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This essay tries to put the Fayum portraits within the artistic and religious context of the multiculturalNear East of the Roman era. It demonstrates how the Fayum mummies embody the continuous, butnevertheless Hellenized and modified, Egyptian style and burial customs. It tries to present the

portraits as being a part of provincial Roman art, manifesting Roman rituals practiced by the Egyptianelite. The tradition of these portraits continues with the painted icons of the early Byzantine period,which, like the Fayum portraits, adapted Roman iconography and customs to the new Christian piety.

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Abdala, A., 1992. Graeco-Roman Funerary Stelae from Upper Egypt. Liverpool:Liverpool U.P.

Aubert, M.F. & Cortopassi, R., 1988. Portraits de l`Egypte Romaine. Paris:

Runion des Muses Nationaux.Belting, H., 1994. Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image before the Era ofArt(trans. E. Jephcott). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Bianchi, R.S., 1995. The Mummy as Medium.Archaeology6: 60-66.Borg, B., 1997. The Dead as a Guest at Table?: Continuity and Change in the

Egyptian Cult of the Dead. In Portraits and Masks: Burial Customs inRoman Egypt, ed. M.L. Bierbier, 26-32. London: The British MuseumPress.

Cooney, J.D., 1941. Pagan and Christian Egypt. New-York: Brooklyn Museum.Corcoran, L.H., 1988. Portrait Mummies from Roman Egypt (I-IV Centuries A.D.),

With a Catalog of Portrait Mummies in Egyptian Museums, Studies inOriental Civilization 56. Chicago: The Oriental Institute in theUniversity of Chicago.

Y1992. A Cult Function for the So-Called Faiyum Mummy Portraits? In Lifein Multi Cultural Society: Egypt from Cambyses to Constantine and Beyond,Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 51, ed. J.H. Johnson, 57-60.Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.

Demare, R.J., 1983. The Ax iqr n RaStelae: On Ancestor Worship in Ancient Egypt.Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.

Doxiadis, E., 1995. The Mysterious Fayum Portraits: Faces from Ancient Egypt.

London: Thames and Hudson.Y1997. From Eikon to Icon: Continuity in Technique. In Portraits and Masks:Burial Customs in Roman Egypt, ed. M.L. Bierbier, 78-80. London: TheBritish Museum Press.

Grabar, A., 1958.Ampoules de Terre Sainte: Monza, Bobbio.Paris: C. Klincksieck.Y1968. Christian Iconography: A Study of its Origins. Bullingen Series XXXV-10.

New-York: Princeton U.P.Gschwantler, K., 2000. Graeco-Roman Portraiture. In Ancient Faces: Mummy

Portraits from Roman Egypt, ed. S. Walker, 14-22. New-York: TheMetropolitan Museum of Art.

Friedman, F., 1985. On the Meaning of some Anthropoid Busts from Deir el-Medina.JEA71: 82-97.Frieslander, E., 2000. Death and Transfiguration: Funerary Characteristics of

the Fayum Portraits. In Milestones in the Art and Culture of Egypt,Assaph Book Series, ed. A. Ovadiah, 89-98. Tel Aviv: Tel AvivUniversity.

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Mango, C.A., 1972. The Art of the Byzantine Empire, 312-1453 A.C.: Sources andDocuments. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Moorsel, P. Van, 1992. Treasures of the Coptic Museum: The Icons. Leiden:Supreme Council of Antiquities.

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Ovadiah, A. & Frieslander, E., 2000. The Artistic Characteristics of the FayumPortraits. In Milestones in the Art and Culture of Egypt, Assaph BookSeries, ed. A. Ovadiah, 39-88. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.

Petrie, W.M.F., 1911. Roman Portraits and Memphis (IV). London: British Schoolof Archaeology in Egypt.

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Getty Museum Journal6-7: 185-192.Y1982.Mummy Portrait in the J. Paul Getty Museum. Malibu: The J. Paul Getty

Museum.Walker, S., 1997. Mummy Portraits and Roman Portraiture. In Ancient Faces:

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16. London: The British Museum Press.Weitzmann, K., 1976. The Monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai: The Icons,I. Princeton: Princeton U.P.

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,,'2005.:.:.

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This article discusses the history and the governmental structure of Itabalhum a relatively unknown 18 thcentury BC kingdom in the North-Western part of the Zagros Mountains (modern Iranian Kurdistan) based on the evidence from the Shemsh?ra Archives found in North-Eastern Iraq. Itabalhum was populatedby Turukkeans a group of Hurrian-speaking mountain tribes, mainly known from the Mari Archives.The article's main emphasis is on the prosopographical evidence from Itabalhum, as preserved in theShemsh?ra letters (published by Jesper Eidem and Jrgen Lsse in 2001).

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69

" RThe Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago,

:

1 " - Eidem, J. & Lsse, J., 2001. The Shemshara Archives 1: The Letters.

Copenhagen.2 " - Eidem, J., 1992. The Shemsh?ra Archives 2: The Administrative Texts.

Copenhagen.CDA Black, J., George, A. & Postgate, N. (eds.), 2000. A Concise Dictionary of

Akkadian. Wiesbaden.GLH Laroche, E., 1980. Glossaire de la langue hourrite. Paris.LAPO Littratures anciennes du Proche-Orient.OBTR Dalley, S., Walker, C.B.F. & Hawkins, J.D., 1976. The Old Babylonian

Tablets from Tell al Rimah. British School of Archaeology in Iraq.RGTC II Edzard, D.O. & Farber, G., 1974. Die Orts- und Gewssernamen der Zeit

der 3. Dynastie von Ur. Rpertoire gographique des textes cuniformes 2.Wiesbaden.

Ahmed, K.M., 2003. The Northern Transtigris in the First Half of the SecondMillennium B.C.. Leiden: MA Thesis, University of Leiden.

Astour, M.C., 1987. Semites and Hurrians in Northern Transtigris. SCCNH2: 3-68.

Beyer, D. & Charpin, D., 1990. Le sceau de Zaziya, roi des Turukkens. MARI 6:625-628.

Charpin, D., 1985. Donnes nouvelles sur la chronologie des souverainsd'Enunna. In Miscellanea Babylonica: Mlanges offerts Maurice Birot, eds.J.M. Durand & J.-R. Kupper, 51-66. Paris.

Charpin, D. & Ziegler, N., 2003. Mari et le Proche-Orient lpoque amorrite: Essaid'histoire politique. Florilegium marianum V. Paris.

Diakonoff, I.M., 1981. Evidence on the Ethnic Division of the urrians. SCCNH 1:77-89.

Durand, J. M., 1998. Les documents pistolaires du palais de Mari II. LAPO 17. Paris.Eidem, J., 1985. News from the Eastern Front: The Evidence from Tell Shemsh_ra.

Iraq47: 83-107.

Eidem, J., 1990. nuld?num/nuld?nGtum A Note on Kingship in the Zagros. NABU1990/2: 48-49.

Eidem, J. & Mller, E., 1990. A Royal Seal from the Ancient Zagros. MARI6: 635-639.

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Hallo, W.W., 1971. Gutium. RLA 3: 708-720.Hinz, W., 1972. The Lost World of Elam. London.Klengel, H., 1962. Das Gebirgsvolk der Turukko in den Keilschrifttexten

altbabylonischer Zeit. Klio40: 5-22.Klengel, H., 1988. Lullu(bum). RLA7: 164-168.

Kupper, J.-R., 2001. L'akkadien des lettres de Shemshra. RA95: 155-173.Lafont, B., 2001. Relations internationales, alliances et diplomatie au temps des

royaumes amorrites. In Amurru 2: Mari, bla et les Hourrites, dix ans detravaux, eds. J.-M. Durand & D. Charpin, 213-328. Paris.

Loretz, O., 1969. Texte aus Chagar Bazar und Tell Brak. AOAT 3/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn.

Lsse, J., 1959. The Shemsh?ra Tablets: A Preliminary Report. Copenhagen.Matthews, D. & Eidem, J., 1993. Tell Brak and Nagar. Iraq55: 201-207.Michel, C., 2002. Nouvelles donnes pour la chronologie du IIe millnaire. NABU

2002/1: 17-18.

Mieroop, M. Van De, 2002. Review of 1 " .JCS54: 130-134.Oppenheim, A.L., 1954. The Archives of the Palace of Mari II: A Review Article.

JNES13: 141-148.Sallaberger, W., 1999. "Wenn Du mein Bruder bist,": Interaktion und

Textgestaltung in altbabylonischen Alltagsbriefen. Cuneiform Monographs 16.Groningen.

Shaffer, A. & Wasserman, N., 2003. Iddi(n)-Sn, King of Simurrum: A New Rock-Relief Inscription and a Reverential Seal. ZA93: 1-52.

Stol, M., 2002. Review of 1 " . BiOr59/1-2: 108-110.Villard, P., 2001. Les administrateurs de lpoque deYasmah-Addu. InAmurru 2:

Mari, bla et les Hourrites, dix ans de travaux, eds. J.-M. Durand & D.Charpin, 9-140. Paris.Wegner, I., 2000. Einfhrung in die hurritische Sprache. Wiesbaden.Wilhelm, G., 1989. The Hurrians. Warminster.Wiseman, D.J., 1953.The Alalakh Tablets. London.Zadok, R., 1987. Peoples from the Iranian Plateau in Babylonia During the

Second Millenium BC. Iran 25: 1-26.

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71

The representation of hands in the royal iconography of Tell el-Amarna serves Akhenatens Atenistideology by suggesting the dynamics of life, the ecstatic joy and beauty of Atens creation. Their movementin a newly designed space, under the caressing rays of the divine light, must be understood as a visualtheological message, the celebration of life and of Akhenatens monotheist faith.

1.

2.

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2.3 3(Brooklyn 59.19)2.4,(Cairo RT 30.10.26.12)2.5 (Berlin 14145)2.6,(MMA 1985.328.6)2.7)(

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,Mekhitarian 1954: 64,.59Aldred 1968: 188.

60Freed et al.1999: 31. 61Freed et al.1999: 28.62Aldred,1,,

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,.,.1997 : % .:,.

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,.)"(,.1994.:. .)"(,.199113:.

Aldred, C., 1951. New Kingdom Art in Ancient Egypt. London: A. Tiranti. 1968. Akhenaten Pharaoh of Egypt A New Study. London: Thames and

Hudson. 1994. Egyptian Art in the Days of the Pharaohs 3100-320 BC.London: Thames

and Hudson.Arnold, D., 1996. The Royal Women of Amarna Images of Beauty from Ancient

Egypt. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.Baines, J. and Malek, J., 1980.Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Phaidon Press.

Clark, R.R.T., 1959. Myth and Symbol in Ancient Egypt. London: Thames andHudson.

Freed, R.E., Markowitz, Y.J. and dAuria, S. (eds), 1999. Pharaohs of the Sun Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankhamen. Boston & London: Thames andHudson.

Golan, A., 1991.Myth and Symbol: Symbolism in Prehistoric Religions. Jerusalem:The Author.

Iversen, E., 1975. Canon and Proportions in Egyptian Art. Warminster: Aris andPhillips.

Mekhitarian, A., 1954. Egyptian Painting. Geneva: Skira.

Morgan , L., 1998. The Miniature Wall Paintings of Thera A Study in AegeanCulture and Iconography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Smith, W.S., 1981. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. New-York:

Penguin.Sourdive, C., 1984. La main dans lEgypte pharaonique: Recherches de morphologie

structurale sur les objets gyptiens comportant une main. Bern : Peter Lang.Thompson, K., 1997. "Frontal Shoulders in Amarna Royal Reliefs: Solutions to

an Aesthetic Problem". SSEA Journal27: 80-92.Form in Egyptian Art: Clarity, Balance, and Stability. URL:

www.metmuseum.org/explore/publications/pdfs/egypt/divided/e-

Form.pdf
http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/publications/pdfs/egypt/divided/e-Form.pdfhttp://www.metmuseum.org/explore/publications/pdfs/egypt/divided/e-Form.pdfhttp://www.metmuseum.org/explore/publications/pdfs/egypt/divided/e-Form.pdfhttp://www.metmuseum.org/explore/publications/pdfs/egypt/divided/e-Form.pdf

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96

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2. %Ka.Clark 1959: 231

3. .Iversen1975: 98

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.

www.metmuseum.org

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6.a, b, c .Aldred 1951: 163

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7/21/2019 2006 The NET 1

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410

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