceteris paribusj the behavi-

our of economic variables could be seen through a

two.dimensional model, with many forces and factors

acting upon to get a particular result The question

remains that how to include these in the form of il

model? Even lack of statistical data on many vari-

ables and also the limitations curtail the use of it

De-termination of prices for agricuftural commodi-

ties is another complex problem and needs to be exa-

~ined. A scientific'and objective method of determin-

ing the prices should be evolved so that it. will have

rclevant policy implications to be implemented by the

executing authority. The Agricultural Prices Commis-

sion listed various criteria for determining the procure-

ment price for the selected commodities. The much

debated. criteria ~re cost of. 'Cultivation and the

principle of parity.

This paper is based on the parity . principle with

special reference to the selected commodities .in Kar- •

nataka.

Parity price indices will be computed usually for

(i) inter-commodity, (ii) input and outpui prices,.

(iii) for prices rcceived for output sold and prices

paid by farmers for inputs as well as consumption

goods, and (iv) parity between prices for industrial

raw 'materials and finished goods, 'and lastly inter-

sectoral price parity. The question still remains as tohow parity prinCiple should be considered as a policy

decision mald_nginstrument:,r~. .....

18

• •

. Objectives

.THE MAIN OBJECTIVES OF the present paper are to

.examine the behaviour of parity indices of price

.received 'by the farmers- for the output sold to the

price paid 'l;>ythe farmers for buying the consumer

goods and needed input~ and the behaviour of inter-

crop price parity indices for the selected .five crops inKamataka: . .

Methodology

THE PRESENT STUDY is based, on the secondary datacollected for the period 1'}71 to 197'}. The data are

collected maiuly from two sources: (i) Bureau of Eco-

nomics and Statistics,. Kamataka, Bangalore anil (ii)

The Research Wing, Kamataka State Agricl)l!ural

Marketing Board, Bangalore. The data on con,sumer

price index were collected from the Bureau of Econo-

mics and Statistics and data regarding whOlesale

market prices were collected from the Research Wing

of the Kamataka State Agricultural Marketing Board.

The c6mmodities selected for the sfudy are: (1.)

Paddy, (2) Ragi, (3) Jowar, (4). oTdnndnut and (5)Cotton. The total cropped acreage under these com-

modities constitute about 65 per cent' ot'total net

area sown in the State.

The yearly market prices are the weighted average

montWy modal prices prevailed in the correspOnding

markets in the State-for the' selected commo.dilies,

with. monthly arrivals as weights.

The competing crops in the State are of ihe

following combinations, Paddy'"Gtoundnut, Paddy-

Cotton, Jowar-Gronndmit, Jowar-Cotton, Jowar~Ragi,

1. Based on average figure during i977-78, Karnatttka at a

Glance published by the Director, Bureau of Economies and

Statistics. BangaIore.

. KURUKSIIETRA February 16,1982

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The inter-crop price parity have'been WOrkedout

as the' ratio of the ptice index of a commodity to the'

Where Plj =Parity Price for the Ith ,commodity in the jill:

year.

pij=Market Price Index for the ithcommodity

pci=Index of ConSumer Price Index i n the jth year.

Ragi-Grou'ndnut and Groundnut Cotton. The .above

combinalions are based on the experience that are in

.'Practice in irrigated' areas for some combinations and

also in rain-fed areas for so~e other combinations;

Computation of Parity Price Index:'

The paiity of price received for a particuiar com-

modity by the farmer. to the price paid by him have

been worked out as:Pij- pij

- 100 ;-1,2, 5

j-l,2, ,',9

. pdce mdex or another commodity ror the same period

expressed in percentage form,

.Lim~tations

IT IS ASSUMED TH~t whoiesaie nlarket prices repre-

sent actual .price received tiy farmers as' "Market

prices for most of the agricultural conimodities are

currently aboVe the minimum support price fixed bythe Government", and consumer pnce)ndicatc5 prices

paid by him for buying consumer goods. and other

'inputs, The conswner prices in the aggregate are

assumed to have least averaging effect, and we assume

that this is true for each selected commodity. To test

the hypothesis for significance fixed effects model is. assumed,

The data computed on the methodology are present."d in Tables iand 2. .

Table 1 : Parity indices for the Pri~es received. for the CommOdity to tbe .Price paid

Year

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1 9 7 1 .

. 1978 '1979

Commodity.---

Paddy .Jowar Rag; Groundnut CottOIl,

2 3 4 5 6

11 5 11 1 10 2 i 03 12 1

. 117 10 9 10 1 91 99

11 5 11 7 82 119 95

10 1 11 2 127 120 99

11 0 11 7 13 5 10 4 . 90

10 1 93 90 75 >86

93 92 10 7 11 1 95

89 89 83 97 11 378 76 73 . 83 11 2

A. PERUSAL OF TABLE 1 reveals that the price

paid over the years for paddy, jowar, ragi

,and groundnut has wide range 011 the lower side',

to that of cotton, . This is because though the variety-

'wise prices of cotton have regislered wide gap the

weighted average price' taken care of balancing the

gap to little extent. This wide disparity is due to the.

sudden. crashing down in. the prices of paddy, jowar,

rag; and groundnut during 1978 and 1979. Whereas

the growers of cottOIl had advantage during. this period..

. Table 2 : Inter-crop parity indices of prices'

Parity Between

Year

------

------P&G P&C J &G J &C J &R R&G G&C1971 , 89' ' l OS 97 11 0 92 10 1 11 8

. 1972 78 ~4 84 91 93 90 ' 1081973 <

10 4 83 10 2 82 70 14 6 11 81974 11 9 98 . 107 88 11 3 94 831975 95 83 90 78 116 71 861976

.' 75 . 85 81 92 96 84 141977 12 0 10 2 12 1 10 3 , 116 10 4 85

. 1978 10 9 12 6 11 0 i 28 94 11 7 11 61979

" 10 6 14 4 10 9 14 8 97 11 3 13 5

~OTE : P-l?a~dy. J-Jowar, R-ragi,. G!.-groundnut and C-cotton (Kapas).

2. The aggregate base-method has b(:cn adopted 'to work.

out any index required for complItuiioll.


3. M. L. Dalltwala, "Agr.icultural Price Policy" Economic

Times, Febcmlry, 7th, 1981.

19

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2

J

There is no significant difference in the parity in-

dices for price paid Jo the price received in the aggre-

gate period for the commodities. '

there is a definite significant difference in th" inter~

crop price parity over the aggregate period b"Otweeri

different combinations of competing crops,

4

THus THE WIDEDISPARITYthat has existed bet-

ween the different crop, combinations over ,the

years"is a serious problem to be discussed. The dis-10rtions in the supply and demand conditions and even

the rate of inflation could be valid reasons for such a

behaviour. The policy-makers should evolve a scienti-

'fie method in price support schemes at least fot the

'important.crops which should not give room to im-

balance in agricultural prices. This is because the

land holdings'in most of the farming population' can

be used only to cultivate one or two important 'crops.

!whereas they cannot use their laild apportioned for

cultivating the important crops to have balanced in-, ,

come. It is better, in various policies on prices of agricultural commodities that the, inter-erop parity

should be considered to strengthen the purchasing

power of the poor agricultural sections and balancing

the ~nomic situation .

Research findings

following conclusion' areFiom the analysis, thedrawn !

, 1There is no significant difference in the ' aggregate

of all the five commodities price parity between price

paid and price received over the years.

There is no significant difference in the aggregate

",f inter-crop ,price parity computed between the seven

combinations.

•

it could b e seen froni a perusal of Tabie-2 that

there is a wide disparity between paddy and ground-

nut, jowar and cotton, ragi and groundnut on the

lower side, and the disparity betweeu paddy and cot-

ton, jowar arid callan and groundnut and cotton are

'wildein the upper side.

.(Contd. from p. 13)

1

and largely remained outside the ambit of the tech-

nical training programmes initiated by the govem- '

ment. As a result of this neglect, the village artisans

became either unemployed or under-employed and shifted to other occupations, More significantly, 72

per cenL of them wanted their children to seek gov-

ern~ent jobs to ensure regular income aDd status.

There was a widespread disenchantment with their

,age-old professions, There is no doubt that there is

scope' for improvement in their skills through proper

training, education and involvement in new. techno-

logy to retain them in their ancestoral professions. '

Fellow ,.magers, family members and visits to the

nearest town have been the main informal sources of

information in matter of getting new ideas about pro-ducts and processes. Mass media has not been' a

significant source of information for the artisans. The

economi~ incentives and technical assistance from

government institutions were not easily accessible to

them, These facilities were available to those who were

econonricallybetter off or politically influential.

[ " Suggestions

FOLLOWINGACTIONSare suggested to improve the

. economic conditions of the artisans. I,

Artisans from cluster of at least 10 villages

should form professional associations under the

leadership of responsible persons having some

background in social work, preferably froin

amongst themselves. This leadership should getthem together for a unified ~ffort to claim and

avail benefits from various development pro-

grammes of the' government; .

2,Facilities for technical education and training

should be made available to the artisans group,s

by considering 'them as weaker sections of the"

society.

3Schemes for providing subsidies to the artisans

to enable them to upgrade production to the

level,of small-scale industries should be worked

out and implemented. Under these schemes,

tools, machinery; raw materials, etc, should be

provided to them with some guidance in ma-

nagement, etc. •..

4

Efforts to impart theoreticaljacadentic knowledge"

through mass media be intensified to the artisansso that they are able to push up their' produc-

tive potentialities.

20 KURUKSHETRA February 16, 1982

'. r

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,

They show'~heway •••

. . This feature is based on success stories viz. achievements gained in various

spheres of rural development by farmers, institutions, experiments and indivi-

duals. There is hardly an argument over the fact th'at dedication and zeal to

. pllt in hard work can achieve anything .. And one achievement inspires and shows

the way to others!

We' hope our esteemed readers will send us their own experiences in the

. field so that others can' benefit by them 'to usher in a beuer life for our rural

people. (Editor)

Success story of a group of harijans

THE SUCCESS STORY of a group of Rarijans of

Badurbam;n Baaii in Calcutta is not an ordinary

one. Noris it the story of a group of people belong-

'ing to the comparatively privileged classes. This story

covers the diffident illiterate poor Rarijan cobblers.

Until recently, they could not think of uniting them-

selves into an organisation for the purpose of borrow-ing money from any bank for their trade,

Today with the loan received from Bank of.Baroda, ..

through their Association, they are not only self-

confident, self-sufficient cobblers but they have gene-rated employment for a large number of unemployed

Rarijan youth-l0 to 12 helping hands per cobbler-

trader united in the Association, Not only that. They

have liberated themselves completely from the. iron

'grip of private usurers and money-lenders.,. They are

determined to eliminate even the middlemen (operators

between them and the show c~mpanies in the market)who are fleecing them by paying much less than their

due and, at the same time, exploiting the. consumers

by inflating the price of shoes and oth~r leat?er goods

in the market.

They have not only made themselves as finanCially.

better offbut are also making all-out efforts to ensure

'" better and hygienic life. They are trying to build up

better roads and transport facilities willi a view to

reaching the market in a quicker and more efficient

manner.

• -K. Chaudhuri-FPO(FW), Calcutta


Running Bullet-' A Jural club'

T BE "Running Bullet" at Kaliaganj in West Dinaj-

" pur'District (W.B.) -isa Club with a difference. For

the last one decade it has established itself in the area

as a social and cultural institution dedicated to public

welfare. . It organises free eye operation camps every

year to help poor people; each time nearly 100 .catarad

cases are operated upon by eye specialists and expert

'Surgeons. Polio vaccine, triple exygen, douqle antigin

etc. are given free of cost to children of needy families.

During 1981 nearly 550 children have benefited. The

club with 100 members also helps the health "authorities

in famjly welfare programmes, and sanitation activities

'in villages. It always extends cooperation to all

'government programmes.

Apart from library activities, the Running Bullet

organises various sports such as football, volleyball,

kabaddi for the local youth in cooperation with youth"welfare offiCials. The village primary school is also

accommodated in the club building which was con-

.structed on self-help basis. Shri Niranjan Chakraborty,

and Niranjan Kumar Saha of this club are very active'

soCialworkers. The club is quite popular in the area

for its variou's welfare activities. It is actually .func-

tioning as .a centre of social education and public

entertainment:

-M. IslamField Publicity Officer, Siliguri

21

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J U ST R E LE A SE D

INDIA: A Reference Annual, 1981

,

,

'INDIA-198l' contains information on diverse aspects of our national life and activities collected from

official and authentic sources. •

It is an established work ofreference and is a rich source material for research scholars, students,' officials,

journalists, academicians, professionals and others. The publication attempts to describe the machinery of govern.

ment and other institutions which playa vital role in 'nation' building activities and help transform the Indian

traditional social life into a modern life. '

Pages 635 with photographs and 3 maps

HINDI EDITION

'BHARAT-l981

Pages 712 with photographs and 3 maps

Library edition Rs. _

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50.00

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(POST FREE SUPPLY)

RUSH YOUR ORDER TO:

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22

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Press Road; Near Go"t. Press, (Ph. 4650)

10-B, Station Road, Opposite Kohinoor Hotel.


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Kitchen gardening .

• <".

- " - . . . -

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enced 'under U(D)-S4",liJ post without prepay-

nt at Civil Lines: p ~ s;'Office. Delhi).

. . : : . . : ~ j ~ ~ - _ ;. - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ \ .".J "~ :,.

11 & . . '> . j ' ; "".•t o . ". ~•

.~ _ . ~,

~,'.,

Fresh vegdabks add lot

of charm to OU!" daily diet

Regd. No. D(DN);39

RN7G2'5T

" I

Kitchengardening

Kitchell g(;rd('llillK is not

en!)' a profitable pastime b Uf { /

dcIightful hobby tou.

Crowing vegetables ill the hom.e gatc/t'll is (/ vilal serviu:, Gnd lu!althy rer;f(!otioJl TOthe

mind. It i s an ideal way of getting fresh vegetables. Besitles, green leafy wlgetables and

fruits are indispensable for a health.v __hlilwlced •.diet. Vegetables growll in one's 011'11 home

with one's own labour have a special 'Vppea/-to the [Jalate. Eren when the supply becomes

Scarce due to low production or supp y, the)' serl'e a good pi/fpase.

~V;th good planting and care and httle illl'estmcnt, there Il'il/ be plenty of fresh

llutrill"ous vegetables for tftC' family throughout the year.

Documents

2008-03-24 (10)