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November 9-12. 2005

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Others may speak and read English - more or less - but it is our language nottheirs. It was made in England by the English and it remains our distinctiveproperty,however Widely it is learnt or used.

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As an independent nation, our honour requires us to have a system ofour own, inlanguage as well as government. Great Britain... should no longer be our standard.

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La Ciudad de Mexico (detail). (1949) by Juan O'Gorman (1905-1982).Tempera on Masonite. Museo Nacional de Arte Modemo, Mexico City, Mexico.

TOPICS IN SPANISH LEXICAL DIALECTOLOGY: TIME TO RETOOL

Andre Moskowitz

Keywords: Spanish, regionalisms, terminology, dialectology, lexicography, sociolinguistics, tools.

Abstract: This paper contains information on the words used in different varieties of Spanish forcertain tools, materials, devices and miscellaneous items relating to construction andrepairs/maintenance. 1

o INTRODUCTION

Ifyou walk into a hardware store, any hardware store anywhere in the Spanish-speaking world, tobuy a hammer-a claw hammer or ordinary carpenter's hammer-you can request a martillo andreceive a knowing and sympathetic response from the hardware store employee or owner. You mayneed to add a qualifier to martillo to specify the hammer's weight or the type ofclaw you want it tohave (the word for a hammer's "claw" may vary\ but the unmodified or base term, martillo, willremain unchanged from Tijuana, Mexico in the North all the way to the Tierra del Fuego in theSouth and, across the Atlantic, in any of the Spanish-speaking regions of Spain as well. If, on theother hand, you want to buy a sledgehammer, your dealings in the hardware store will go moresmoothly ifyou vary the term you use for this item in your request by choosing from one ofa seriesof terms, such as a/magana, combo, comba, mandarria, marro, marron, maza, mazo or porra,depending on where in the Spanish-speaking world you are making the purchase.

Possible reasons for lexical differences will occasionally be advanced in the individualsections-combo and comba, for example, corne from a substrate language, Quechua-but in manycases the origins of the variation involve terminological coinage and/or semantic drift that aredifficult to explain. Although one can search for the earliest written attestation ofa given usage, theterm or phrase may have been in use in oral language long before it appeared in print and earlypublished sources may not give many clues as to how the usage came about.

Why, for example, is desarmador and/or desatomillador used more often in some countries than theGeneral Spanish word for screwdriver, destomillador, that to some extent is used everywhere? Allthree of these nouns derive from perfectly castizo verbs (desarmar, desatomillar and destomillar,respectively), and unfortunately, there are many examples such as this one in which I have no theorythat accounts for the regional preferences. In this article, you, the reader, will find hundreds of factsabout who says what and where, but only a handful of theories and partial explanations as to why.

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Even many basic usage questions are posed that the limited data collected and sources consulted donot allow me to answer.

Viewing the Spanish language synchronically (at a given point in time), and even diachronically(over a period of time), the name used for many and perhaps most items, tools among them, isessentially a constant: Martillo is a General Spanish word that "works" everywhere, and has formany centuries. In contrast, words for other items, such as sledgehammers, are geographic variables:People from different regions call them by different names. In some cases an item's name may alsovary along a social and/or situational axis, or among different professional, ethnic or age groups, andperhaps even between men and women. In this article, however, the primary focus will be on thediatopical (geographic) lexical variation among the different Spanish-speaking countries. Relativelylittle information will be presented regarding regional variation within nations, or between thedifferent socioeconomic layers ofeach society, and none regarding variation among different ethnicgroups, age brackets, or between the two genders. The amount ofdata collected in this study wasinsufficient to draw many conclusions in these areas. However, since the vocabulary involvesspecific trades, within a given country it is a speaker's occupation/activities that is probably the mostimportant factor governing a variation that is, in a sense, binary in nature: the existence or lack ofexistence of a specific name or names in a person's lexical repertoire.

The following topics relating to carpentry, masonry, plumbing, electrical3, farming/gardening, auto

mechanics and other trades will be addressed:

A) Tools: 1) screwdriver A - general screwdriver (base terms), 2) screwdriver B - phillipsscrewdriver or phillips-head screwdriver, 3) screwdriver C - slotted screwdriver, flat-headscrewdriver, straight-blade screwdriver, flat-blade screwdriver or standard screwdriver, 4)sledgehammer or maul, 5) hacksaw, 6) pliers A - regular pliers, joint pliers, slip-joint pliersor diagonal pliers (standard adjustable, noncutting pliers), 7) pliers B - needlenose pliers orlongnose pliers, 8) wrench A - crescent wrench or adjustable wrench, 9) wrench B - pipewrench, 10) crowbar, pry bar or wrecking bar, 11) clamp, 12) vise, 13) trowel A - pointingtrowel, brick trowel or mason's trowel, 14) trowel B - finishing trowel, flat trowel, plasterer'strowel or smoothing trowel, 15) pick or pickax, 16) hoe, 17) drill bit.

B) Materials. devices and miscellaneous: 1) plywood, 2) tar, 3) sawhorse, 4) form (for pouringconcrete), 5) washer (metal washers for screws and bolts), 6) bearing (ball bearing, rollerbearing, etc.), 7) steamroller, 8) screw anchor, 9Ytire repair shop.

Usage relating to each ofthese topics can be considered a dialectological or linguistic labyrinth thatspans the entire Spanish-speaking world. The purpose of this article is to present the maze, outlineits salient landmarks, and hold out a thread by which you, the reader, can find your way to some ofthe exits in most of the Spanish-speaking countries. Each way out can also be viewed as a way in,an entree into a particular aspect of a language variety.

Information on the vocabulary for the items in A) Tools and B) Materials. devices and miscellaneousabove is provided for Spain and the nineteen Spanish American republics, but none is offered for

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·,

the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea, Western Sahara, Morocco, the United States, Trinidad andTobago or other countries where Spanish and/or a Spanish-based creole is spoken. Spanish speakersfrom these countries were not queried on tool-related vocabulary for two reasons: First, because,with the exception ofthe United States, I do not have access to a pool ofSpanish speakers from thesenations, and secondly, because, even if! had, it is not clear how, if at all, one is to define PhilippineSpanish, United States Spanish, etc., especially with regard to lexis. For information on thesevarieties, see La Lengua Espanola en Guinea Ecuatorial (Quilis and Casado-Fresnillo),"El espanolen el mundo: frutos del ultimo siglo de contactos lingUisticos" (Lipski 2005), "La lengua espanolaen los Estados Unidos: avanza a la vez que retrocede" (Lipski 2004a), "Is 'Spanglish' the thirdlanguage of the South? Truth and fantasy about U.S. Spanish" (Lipski 2004b), "The place ofChabacano in the Philippine linguistic profile" (Lipski 2001), and other works by John Lipski, someofwhich (as ofthis writing) are downloadable from his homepage at www.personal.psu.edu-/faculty­/j/m1jm134/ (eliminate the dashes after "edu" and "faculty"), and all of which are listed in its"Publications" section; each, in tum, contains an extensive bibliography.

Information in this paper relating to the topics outlined above in A) Tools and B) Materials. devicesand miscellaneous is organized into fouf sections:

1) Summary2) Terms by Country3) Details4) Real Academia Regional Review

0.1 Summary

The "Summary" sections give a briefoverview ofthe lexical variation that exists with respect to theitems in question.

0.2 Terms by Country

The "Terms by Country" sections consist oflexico-geographic tables in which I present the termsoffered by the Spanish speakers I questioned on usage (this study's respondents or informants), nextto their countries oforigin. The Spanish-speaking countries are listed in an essentially geographicalorder and the terms offered by respondents are presented in decreasing numerical order, with theterms offered by the largest number of respondents from each country appearing first. In thesesections, regionally marked usages, i.e. those not part of General Spanish, appear in italics, andusages that are regional and were also given by 50% or more of respondents from a particularcountry ("majority regionalisms") are written in italics and boldface. When ten or more responsesfrom a given country were obtained, terms that were offered by only one or two respondents fromthat country ("minority responses") are written in small print. I have adopted this formatting schemebecause I consider each term that is in boldface and italics to be an important regionalism withoutwhich a speaker lacks communicative competence for a specific item in a given country or set ofcountries. Terms written in small print, in contrast, can for the time being be given little weight,

299

unless other studies demonstrate they are widely used by a particular group or speech community.See Bolivia in section A13.3 (the pointing trowel) for an example of a term, pato, that was offeredbyonly two respondents in this study, but a somewhat larger number in a different study. Combiningthe data from both studies suggests that more field work is needed to determine the currency ofthisusage in Bolivia, and that by no means should it be hastily dismissed.

The number of respondents who were questioned in this project varied as did the number of thosewho were able to answer each question. As a result, the amount ofdata presented for each item andfrom each country spans a considerable range. My goal was to obtain fifteen responses for each itemfrom each of the twenty Spanish-speaking countries whose usage was being studied, but in somecases I fell far short ofthis goal (obtaining only four or five responses from a given country), and inothers I exceeded it obtaining over 20 responses. In some instances, even when ten to fifteenresponses were obtained for a given country, their distribution was so disperse as to make itimpossible to draw any conclusions about prevailing usage. For example, in section A14.2 (the.finishing trowel), ten responses were obtained from Paraguayans, but six different terms were offeredby them and no tenn was given more than twice. Had I obtained fifteen responses from each countryfor each item, this would have been fifteen multiplied by 20 countries multiplied by 26 items for atotal of 7800 responses, a figure which does not include multiple responses given by individualrespondents to the same item (e.g. people who said a screwdriver is called a desarmador or adesatomillador).

In the section on sledgehammers, part of the table reads,

ELSALVADORPERU

almtigana (14/16), almQdana (2/16). almQdena (1116). mazo (1/16).

comba (19/21), mazo (6/21), combo (3/21).

This is to be interpreted as "of the sixteen Salvadorans who were asked to identify thesledgehammer, fourteen offered the term almagana, two gave almadana, one almadena and onemazo" and, in the case ofPeru, it means that "ofthe twenty-one Peruvians asked the same question,nineteen indicated comba, six mazo and three combo." In many cases, such as these, some of thepeople interviewed stated that more than one term was commonly used in their homeland for a givenitem and, therefore, the sum of the ratios is often more than one. The terms almagana, almadana,almadena, comba and combo appear in italics in the above table because they are more regional thanmazo, and the terms almagana and comba appear in boldface-they are written in both bold anditalics-because they are regional terms that were also given by 50% or more of the respondentsqueried from EI Salvador and Peru, respectively. Under EI Salvador, almadana, almadena and mazoappear in small print because they were given by only one or two (out of sixteen) Salvadoranrespondents. The word mazo can be considered the General Spanish term because, while it is theterm used by a majority of this study's speakers in only a handful of countries, it was offered as asecond or third choice by respondents from most of the remaining Spanish-speaking countries. Thewords almagana and combo, in contrast, are regionally weighted terms used primarily by Spanishspeakers from northern Central America and the Andean region, respectively (see section A4 below).

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I collected much of the data presented in these sections by means of one-on-one, face-to-faceinterviews that consisted of showing the respondent a picture of the tool or other item in questionand asking him or her (usually him) to name the item. Descriptions and comments were also usedto focus the respondent's attention on the specific item and in a few cases these verbal cues playeda primary role. I also sometimes went about it in the opposite direction, that is, once I had establishedthat a given tenn is commonly used in a particular country, I might ask people from that country,"lQue es un(a) __?," a question that was often followed by "lY cmil es la diferencia entre un(a)__ y un(a) __?".

Mypreferred mode ofseeking out respondents from specific countries was to visit the waiting roomsof the Spanish-speaking country consulates in San Francisco (California) and New York City, andstriking up conversations with people waiting to get a document processed or some other serviceperfonned. Occasionally, I would run into Mexicans at the Consulate ofEl Salvador and vice versa,but 99% of the time the people I met at the consulates were from the country the consulaterepresented.

For the most part, I found the public in these waiting rooms to be cooperative and willing to answerquestions on usage, and this was especially true of those who had some expertise in particular tool­related topics. Not surprisingly, there were also some who tried to impress me with knowledge ofthe subject matter that their answers demonstrated they lacked. I also obtained information on toolterminology by going to the parking lot ofmy local Home Depot4 store in El Cerrito, California, andinterviewing native speakers ofSpanish (mostly Mexicans and Central Americans) who were in thestore's parking lot waiting to be hired as day laborers. In the case of one country, Ecuador, I alsovisited hardware stores and construction sites and spoke to carpenters, plumbers and masons, etc.while on a trip there with my family in December of 2004.

Some of the information I obtained from respondents was not acquired through face-to-faceinterviews, but by written questionnaires, telephone conversations and e-mail correspondence. I alsodid something that many, ifnot most academic linguists would probably frown upon. I sent picturesof the items in this study to friends and colleagues in different cities in the Spanish-speaking worldand asked them to take the images to hardware stores, construction sites, etc. and ask individualsfrom their local area (ones my contacts thought were knowledgeable about tools) to tell them thenames they use for the items. My international contacts would then return the completed pictorialquestionnaires to me.

This technique has the disadvantage that the researcher conducting the overall study loses controlover the data collection process in that a second party is in effect interviewing a third party. Andother than providing the images to be shown to respondents, I admittedly had little control over theinterviewing techniques and data collection processes employed by those kind enough to help me;I did not give them detailed instructions on how to obtain the information. Asking for outsideassistance, however, has the advantage ofallowing researchers with limited funds and no academicgrants to collect more data, and possibly more accurate data, than they would be able to had theylimited themselves to face-to-face interviews ofrespondents living in the researcher's horne country.

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While the ideal scenario would have been for me to personally travel to each ofthe twenty Spanish­speaking countries and visit hardware stores and construction sites to conduct my own interviewsin situ, alas, this was not possible or practical due to the limitations on my own resources.Nevertheless, I am heartened by the fact that the information I received from abroad was largelyconsistent with the data collected in the United States. In any case, future studies will need to beconducted to determine how representative the information presented in this article is of the usageof Spanish speakers who regularly work with the tools in question.

0.3 Details

The "Details" sections consist ofa review ofpublished lexicographical and dialectological sourcesand occasional explanations ofthe information in the "Terms by Country" sections. In the "Details"sections, regional dictionary definitions and other sources are cited and compared to each other andto the information gathered in this study in an attempt to arrive at an understanding of prevailingusage in the different regions ofthe Spanish-speaking world. I examine what other published workshave to say about usage in a particular country to see which information provided by the respondentsin this study they confirm, which they contradict, and which they partly confirm, partly contradictand/or modify. In general, the goal is to identify those cases in which there appears to be consensusregarding the prevailing usage for a given item in a given region, as well as those in which there areconflicting reports about what people from a particular region say and what they mean.

In these sections, you, the reader, will have the opportunity to observe some of the world's topSpanish lexicographers go toe to toe, or "mano a mano" as some would say-perhaps "pluma apluma" or "teclado a teclado" would be more accurate-and compare how they handle definingcertain words with regard to both style and content, though the two are sometimes hard to separate.Compare, for example, the definitions of"sledgehammer," "pointing trowel" and "steamroller" citedin the respective sections ofthis article andjudge for yourselfwhich lexicographer demonstrates thebest combination of marksmanship, conciseness, elegance, and precise imagery. Bear in mind,however, that a definition often has to sacrifice brevity for precision or vice versa and where theproper balance lies is a matter of opinion.

While the outcomes of these dictionary duels are debatable, you will have ringside seats to boutsfeaturing some of the Spanish-speaking world's most renowned lexicographers such as LuisFernando Lara Ramos and his colleagues from the Colegio de Mexico, GUnther Haensch andReinhold Werner and their disciples from the University of Augsburg, and, of course, the RealAcademia's own team of scholars. You will also be witness to definitions written by severallexicographers whose work is less well known internationallybut who are nonetheless highly skilledin their craft and give those written by Lara Ramos, Haensch and Werner, and the Real Academiaa good run for their money. Some of the definitions you will see, however, are crafted by lesserluminaries whose command of the subject matter and lexicographical skill and style are not asimpressive. The dictionaries cited here are not all of equal quality or sophistication, yet each hassome information to offer on regional tool terminology. Since all of them list their entry words in

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alphabetical order, only the Spanish-language tenn and the work's abbreviation are indicated, notthe corresponding page number.

The published sources I consulted are far from exhaustive, but quite a bit ofinfonnation on regionalusage is cited from the following works that will be abbreviated as follows and whose completebibliographical data appear in References.

DB

DEArg

DECHDECu

DEUMexDH

DHAV

DP

DRAEDSDTPDUENDVHEDE

NDCol

NDCRNDU

Diccionario de Bolivianismos. Dora Gomez de Fernandez and Nicolas FernandezNaranjo. 1996.Diccionario del Espanol de Argentina I Espanol de Argentina-Espanol de Espana.Giinther Haensch and Reinhold Werner. 2000.Diccionario Ejemplificado de Chilenismos. Felix Morales Pettorino et al. 1984.Diccionario del Espanol de Cuba I Espanol de Cuba-Espanol de Espana. GiintherHaensch and Reinhold Werner. 2000.Diccionario del Espanol Usual en Mexico. Luis Fernando Lara Ramos. 1996.Diccionario Hondurenismos. Rosalio R. Zavala. 2003. (It is not entirely clear whythis dictionary is not called Diccionario de Hondurenismos.)Diccionario del habla actual de Venezuela. Rocio Nunez and Francisco JavierPerez.1994.Diccionario de Peruanismos. Juan de Arona (pedro Paz Soldan y Unanue). 1974.(Originally published in 1883 and 1884 in Buenos Aires and Lima.)Diccionario de la Lengua Espanola. 22nd edition. Real Academia Espanola 2001.Diccionario de Salvadorenismos. Matias Romero. 2003.Diccionario de Terminos Panamenos. Arnoldo Higuero Morales. 1993.Diccionario de uso del Espanol Nicaragiiense. Francisco Arellano Oviedo. 2001.Diccionario de Venezolanismos. Maria Josefina Tejera. 1983-1993.EI Habla del Ecuador I Diccionario de Ecuatorianismos I Contribucion a laLexicografia Ecuatoriana. Carlos Joaquin Cordova Malo. 1995.Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos. Tomo I Nuevo Diccionario deColombianismos. Giinther Haensch and Reinhold Werner. 1993.Nuevo Diccionario de Costarriquenismos. Miguel A. Quesada Pacheco. 2001.Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos. Tomo III Nuevo Diccionario deUruguayismos. Giinther Haensch, Reinhold Werner and Ursula Kiihl de Mones.1993. (Volume IT ofthe Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos series was the NuevoDiccionario de Argentinismos which was superseded by the DEArg.)

Of the works in the preceding list, the DRAE is the most important and comprehensive generalSpanish-language dictionary in existence. It is written from an essentially Peninsular Spanishperspective on the language, but it attempts to include Spanish American usage as well. TheDEUMex is unique in that it is an abridged but general Spanish-language dictionary written from anon-Peninsular vantage point on the language (from a decidedly Mexican perspective) and iscurrently, to my knowledge, the only general Spanish-language dictionary that is not told from aPeninsular point of view.

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The other dictionaries that stand out from the rest are the four listed above directed by GiintherHaensch and Reinhold Werner. These are contrastive dictionaries that rigorously highlight andexpose that portion of the lexicon of one national variety of the language (Argentine Spanish,Colombian Spanish, Cuban Spanish or Uruguayan Spanish) that functions differently whencompared to a second variety, which we can perhaps call "General Peninsular Spanish." Althoughthis is an abstraction, the lexicon of General Peninsular Spanish is essentially Peninsular Spanishlexicon that is not especially Andaluz, Valenciano, Asturiano, or even Castilian. Each Haensch andWerner dictionary also explains regional differences within the Spanish American variety beingpresented, i.e. Oriente Cuban Spanish as opposed to the Spanish of central and western Cuba, orCuyo Argentine Spanish as contrasted with Rioplatense Argentine Spanish. The research and writingin them is of the highest quality and anyone reading them can learn a great deal about both thehighlighted Spanish American variety of the language and about Peninsular Spanish. One can onlyhope that they, or their disciples, will continue with this project and create contrastive dictionariesfor other Spanish-speaking countries as well.

I also occasionally cite two English-language dictionaries for the purpose of inter-languagelexicographical comparison (see References for complete bibliographical data):

AHD The American Heritage Dictionary ofthe English Language. 4th edition. Joseph P.Pickett. 2000.

EWD Encarta Webster's Dictionary of the English Language. 2nd edition. Anne H.Soukhanov and Kathy Rooney. 2004.

In addition, I have consulted and cited the twelve works published to date that are the fruit of theProyecto de estudio coordinado de la norma lingiiistica culta de las capitales de Hispanoamericay de Espana, a project that was initially developed by Juan Miguel Lope Blanch of the Instituto deInvestigaciones Filol6gicas of the Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de Mexico. In these studies, adozen or more educated Spanish speakers-ones with at least a college education and in many casesalso a graduate (postgraduate) or professional degree-who had grown up in a particular large cityin the Spanish-speaking world, were queried on about 4500 lexical items that included a handful oftools. Half of the respondents were male and half female and they belonged to three differentgenerations. The lexico del habla culta studies that were consulted are as follows with completebibliographical data in References:

Lexico del habla culta de Mexico. Juan Miguel Lope Blanch. 1978.Encuestas lexicas del habla culta de Madrid. Jose C. de Torres Martinez. 1981.Lexico del habla culta de San Juan de Puerto Rico. Hurnberto LOpez Morales et al. 1986.Lexico del habla culta de Santiago de Chile. Ambrosio Rabanales and Lidia Contreras. 1987.Lexico del habla culta de Granada. Francisco Salvador Salvador. 1991.Lexico del habla culta de La Paz. Jose G. Mendoza. 1996.Lexica del habla culta de Santafe de Bogota. Hilda Otalora de Fernandez. 1997.Lexico del habla culta de Buenos Aires. Academia Argentina de Letras. 1998.Lexico del habla culta de Caracas. Mercedes Sedano and Zaida Perez Gonzalez. 1998.

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:

Lexico del habla culta de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Jose Antonio Samper Padilla et al. 1998.Lexico del habla culta de Cordoba, Argentina. Maria Teresa Toniolo et al. 2000.Lexico del habla culta de Lima. Rocio Caravedo. 2000.

As comprehensive as the pioneering lexico del habla culta studies are, they were of limited use incomparing results to those of this study for several reasons. First, because many of the itemsaddressed in this article, such as the sledgehammer, the crescent wrench, the pipe wrench, thecrowbar and the sawhorse, were not among those tested in the lexico del habla culta studies and,secondly, because some of the tools tested in those studies appeared to be beyond the scope of theirrespondents' knowledge as evidenced by the low percentage of them who were able to answer thequestions.

It is also hard to tell what some ofthe tools in the lexico del habla culta studies refer to, or whetherthe same item was tested in each study. For example, in the section in each of these works onHERRAMIENTAS CASERAS (household tools), item 1403 is called ALICATES and was tested bymeans ofan illustration that was shown to respondents but is not presented in the books. As a result,it is not clear what type ofpliers-whether slip-joint pliers (noncutting adjustable pliers), linesmanpliers (nonadjustable cutting pliers), needlenose pliers, or some other type-were the onesrespondents were shown.

One very worthwhile aspect of the lexico del habla culta studies is that they provide a separateresponse for each informant queried. As a result, terms that were given by respondents in the singularform (e.g. alicate orpinza) are distinguished from ones in the plural form (alicates or pinzas) whenspeaking ofa single pair ofpliers. This is important in determining the level ofcompetition betweenvariants, and the existence ofdifferent patterns or regional norms as they relate to variants. My owntendency, in contrast, is to present forms that were offered by respondents from the same country,and that I consider to be variants, as a single word with the part that varies in parentheses. Examplesof this include alicate(s), when respondents from a given country offered both singular and pluralforms, destomillador (de) estrella, when they indicated destomillador de estrella and/ordestomillador estrella (see section A2.2 below), and (/lave) pico (de) cotorra, when they said llavepico de cotorra, llave pico cotorra, pico de cotorra and/or pica cotorra (see section A8.2 below).In a few cases, when I found that some variants were much more common than others, I havepresented separate response data for each variant.

Sometimes the name of the category in the lexico del habla culta studies does not seem tocorrespond to the question posed to respondents and/or to the answers they gave. For example, inthe Lexico del habla culta de Caracas (Sedano: 146-147), under item 1101, entitled PALUSTRE(supposedly the pointing trowel), three respondents gave cepillo and one paleta, but the three whogave cepillo were evidentlyconfused or ignorant about these tools as the same three also gave cepilloas their response to item 1100, the flat trowel, entitled LLANA. In fact, cepillo refers to neither typeoftrowel in Venezuela or in any other Spanish-speaking country, but can designate a "plane" (a toolfor smoothing and leveling wood). In the Lexico del habla culta de La paz (Mendoza: 163 and 699),the item entitled LLANA was tested with an illustration, and according to its Appendix, the next item,

305

PALUSTRE, was described to respondents as "lParecida a la anterior pero de madera? (Palustre)."Yet ifwe look at the DRAE's definition ofpalustre and the results of the article you are reading, itappears palustre is nowhere used in the sense ofa wooden flat trowel or what in Spain, accordingto the DRAE, is called afrattis. Thus, in the case of some tools, there appears to have been just asmuch confusion (or more) on the part of the researchers in the lexico del habla culta studies as tothe meaning ofthe terms and the identification ofthe items as there was on the part ofsome oftheirinformants who gave the same answers for two different categories or were unable to provide aresponse for one or several of them.

In the Lexico del habla culta de La paz (Mendoza: 809) and the Lexico del habla culta de Cordoba,Argentina (Malanca: 503), the question posed to respondents corresponding to item 3333, ~ntitled

TORNIllO, was "lY la herramienta compuesta de dos piezas moviles entre las cuales se puede fijar,por ejemplo, una tabla para cepillarla? (Tornillo)." This description is confusing as it could refer toeither a clamp or a vise, and possibly inaccurate in that all vises and most clamps-such as a C-clamp,a pipe clamp or a bar clamp-consist of one fixed and one movable piece rather than two mobileones. (In a carpenter's wood clamp, both ends can be tightened simultaneously.) Not surprisingly,some of the answers to this question presented in the La paz and Cordoba, Argentina studies, suchas tornillo and tornillo de banco, also suggest that different respondents interpreted the question indifferent ways. And ifyou look at item 3333, TORNILLO, in many ofthe other lexico del habla cultastudies (which do not provide the description or question that respondents were given), the answersoffered, such as tornillo and tirafondo, suggest that the item tested was neither a clamp nor a visebut a screw or some other fastener. In short, with a number oftool items in the lexico del habla cultastudies, it is hard to tell what the subject or target was and thus difficult to assess the results.

As the researchers in the lexicodel habla culta studies may have found, and as I increasingly cameto suspect while conducting myown research on both"educated" and ''uneducated'' respondents (andeverything in between), the problem with trying to obtain information about tools from educatedSpanish speakers is deep-rooted. In part, because ofthe stigma manual labor has in Hispanic culturesand its relatively low cost in most Spanish-speaking countries, educated Spanish speakers generallydo not fall into the "do it yourself' homeowner category, tend to have little interest in carpentry,masonry, electrical, plumbing, gardening, etc. and, consequently, are often unfamiliar with some ofthe most basic tools' names and uses. This is true of many educated native speakers of English aswell, but my impression is that the percentage of educated Spanish speakers who have had little orno contact with tools is greater.

Simplifying matters a bit, one need only look at the different roles played and attitudes held by earlyEnglish and Spanish settlers to the New World. The Pilgrims who came to English North Americawere interested in working the land and would often kill or drive off any Indians who got in theirway, whereas the Conquistadors arriving in Spanish America did not want to work at all and wereintent on converting and subjugating the Indians they encountered so that they would do the workfor them. With regard to manual labor, basic outlooks among upperclass Spanish Americans havechanged little since then and, as a result, educated Spanish speakers-like the hablantes cultosinterviewed in the lexico de habla culta studies-are often the '"worst people" to ask about tools

306

insofar as their responses tend to be the least authoritative and the least representative ofwhat folkswho know something about tools actually call them. This impression is subjective, as is the notionofwhat it means to be "culto," and the words "educated" and "cultured," like many translated terms,are only partial matches.

The issue ofwhat types ofrespondents should be tested in a lexical study is open to debate. One canargue, as linguists often do, that the usage of all speakers ofa language is equally worthy ofstudy.The other extreme is to examine the usage ofonly those who specialize in the domain or semanticfield being studied to the exclusion of all other groups. There are also intermediate positions,according to which knowledge ofmost terminology is not viewed as so specialized as to require so­called "experts" but which nonetheless hold that it is more appropriate, fruitful and important toquery some groups than others. For example, if you are conducting a study on the words used forschool and office supplies, then it makes sense that the people you would be most interested inquerying are those who teach in schools and universities, or work in offices, including home offices.On the other hand, ifyour project involves specific tools, then you would want to know what peoplewho work with them call them, i.e. construction workers, contractors, craftsmen (artisans) and,perhaps to a lesser extent, architects, engineers and do-it-yourselfhomeowners. In applying this typeof semi-selective criteria, researchers would be no more interested in finding out what obreros orjomaleros call a stapler or a chalkboard eraser than they would be interested in knowing whatpsychologists call a C-clamp or a crescent wrench (unless they happen to be psychologists whoregularly use these tools to fix and rebuild things). Thus when the Lexico del habla culta de Caracasstudy tells us that three out of twelve educated Caraqueiio respondents said a pointing trowel is calleda cepillo and eight out of twelve essentially fessed up to the fact that they had no idea what it wascalled, presenting this data strictly adheres to the habla culta studies' goals and guidelines-to findout and divulge the words that the habla culta in a given city knows and says-but it is notinformation that is particularly useful to most readers. As a reader, I want to know what Caraquefioswho "know" what this tool is called actually call it, not what educated Caraquefios who don't knowcall it.

In doing the field work for this study on tool terminology, the criteria I used for selecting respondentswere perhaps logical but admittedly unscientific and imprecise. For example, upon entering aconsulate waiting room, I would take a moment to observe the prospects and, given the option ofquestioning a man in a business suit or one wearing work boots, I would choose the latter; if hisboots were beaten up and his hands rough, all the better.

0.4 Real Academia Regional Review

The "Real Academia Regional Review" sections present an evaluation ofthe twenty-second editionofthe DRAE (published in 2001) and "grade" this dictionary's definitions ofspecific terms using thefollowing grading scale:

307

A Corresponding definition. correct regions. This grade is given when the DRAE defines theterm as used in a particular section ofthis article and correctly indicates the countries and/orregions in which the term is used in this sense.

B Corresponding definition, incorrect regions. This grade is given when the DRAE defines theterm as used in the section and specifies a region or regions but does not specify themcorrectly. Its definition either fails to include regions in which the usage occurs or includesregions where the usage does not occur. However, the grade of B is raised to an A if theDRAE's definition is appropriate, "Amer." (America, that is, Spanish-speaking LatinAmerica) is specified in the definition, and the term is used in ten or more (over 50%) ofthenineteen Spanish-speaking Latin American countries.

C Corresponding definition, no regions specified. This grade is given when the DRAE definesthe item in question but does not specify any countries or regions in which the term is usedin this sense. In essence, it fails to identify a regional usage as regional. However, the gradeofC is raised to an A if the term is used in at least ten (at least 50%) of the twenty Spanish­speaking countries.

D No corresponding definition. This grade is given when the DRAE does not include in itsdefinition of the term a sense that corresponds to the item in question.

F Tenn not listed. This grade is given when the DRAE does not list the term at all.

The DRAE's definitions themselves are quoted in these sections so that the reader can follow theanalysis that went into their evaluations. However, only terms that were offered by three or morerespondents from at least one country are graded, and definitions of some relevant terms that werenot offered by respondents are also presented. Thus not all terms offered by respondents are gradedand not all terms whose definitions are quoted were offered byrespondents. When, in myjudgement,the category under which a definition rightfully falls is debatable, the grade assigned is followed bya question mark; see, for example, porra in section A4.4.

** *

I will now address the following question relating to Spanish lexical dialectology.

Why is the study of Spanish regionalisms important?

You may be wondering why you should bother learning SpanIsh regionalisms in the first place. Afterall, what is so important about learning provincialisms that, if used, could make you sound like aboorish local yokel? It is certainly true that using language inappropriately, whether General Spanishanywhere, or a regional variety in the wrong locale, can make one look foolish or worse and thatincreasing one's General Spanish vocabulary is extremely important. Indeed, as students or scholarsof the Spanish language-I view the latter as merely more passionate versions of the former-somewould say it is our duty to continually expand our lmowledge of General Spanish vocabulary. Butbecause Spanish is an international language (perhaps the second most international language on theplanet after English, although French may be able to claim this honor), to increase our command of

308

General Spanish in its broadest and most general context, we must learn something about theregional varieties of which it is composed. Thus, to understand General Spanish, we need to knowwhat is general and what is regional and, to do so, we must learn something about the regionalismsthemselves: what they are, where they are used, and what they mean to those who use them. To someextent, understanding Spanish regionalisms means having an international perspective on thelanguage or, looked at from the opposite direction, even to scratch the surface of internationalSpanish requires us to learn aspects of regional Spanish. Without one, we cannot fully understandthe other.

All words are not created equal, but many descriptive linguists would say that the names for an itemlike the sledgehammer (such as almagana, comba, combo, mandarria, maza, mazo, marro, etc.) canbe considered equivalent to the extent that they serve the same communicative function-within theirrespective speech communities. Some prescriptivists and/or normativistas would probably dismissmany of these terms. Lexical dialectologists and other regionalism enthusiasts, however, are oftenmore intrigued by the use of a term like Central America's almagana or Peru's comba than by theterm mazo that is used in the sense of sledgehammer in so many countries (see section A4 below),and they might consider mazo to be standard, everyday vanilla-flavor usage, and view almagana andcomba as exotic spices, breaths of fresh air that take us away from the routine and the mundane.Indeed, there are those who revel in almagana and comba as much as others might reject them,though both reactions are really opposite sides of the same phenomenon, that is, almagana andcomba are only as extraordinary as mazo is ordinary, and mazo can only be held up as more or less"neutral Spanish" usage due to the existence ofmore regionally marked ones. The regional and thegeneral are but reflections of each other.

Oftentimes regionalisms are not used in place of but in addition to General Spanish terms and,therefore, one can argue that the existence ofregionalisms in a particular country should be viewedas a sign of linguistic enrichment, dexterity and even virtuosity rather than impoverishment. Sincesome Spanish speakers have both General Spanish destornillador and a regionalism such asdesarmador and/or desatornillador in their lexical repertoire and at their linguistic disposal, thisview holds that their Spanish is lexically richer and more diverse with respect to this item than thatof speakers who use only one term.

When Anglicisms are involved in this diversity or plurality, however, attitudes among educatedSpanish speakers are often negative. Thus the use ofguacha in the sense ofarandela ('washer') isfrowned upon, and the lexical diversity of Spanish speakers who use both terms is not seen asenrichment but as linguistic impoverishment or corruption since the introduction ofAnglicisms intothe Spanish language is generally given the pejorative label of"Spanglish" and, in some circles, isalso viewed as yet another manifestation ofAnglo and North American attempts at imperialism andcultural domination. Spanish speakers also desire linguistic purity when they make statements suchas "Spanish has arandela; we have no need for the Anglicismguacha." Ifyou point out the fact thatarandela comes from French rondelle (see section B5.4 below), this may not change their opinionin the least as they will still feel that their language has been violated by a word like guacha, but notby arandela. Several reasons may explain this. Both English washer and French rondelle have been

309

adapted to Spanish phonology, but arandela probably entered the language long before guacha andmore Spanish speakers recognize the foreign origin of the Anglicism guacha than that of theGallicism arandela (which in the process ofHispanization added two more syllables to its Frenchetymon). More importantly, France is no longer a world power and the number of Anglicismsentering the Spanish language each year is much higher than the number ofGallicisms. Anglicismsare viewed with both fascination and alarm, whereas Gallicisms are a mere curiosity. The use offoreign loan words in certain regions of the Spanish-speaking world raises the question as to whythey were introduced (or summoned and actively recruited) there, and why words that are deemedmore castizo have been partially discarded, or were never created in the first place.

Ifyour interest as a reader is to develop communicative competence in the topics addressed here,then apart from knowing the most widespread, neutral or General Spanish term for an item, such asdestomillador, mazo and arandela for screwdriver, sledgehammer and washer, respectively, themost important terms/usages to learn in this article are the "majority regionalisms" (those offeredby 50% or more ofrespondents from a given country) that appear in boldface and italics, words likedesarmador, almagana, comba, guacha and rondana. We could also call these regionalisms"mainstream regionalisms" since they are names that are used by a majority ofpersons in a givenspeech community but are regional when Spanish is viewed from an international perspective. Inother words, you cannot consider yourselfcommunicatively competent in El Salvador with respectto sledgehammers ifyou do not know that almagana is the most effective term to use when speakingto Salvadorans about this tool.

Looking at the issue in the opposite direction, terms such as almagana and guacha also serve aslinguistic landmarks or beacons that give listeners clues as to the origin of the people they hearspeak. If you hear someone say almagana when referring to a sledgehammer, or guacha whenreferring to a washer, you can already guess, with a fairly high degree ofaccuracy, the set ofSpanish­speaking countries that person most likely comes from and eliminate a host ofothers. The larger thenumber ofcommon regional equivalences you are familiar with, the more likely you will be able topick out a person's origin within a few minutes of listening to him or her based on word choicealone. Developing expertise in phonetics and phonology is another way to deduce a speaker's regionoforigin although, to some extent, the more educated the speaker is, the less regional will be someofhis or her linguistic traits in the case of both lexis and phonology. The beauty of words is thatanyone can learn them, whereas to acquire an understanding of Spanish phonetics and phonologyrequires some technical training. The key to learning about regional variation of any type is beinga good listener and gaining exposure to different varieties of the language.

Mainstream regionalisms like combo or guacha are terms that may be criticized or ridiculed but arenot easily ignored or denied within the context of their locale. To do so would be the linguisticequivalent of denying the existence ofBlacks in the Dominican Republic or Indians in Bolivia, ordisregarding the contributions ofnon-European cultures to Dominican or Bolivian national culture.This does not mean such attempts at negation do not take place (with race, ethnicity, or language),but they are cases of sticking one's head in the sand or trying to block out the sun with one finger.

310

Phillips-head ScrewdriverFigure A2

.'"'"",

SledgehammerFig-we A4

Flat-head Screwdriver or Slotted ScrewdriverFigure A3

HacksawFigu:e AS

Slip Joint Pliers or Diagonal PliersFigureA6

Channellock® Pliers or Groove Joint PliersFigureA6'

(Item not tested in study.)

Linesman PliersFigure A6"

(Item not tested in study.)

Needlenose Pliers or Longnose PliersFigure A7

Crescent® Wrench or Adjustable WrenchFigure A8

Monkey WrenchFigure A8"

(Item not tested in study.)

Combination WrenchFigure A8'

(Item tested but not enough data. See Appendix

Pipe WrenchFigure A9

...... _._r l

Crowbar, Pry Bar or Wrecking BarFigure AIO

C-ClampFigure All

Flat BarFigure AIO'

(Ite"! not tested in study.)

Pipe CiampFigure All'

(Item not tested in str.J.dy.)

ViseFigure Al2

Metal Flat TrowelFigure A14

Pointing Trowel or Brick TrowelFigure Al3

\\i·ooden Flat TrowelFigure A14'

}.

PickaxFigure Al5

Hoe (wide blade)Figure A16'

(Item not tested in study.)

Hoe (narrow blade)Figure A16

Drill BitsFigure Al7

Form (for pouring cement)Figure B4

SawhorsesFigure B3

"lashers (metal)Figure B5

Ball BearingFigureB6

Plastic Screw AnchorsFigureB8

SteamrollerFigure B7

,," "". ......--~. - .,~.

I, t.--.~.. '1 ~."",.,',-./ "-_.

" -../ '( ,.--:.'

\.~?/' ~.,.:

"C~z

Phm~ps slotted

Phillip$® (±) Sel-o-fjt~ @ Clutch Head @

Slotted r'\ Frearson ~ Torq-Sett:.· ~-\..JTorx:'t @ B.N.A.E. ~

T· \\'. .~. ®n- . 'Ing"""

Torx PIU5\1'~ @ Socket Head @ Hi-Torque1) ePozidriv® ~ Square Recess @ Triple Square @

~.

Different Types of ScrewsAdditional Figure

(Items not tested in study.)

A TOOLS

Al SCREWDRIVER A - GENERAL SCREWDRIVER (base terms)

Al.I Summary

Destomillador can be considered the General Spanish tenn as it is used, to some extent, throughoutthe Spanish-speaking world, but in many areas ofSpanish America desarmador, desatomillador andother tenns are used more frequently. Desarmador is particularly common in Mexico, CentralAmerica, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia; desatornillador in Chile and also much of Central America.

Note: Throughout this article, the following fonnatting conventions will be used in the "Tenns byCountry" sections:1) Tenns considered regional are written in italics; in section A1.2 below, all words other than

"destomillador" are in italics.2) Regionalisms offered by 50% or more of the respondents from a particular country (majority

regionalisms) appear in boldface and italics; Mexico's "desarmador" and Costa Rica's"desatomillador" are examples.

3) Words offered by only one or two respondents from a given country, when ten or more from thatcountry were queried (minority responses), are written in small print; Guatemala's"desatomillador" and Peru's "entomillador" are examples.

Al.2 Terms by Country (6 terms)

SPAn--;

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

destomillador (15/15).desarmador (20/20).desarmador (17/18), desatornillador (2/18).

desarmador (15/18), desatomillador (8/18), destomillador (1/18).

desarmador (8/13), desatornillador (8/13), destomiIIador (2113).

desarmador (9/16), desatornillador (6/16), destomillador (3116).desatornillador (10/16), destomillador (8/16).destomillador (11/11).destomillador (16/16).destomillador (15/15).destomillador (20/20).destomillador (17/17).destomillador (14119), atornillador (2/19), desannador (2/19), desatornillador (1/19).

desarmador (8/14), destomillador (8114).desarmador (12/18), desentornillador (5118), destomillador (3118),entornillador (2118).

desarmador (11/18), destomillador (8/18), desentornillador (4118),desatornillador (1/18).

destomillador (12/12).

320

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

A1.3 Details

destomillador (11/11).destomillador (20/20).destomillador (9/17), desatornillador (7/17), atomillador (5/17).

General: For infonnation on phillips screwdrivers (screwdrivers used to turn phillips-head screws)and slotted or flat-head screwdrivers (screwdrivers used to turn slotted or regular screws),see sections A2 and A3 below, respectively.

Spain: In this study, destomillador was the only Spanish tenn offered, though a few Catalan­speaking respondents offered the Catalan tenn, tornabis. The Encuestas Iexicas del hablaculta de Madrid (Torres Martinez: 225), the Lexico del habla culta de Granada (Salvador:700), and the Lexico del habla culta de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Samper Padilla: 182and 444) all confinn the overwhelming preference for the tenn destomillador by educatedMadrilefios, Granadinos and Grancanarios. In the first study, all fifteen Madrilefios whoanswered the question indicated destomillador, in the second, 24 Granadinos indicateddestomillador and one atomillador; and in the third, all twelve Grancanarios indicateddestomillador and one atomillador as a second choice in the chapter "Profesiones y oficios,"and in the "La casa" chapter, under herramientas caseras, all twelve indicateddestomillador.

Mexico: The use of desarmador is confinned by the DEUMex (Lara Ramos), which defines it as''Herramienta que sirve para apretar y aflojar tomillos; consta de un mango y una punta queembona en la ranura de la cabeza del tomillo; desatomillador: desarmador de punta plana,desarmador de punta en cruz." It is unclear whether desatomillador is listed in thisdefinition ofdesarmador to indicate that desatornillador is also commonly used in Mexico,or simply to include a "foreign" synonym as a point of reference. The fact that neitherdesatomillador nor destomillador is listed as a separate entry in the DEUMex, and the datafrom this study (which produced only desarmador), suggest that neither desatomillador nordestomillador is part of "everyday Mexican Spanish" among "ordinary Mexicans." This,however, is contradicted by the Lexico del habla culta de Mexico (Lope Blanch: 446), a studyin which sixteen educated Mexico City respondents gave desarmador, ten desatomilladorand five destomillador. The small percentage ofLope Blanch's respondents who indicateddestomillador can probably be attributed to their knowledge of Pan-Hispanic norms, butother questions remain: Is the use of desatomillador more common among educatedMexicans than among less educated ones? Has the use ofdesatomillador in Mexico declined(in favor of desarmador) between the time Lope Blanch conducted his survey and 2004­2005, when I did mine?

Honduras: The DH (Zavala) does not define desatomillador or desarmador, but does definedesatomillar as ''tr. Vulgarismo, por DESTORNllLAR."

Nicaragua: The DUEN(Arellano Oviedo) confinns the use ofboth desarmador and desatomillador,defining the former as "Destomillador" and the latter as "Destomillador. ElladronJorzolacerradura de la puerta con un desatomillador."

321

Puerto Rico: In the Lexico del habla culta de San Juan de Puerto Rico (LOpez Morales: 157), onlythree out oftwelve respondents answered the question, but all three indicated destornillador.

Venezuela: In this study, all seventeen respondents indicated destornillador, but in the Lexico delhabla culta de Caracas (Sedano: 183), twelve indicated destornillador and three gaveatornillador. How common is the use ofatornillador in Venezuela?

Colombia: The Lexico del habla culta de Santafe de Bogota (Otiilora de Fernandez: 279) confirmsthe use ofdestornillador among educated Bogotanos as it was the only term offered by all25 respondents in that study.

Peru: In the Lexico del habla culta de Lima (Caravedo: 459), six educated Limeiios indicateddestornillador, six desarmador and three desentornillador. In this study, in contrast,desarmador was given by four times as many respondents as destornillador anddesentornillador bynearly twice as many as destornillador. However, given that most ofthepeople queried in this study were considerably less educated than the respondents of theLexico del habla culta de Lima study (and therefore would be less aware of the GeneralSpanish term destornillador), the results ofboth studies seem to be fairly congruent.

Bolivia: The Lexico del habla culta de La paz (Mendoza: 207) confirms the fact that there issubstantial competition between destornillador and desarmador. Of the twelve educatedPaceiio respondents queried in that study, eight gave each of these two terms with many ofthem offering both destornillador and desarmador. The percentages offeringdesentornillador-three out of twelve in that study and four out of eighteen in this one-arealso quite similar.

Argentina: Both the Lexico del habla culta de Buenos Aires (Academia Argentina de Letras: 306)and the Lexico del habla culta de Cordoba, Argentina (Toniolo: 207) confirm the exclusiveuse of destornillador among educated speakers from both cities as destornillador was theunanimous choice by all Porteiios and Cordobeses (about one dozen of each) that werequeried in the two studies.

Chile: The DECH (Morales Pettorino) confirms the use ofboth desatornillador and atornil/ador inthe sense of screwdriver. It defines desatornillador as "Destornillador; herramienta paraatornillar y desatornillar... Var. [variante]: atornillador/. Mas usual que la var. castiza." (Itis not entirely clear whether this source is indicating that in Chilean Spanish bothdesatornillador and atornillador are more common than destornillador, or whether onlydesatornillador is more common.) The Lexico del habla culta de Santiago de Chile(Rabanales: 202) suggests the less frequent use ofatornil/ador and desatornillador amongeducated Santiaguinos: Of the twelve respondents tested in that study, eleven gavedestornillador, four atornillador and two desatornillador.

Attitudes toward destornillador vs. alternate terms: Linguistic attitudes within a country naturallyvary from group to group and yet, in some cases, there are widely held beliefs that on anational level can be considered mainstream. Many Ecuadorans of different educationallevels indicated to this author that they believe destornillador to be the "correct" term anddesarmador to be the "popular" and "incorrect" term. Is this negative attitude toward termsother than destornillador also prevalent in other countries in which alternate terms arecommonly used, or are desarmador and/or desatornillador, etc. accepted in some as standardusage? Based on the definitions quoted above and the (albeit limited) information collected

322

in this study, desarmador seems to enjoy general acceptance in Mexico and perhaps in Peruand Bolivia as well. In the case ofChile and Central America, many respondents seemed lessconfident in their use of alternate terms and more critical of them.

A1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: atomillador (C), desarmador (B), desatomillador (B), desentomillador (F),destomillador (A), entomillador (F).

DRAE definitions: destomillador, "Instrumento de hierro u otra materia, que sirve paradestornillar y atomillar"; atornillador, "destornillador"; desarmador, "EI Salv., Hond. y Mex.destornillador"; desatomillador, "destornillador. U. m. en America [Usado mas en America]."

Questions/Comments: The DRAE indicates that desatomillador is used more in SpanishAmerica than in Spain (''D. m. en America"), which implies that it is also used in Spain to someextent. Yet no evidence ofdesatomillador's use in Spain was found in the two Peninsular Spanishlexico del habla culta studies, in the Canary Island one, or in this survey. Where in Spain isdesatomillador used and by whom?

A2 SCRE\VDRIVER B - PHILLIPS SCRE\VDRIVER or PHILLIPS-HEADSCRE\VDRIVER

A2.1 Summary

In many areas of the Spanish-speaking world, the modifier de estrella is added to the base termdestomillador, desarmador, etc. to specifya phillips screwdriver. However, in a number ofcountriesother modifiers, such as phillips, de cruz or de estria(s), are more common than de estrella.

Note: Since the distribution of the base terms for screwdrivers was addressed in section Al above,the focus in sections A2 and A3 will be on the modifiers or qualifiers that are added to the base termsin order to designate a specific type of screwdriver (phillips or slotted). In section A2.2, modifiersother than (de) estrella-and variants such as (de) punta estrella-appear in italics, and majorityregional modifiers in boldface and italics.

A2.2 Terms by Country (4 modifiers plus variants and c. 18 terms plus variants overall)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

destornillador (de) estrella (14/15), destornillador de estria (1/15).

desarmador de cruz (17/20), desarmador de estrella (2120), desannador en cruz (1120).

desarmador de cruz (10/17), desannador phillips (6/17), desannador (de)estrella (4/17), desatomilIadoT de estrella (2117).

desarmador phillips (14/18), desatornillador phillips (6/18), desannador decruz (5/18), desatomillador de cruz (2118), desarmador de estrella (1/18), destornilladoT

phillips (1/18).

323

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

A2.3 Details

desarmador phillips .(7/13), desatomillador phillips (6/13), desatomillador de

estrella (2113), destomiIIador phillips (2113), desarmador estrella (1113).

desarmador de estrella (9/16), desatomillador de estrella(s) (6/16), destomillador

de cruz (2116), destomiIIador de estrella (1116).

desatomillador phillips (10/16), destomillador phillips (8/16).destomillador (de) estrella (9/11), destomillador phillips (4/11).destomillador (de) estria(s) (14/16), destomillador phillips (4/16).destomillador (de) estria(s) (15/15).destomillador (de) estria(s) (14/20), destomillador de estrella(s) (5/20),destomillador de punta (1/20), destomillador tipo phillips (1/20).

destomillador (de) estria(s) (13/17), destomilladorde cruz (3/17), destomillador

estrella (1/17).

destomillador (de) estrella (10/16), desannador (de) estrella (2/16), desatomillador de

estrella (2116), destomillador (de) estria (2116), atomillador de estria (1/16).

destomillador (de) estrella (10/14), desarmador (de) estrella (9/14).desarmador (de) estrella (10/16), desentomillador (de) estrella (4/16),destomillador estrella (3/16), desannador de cruz (1/16), desentomiIIador cruz (1/16),

entomillador en cruz (1/16).

desarmador (de) estrella (7/18), destomillador estrella (5/18), destomilladorpunta estrella (3/18), desentomiIIador de estrella (2118), desannador en cruz (1/18),

desentomillador punta estrella (1/18), desannador en cruz (1/18).

destomillador (de) cruz (6/11), destomiIlador en cruz (2111), destomillador (tipo) phillips

(2111), destomillador (de punta) estrella (2111), destomillador de punta cruz (1/11).

destomillador phillips (10/10).destomilladorphillips (16/20), destomillador de cruz (1120), destomillador de punta en

cruz (1/20), destomillador en cruz (1/20), destomillador en cruz phillips (1/20).

destomillador de cruz (6/16), desatomillador de cruz (3/16), destomilladorphillips (2116), atomillador de cruz (3/16), atomillador de punta (1/16), desatomillador de punta(1/16), desatomilladorphillips (1/16), destomillador de cruceta (1/16), destomillador de estrella

(1/16).

General: Destornillador de estrella and destornillador estrella can be considered variants of eachother, or the latter an abbreviation ofthe former, and the same applies to other pairs oftermsin which the de is often dropped such as desarmador de estrella - desarmador estrella, orthe more technical sounding destornillador de punta estrella - destornilladorpunta estrella.Indeed, de-dropping in such adjectival phrases appears to be a general phenomenon that isquite common in Spanish, though under what circumstances it occurs needs to be researched.In the case ofthe modifier phillips (as in destornilladorphillips, desarmador phillips, etc.),alternate pronunciations and spellings are used that can be considered variants ofeach other.Thus destornillador phillips is also written and/or pronounced destornillador Phillips,destornillador philips, destornillador flUps, destornillador flUes, destornillador flUx,destornillador flUe, destornillador flU, etc. Since the word phillips is a foreign word used

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more in speech than in writing, Spanish speakers who are unaware of the term's origin andunfamiliar with English-language orthography are often unsure ofhow it should be spelled.(Pero, aunque no sepan ingles, me imagino que 10 escribinm a la inglesa aquelloshispanohablantes que usen el termino destomilladorphillips, 0 desarmador phillips, etc., ytambien tomen leche de magnesia Phillips.)

Spain: Destomillador (de) estrella was given by all respondents from Peninsular Spain. However,one Canary Islander indicated destomillador de estria, a usage which we note matches thatfound in many parts of the Caribbean basin. Given the sustained emigration of CanaryIslanders to the Antilles and Venezuela over the last two centuries, some of whom alsoreturned to their homeland after an extended stay, resulting in linguistic cross-pollination inboth directions (Lipski 1994: 56-61), it would not be surprising if it turned out that theCanary Islands share the use ofdestomillador de estria with parts of the Caribbean. Ifso,then the question would be who got it from whom: A Caribbean or Canary Island origin?However, we are putting the cart before the horse since the first question is whether or notdestomillador de estria is commonly used in the sense ofphillips screwdriver in the CanaryIslands.

Mexico: The DEUMex, in its definition of desarmador (see section AI.3 above), indicates that aphillips screwdriver is called a desarmador depunta en cruz, but the majority ofrespondentsin this study indicated simply desarmador de cruz; the former term appears to be a moretechnical (and fancier sounding) variant of the latter.

Dominican Republic: Several respondents gave destomillador tria, which can be considered aphonetic variant (or reduction) ofdestomillador (de) estria. Given the extremely high rateofelision ofsyllable- and word-final /s/ that occurs in the Dominican Republic (Lipski 1994:239), a word like estria is often pronounced etria, which is but a short step away from tria.To what extent has this phonetic variant become lexicalized in some speech communities inthe Dominican Republic?

Colombia: The majority ofColombians offered destomillador (de) estrella, but two from Santandersaid desatomillador de estrella, another from Santander gave destomillador estria, one fromthe Atlantic Coast gave destornillador de estria (which corresponds to Antillean andVenezuelan usage), and an elderly man from Quindio indicated atomillador de estria.

Al.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: desarmador de cruz (F), desarmador de estrella (F), desarmador estrella (F),desarmadorphillips (F), desatomillador de cruz (F), desatomillador de estrella (F), desatomilladorphillips (F), desentomillador de estrella (F), destomillador cruz (F), destomillador de cruz (F),destomillador de estrella (F), destornillador estrella (F), destomillador punta estrella (F),destomillador de estria (F), destornillador estria (F), destornillador phillips (F).

Questions/Comments: The DRAE does not offer its readers any information on the namesfor phillips screwdrivers, and an argument can be made that such information is too technical to beincluded in a general dictionary. However, the boundary between "technical language" and "generallanguage" is often blurry, or we could say that over time the distance between the two in many casestends asymptotically to zero. Ifwe compare the situation within English-language lexicography, we

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note that Phillips is defined in the AHD (pickett) as "A trademark used for a screw with a headhaving two intersecting perpendicular slots and for a screwdriver with a tip shaped to fit these slots."The EWD (Soukhanov) defines "Phillips screw" as "tdmk a trademark for a screw with a cross­shaped slot on its head" and "Phillips screwdriver" as "tdmk a trademark for a screwdriver that hasa cross-shaped tip so that it can be used to turn a Phillips screw." IfEnglish-language lexicographytells us what a phillips screwdriver is, why should the DRAE take a back seat and not do likewise?While it may not always be an easy task, in some instances it is a good idea to "keep up with theJoneses" (and the Garcias, and the other neighbors in the global village). By all means, take a lookaround, see what the other guys are doing. Lexicographers have as much to learn from others whospeak a different language and come from a different culture as the rest of us.

AJ SCREWDRIVER C - SLOTTED SCREWDRIVER, FLAT-HEAD SCREWDRIVER,STRAIGHT-BLADE SCREWDRIVER, FLAT-BLADE SCREWDRIVER orSTANDARD SCREWDRIVER

AJ.l Summary

Plano is the modifier most commonly added to the base term (destornillador, desatornillador,desarmador, etc.) to specify a slotted screwdriver, although many people refer to it as adestornillador comun, a destornillador corriente, or simply a destomillador with no modifier addedsince they understand slotted screwdrivers to be the default type. In a number ofcountries, however,other modifiers such as de paleta or de pala are used more often than plano.

Note: Modifiers other thanplano (and variants such as depunta plana), or comun, corriente, normal(and other similar "default" modifiers) appear in italics, and majority regional modifiers in boldfaceand italics.

AJ.2 Terms by Country (12 modifiers and c. 30 terms plus variants overall)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

destornillador plano (10/14), destomillador de punta plana (2114), destomillador normal

(1/14).

desannador plano (14/18), desarmador de palela (2118), desarmador de pal(it)a (2118).

desarmadorplano (11/14), desarmador (tipo) castigadera (3/14), desannadorde

palela (1/14), desatomillador lipo castigadera (1/14).

desarmador plano (11/14), desannador (corriente) (3/14), desatornilladorplano (3/14), desannador de pala (1/14), desannador de plancha (1/14), desatomillador

(1/14), desatomiIlador de planchita (1/14).

desatornillador plano (7/13), desarmador plano (6/13), destomillador plano (2113).

desarmador de ranura (6/14), desatornillador de ranura (3/14),destornillador de ranura (3/14), desannador (1/14), desarmador de raya (1/14),

desatomillador cornun (1/14), desatomillador recto (1/14), destomillador plano (1/14).

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COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

A3.3 Details

desatornillador plano (7/16), destornillador plano (4/16), desatornillador(corriente) (2116), destomilJador (corriente) (2116), desatomillador de pa/eta (1/16),desatornillador de punta plana (1/16).

destomillador plano (8/9), destomillador cincel (1/9), destomillador de raya(1/9).destornillador de paleta (8/16), destornillador (5/16), destomillador plano(4/16).destornillador plano (14/15), destornillador de pa/eta (1/15).

destomillador (de) paleta (17/20), destomillador (1/20), destomillador de pa/a (1120),

destomilJador plano (1120).

destomilladorplano (9/16), destomillador depala (4/16), destomillador depa/eta

(2116), destomillador punta plana (2116), destornillador (1/16).

destomillador (de) pala (10/19), destomillador plano (4/19), desarmador de pa/a(2119), destornillador (2119), atomillador pa/a (1/19), atomillador plano (1/19), desatomillador

de pahz (1/19), desatomillador de pa/eta (1/19).

desarmador plano (8/14), destomillador plano (8/14), destomillador (corriente)

(2114).

desarmador plano (9/18), desentomillador plano (5/18), destomillador plano(3/18), desarmador (2118), desarmador de punta plana (2118), entomillador (1/18).

desarmador plano (6/18), destomillador plano (4/18), desarmador (comun) (2118),desentomillador (c1asico) (2118), destomillador (con) punta plana (2118), desentomilladorplano

(1/18), desentomillador punta plana (1/18), desarmador en cuchiIIa (1/18).

destomillador plano (6/1 0), destomillador (simple) (2110), destomillador chato (1/10),

destomillador de punta chata (1/10), destornillador de punta plana (1/10).

destomillador chato (4/11), destomillador plano (4/11), destomillador(comlin) (3/11), destomil1ador de pa/eta (1/11).

destomillador (comlin) (5/16), destomillador de punta plana (5/16),destomil1ador chato (2116), destomillador plano (2116), destomillador de punta chata (1/16),

destomillador de hoja plana (1/16).

destomillador (de) paleta (5/17), atornillador (de) paleta (4/17),desatornillador (de) paleta (4/1 7), desatorhillador (regular) (3/1 7), destomil1ador

plano (1/17).

General: Many Spanish speakers consider the slotted screwdriver to be the standard or default typeof screwdriver and refer to it as a destomillador corriente (or desarmador corriente,desatornillador corriente, etc.), as a destomillador comun (or desarmador comun, etc.), adestomillador normal (desarmador normal, etc.), or simply a destomillador (desarmador,etc.) with no modifier being added. .

Mexico: The DEUMex, in its definition of desarmador (see section A1.3 above), indicates that aslotted screwdriver is called a desarmador de punta plana, but the majority ofrespondentsin this study indicated simply desarmador plano.

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Colombia: Destomillador (de) pa/a was offered by the majority ofrespondents, but desatomilladorde pa/eta was given by one from the Atlantic Coast, and we note that the qualifier de pa/etamatches the usage found in other parts of the Caribbean such as Cuba and Puerto Rico.

United States English: Many English speakers from the United States consider the screwdriver ofthis section to be the standard or default screwdriver (as do many Spanish speakers) and useno specific name for it other than "screwdriver," "regular screwdriver," "normal screwdriver"or "standard screwdriver," etc. The term "flat-head screwdriver" (with its spelling variants"flathead screwdriver" and "flat head screwdriver") is also used frequently in the UnitedStates in this sense, but some object to this term claiming that "flat-head" refers to a type ofscrew that has a flat head and which can be either a phillips screw or a regular screw, butdoes not refer to a type of screwdriver. Some who make the latter claim prefer the tenn"straight-blade screwdriver" or "flat-blade screwdriver" (again with spelling variants alongthe same lines as those indicated above for "flat-head screwdriver"). Others may counter thatthe terms "flat-head screw" and "flat-head screwdriver" are unrelated; in other words, thatthe former refers to a screw with a flat head, which may be a phillips screw or a regularscrew, and that the latter refers to a screwdriver whose shaft ends in a flat head (rather thana pointy phillips head), and that may be used with slotted screws regardless of the head'sshape, whether flat-head screws, pan-head screws or screws ofsome other form. The HomeDepot and Ace Hardware store online catalogues (at www.homedepot.com andwww.acehardware.com. respectively) list only"slotted screwdriver" as the term for the classofscrewdriver addressed in this section, but one can also object to this term since phillips­head screws also have slots (just different kinds ofslots), and therefore, one can argue thatphillips-head screwdrivers are slotted screwdrivers just as much as straight-bladescrewdrivers are, insofar as both turn "slotted" screws. For this reason, some people preferthe term "single slotted" screw (and screwdriver). Because terminology varies along aspecificity axis, and because it is under no obligation to strictly obey semantic logic, it is hardto reach a consensus on what the "proper" term for this type of screwdriver is even withina single country.

A3.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: atomillador de pa/eta (F), desarmador castigadera (F), desarmador de pa/a(F), desarmador de pa/eta (F), desarmador plano (F), desarmador de ranura (F), desatomilladorde pa/eta (F), desatomillador plano (F), desatomillador de ranura (F), desentomilladorplano (F),destornillador chato (F), destornillador de pa/a (F), destomillador de pa/eta (F), destomil/ador depunta chata (F), destomillador de pa/eta (F), destomillador de punta plana (F), destomillador deranura (F), destomillador plano (F).

Questions/Comments: Should the DRAE define the commonly used terms for the slottedscrewdriver? An argument can be made that this is unnecessary since the slotted screwdriver is oftenconsidered to be the standard or default screwdriver. Another reason that may possibly mediateagainst including a definition of a slotted screwdriver (or ofa phillips screwdriver) is that the mostcommon type of screwdriver is now an adjustable combination screwdriver called a "multi-bitdriver" that contains four or more screwdriver heads, blades or bits, typically at least two different

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sizes ofslotted-head and phillips-head bits. In other words, people who use this type ofscrewdriverneed to make a distinction between the different types of bits but not the different types ofscrewdrivers since several types of bits are contained in and used with a single screwdriver.Moreover, ifwe probe a couple ofsamples from English lexicography, we note that neither the 2000edition ofthe AHD nor the 2004 edition ofthe EWD define the terms "slotted screwdriver," "straightblade screwdriver" or "flat-head screwdriver," nor do they include a picture of one next to thedefinition of screwdriver. On the other hand, if the DRAE's goal is to be international in scope, asit claims in its preface, then readers should be told what a destornillador de paleta or a desarmadorplano, etc. is (with appropriate regional specifications) so that dictionary users will know what'swhat and where.

A4 SLEDGEHAMMER or MAUL

A4.1 Summary

Mazo can be considered the most General Spanish term for sledgehammer since it is used in thissense in large areas of the Spanish-speaking world. Almagana and its variants are commonly usedin northern Central America, combo or comba in the core Andean countries of Ecuador, Peru,Bolivia and Chile (and perhaps in western Argentina as well), and mandarria in parts ofSpain andthe Caribbean basin. Other terms are used in Spain, Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Colombia,Uruguay and Argentina.

Note: Terms other than mazo (and maceta which refers to a small sledgehammer) appear in italics,and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.

A4.2 Terms by Country (over 10 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

?-:ICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZl.JELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

mazo (12/17), maza (4/17), mandarria (3/17), marreta (2117), maceta (III 7).

marro (22/25), mazo (6/25), maceta (2125).

almtigana (12/19), mazo (8/19), marro (3/19), almadana (1119), chambon (1/19).

almtigana (13/16), almtidana (2116), almadena (1/16), annagana (1/16), mazo (1/16).

almtigana (14/15), mazo (4/15), almadana (1/15).

mazo (13/13).mazo (14/14).mazo (13/13), maceta (2113).

mandarria (18/18).mandarria (14/16), maTron (10/16), maceta (5/16).marron (17/18), mazo(2I18).

mandarria (15/15).porra (15/24), mazo (13/24), maceta (6/24), mandarria (2124), almtidena (1/24),

almutidana (1/24), porro (1/24),porron (1/24).

combo (17/18), mazo (3/18).

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PERUBOLIVIA

PARAGUAYURUGUAYARGENTINACHILE

A4.3 Details

comba (19/21), mazo (6/21), combo (3/21).combo (17/17).mazo (9/10), maza (2110).

marron (8/12), maceta (5/12), mazo (4/12), maza (2112).

maza (18/20), combo (l/20), maceta (1120). mazo (1120), marron (l/20).

combo (18/18).

General: The term mazo was offered in the sense of sledgehammer by a majority of respondentsfrom only five countries, but was given by some respondents in fifteen out of the twentycountries. However, since sledgehammers are closely related to mallets and gavels, etc.,which can also be called mazos, it is possible that some of the respondents in this studyconfused the sledgehammer with one of these similar items. All respondents who offeredmaceta agreed that it refers to a small, short-handled sledgehammer. These "minisledgehammers," "hand sledges" or "babysledges" are often wielded with onlyone hand andtypically weigh between two and four pounds.

Spain: In this study, mazo was offered in the sense of sledgehammer by the majority of Spaniardsfrom diverse regions, and maza by four from different regions. Mandarria and marreta weregiven by respondents from Galicia, and of these one indicated that mandarria was theSpanish word for sledgehammer and marreta the Gallego term. The DRAE indicates thatmazo refers only to a wooden mallet and includes no sense of maza that corresponds to asledgehammer(see section A4.4 below). However, the DEArg (Haensch and Werner 2000a),a contrastive dictionary, indicates that both maza and mazo are the Peninsular Spanishequivalents of the Argentine terms for this tool (combo and maza, see Argentina below).Almadena, almadana and almadina are defined in the DRAE in the sense ofsledgehammer(see section A4.4 below), but it is not clear what types ofSpaniards tend to use these terr.1S.Are almadena, almadana and/or almadina used primarily by older Spaniards, by Spaniardsfrom specific regions, or by specialists such as carpenters, masons or quarry workers, etc.?No doubt there are Spaniards who sayalmadena, almadana and/or almadina, but they appearto be harder to corne by than those that say mazo and/or maza.

Mexico: The use ofmarro is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as "Herrarnienta semejanteal martillo, que consiste en una pieza solida de hierro, rectangular, con l('s bordes limados,montada en un fuerte mango de madera; se utiliza para romper piedras u golpear objetosgrandes y resistentes." Mazo is defined similarly in the DEUMex, but its definition indicatesit can also refer to a wooden mallet: "Herrarnienta con que se golpea fuertemente un cuerposolido, consistente en un mango largo de madera, al que se inserta en una de sus puntas unbloque cuadrangular pesado y grande, de hierro 0 de madera."

Guatemala: A majority of respondents indicated almagana was the only term commonly used, butseveral stated that a mazo is a small almagana or refers to a rubber mallet.

El Salvador: Almagana was offered by the majority of respondents, but one indicated armagana,which can be considered a phonetic variant ofalmagana. Exchange ofsyllable-final liquidsIII and Irl is common both historically and in terms ofregionalisms; c£ pairs ofwords such

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as arveja-a/verja ('pea'), te/gopor-tergopo/ ('styrofoam'), andpi/ca-pirca ('stone wall '). Seealso Dominican Republic in section B4.3 below.

Honduras: The DH defines a/magana as "Corruptela de ALMADANA" (in that publication accentmarks were not used with capital letters). In this study, the majority ofrespondents indicatedthat a/magana was the only term commonly used in the sense ofsledgehammer, though mostwere persons with limited formal education. Only one Honduran, a college-educated man,said the "proper term" was a/madana, but he admitted this term was seldom used. Inaddition, two stated that a mazo is a small a/magana, but several others said a mazo is awooden mallet.

Cuba: The DECu (Haensch and Werner 2000b) confirms the use ofmandarria, defining it as "Tipode martillo muy pesado."

Dominican Republic: Some respondents stated that a mandarria is a larger sledgehammer than amarron, but some said the opposite, that a marron is larger than a mandarria; othersindicated the two terms were synonymous. Do Dominican craftsmen, laborers, and otherswho regularly work with sledgehammers have a uniform understanding ofthe differences inmeaning between these two terms?

Venezuela: The DHAV (NUiiez) confirms the use ofmandarria, defining it as "Martillo muy grandey pesado, provisto de un mango largo, que se maneja con las dos manos y que se emplea,principalmente, en la construccion."

Colombia: Many respondents indicated that both a mazo and a porra refer to sledgehammers, butone from Cundinamarca indicated that a mazo is a rubber mallet and a porra is asledgehammer; this same respondent also indicated that an a/madena refers to asledgehammer that has a point on one end. Almuadana was offered in the sense ofsledgehammer by an elderly man from the department of Quindio.

Ecuador: The HEDE (Cordova Malo) defines combo as "Gran mazo de hierro para quebrantarpiedras; macho."

Peru: Why is comba the dominant term in Peru when combo is dominant in Peru's Andeanneighbors, Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile? The DRAE indicates that combo derives fromQuechua k 'umpa (see section A4.4 below). Is the Peruvian use ofcomba somehow "closer"to the Quechua source, or are there other reasons that explain this difference?

Bolivia: The use of combo is confirmed by the DB (Gomez de Fernandez), which defines it as "2.Almadana." It is not clear why there is no accent mark on the second a in the definition,though it can probably be attributed to a simple typographical error.

Uruguav: The NDU (Haensch and Werner 1993b) defines marron as "1 Martillo grande y muypesado que se usa para demoliciones !2 En los mataderos, mazo con el que se desmaya a lasreses antes de sacrificarlas." In this study, a few respondents indicated that a marron is abigger sledgehammer than a mazo.

Argentina: The DEArg defines combo as a General Argentine Spanish term (i.e. without any regionalspecification within Argentina) as "Mazo de hierro, con un mango largo para asirlo, que seemplea en el ambito de la construccion, generalmente para partir piedras 0 para demoler" anddefines marron as "3 NEArg [Northeast Argentina] Martillo de gran tamafto que se empleaen la industria y en carpinteria" The DEArg indicates that combo and marron are synonymsof mazo, which is used in Spain, and of maza, which is used in both Spain and Argentina.

331

In this study, however, the majority ofArgentines queried gave only maza, but one from SanJuan (in western Argentina) offered combo, and we note that combo is the predominant usagein much of the Andean region. If combo is commonly used in the sense of sledgehammerthroughout Argentina, as the DEArg seems to claim, why did only one Argentine in thisstudy offer this tenn? Ifcombo is regionally marked within Argentina, in what regions is itcommonly used?

Chile: The DECH confinns the use ofcombo, defining it as "Mazo pesado, generalmente de hierro,provisto de un mango largo y una cabeza con los dos lados pIanos, igualmente aptos para

1 "go pear...Related concepts: Is mazo the word for "mallet" (short-handled hammer with a cylindrical head

made of rubber or wood) and for "gavel" (mallet or hammer used by a presiding officer orauctioneer to signal for attention or order) that is used throughout the Spanish-speakingworld, or is there regional variation for these items as well?

A4.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: almadana (C), almadena (C), almadina (C), almagana (B), comba (D), combo(D), maceta (A), mandarria (B), marro (D), marron (D), maza (D), mazo (D),porra (C or D?).

DRAE definitions: almadena, "(Del ar. hisp. almatana, y este cruce del ar. clas. mi 'dan yelar hisp. patana, trasto, cacharro). Mazo de hierro con mango largo, para romper piedras"; almadana,"almadena"; almadina, "almadena"; almagana, "Hond. almadena"; combo, "(Del quechuak 'umpa, mazo de piedra). Am. [America] mazo (II martillo grande de madera)"; maceta, "2. Martillocon cabeza de dos bocas iguales y mango corto que usan los canteros para golpear el cincel 0

puntero"; macho2, "(Dellat marcrJ/us, martillo pequeno). Mazo grande que hay en las herrerias para

forjar el hierro"; mandarria, "(Quiza del it. dialect. mannara, hacha). Mar. [marina] Martillo 0 mazade hierro que usan los calafates para meter 0 sacar los pemos en los costados de los buques. II 2.Cuba. Tipo de martillo muy pesado"; martinete, "(Del fro martinet). 2. Mazo, generalmente de granpeso, para batir algunos metales, abatanar los panos, etc."; maza, "(Del lat. vulg. *mattifa). 2.Instrumento de madera dura, parecido a la maza antigua de combate, que sirve para machacar eIesparto y ellino, para otros usos"; mazo, "(De maza). Martillo grande de madera"; porra, "(Del 1at.porrum, puerro, por la fonna de esta planta). 3. Martillo de cabezas iguales y mango largo algoflexible, que se maneja con las dos manos a la vez."

Comments: Regardless of which word is selected as the base tenn to which the remainingsynonyms could be cross-referencecL the sledgehammer should be defined as a type ofheavy martillo(hammer), not as a typeofmazo (mallet) made ofmetal as the DRAE has done. There are at least tworeasons why martillo should be the fulcrum of the definition for the sledgehammer and not mazo.First, because martillo is a General Spanish word that everyone understands to mean the same thing.Ifyou tell Spanish speakers that an almagana, a combo, a mandarria, a maza, or a mazo is a heavymartillo, they will instantly understand what you mean. The second reason is that mazo itself isdefined in terms of marriUo and is described as something that is strictly made of wood. In theDRAE's handling of this item, its lexicographers and/or editors not only demonstrate their lack offamiliarity with Spanish American usage (which is not particularly surprising), but also showthemselves to be unaware of the fact that mazo, maza and mandarria can refer to standard

332

sledgehammers (with metal heads) in varieties of Peninsular Spanish. The DRAE indicates thatmandarria is used in the language of sailors (presumably Spanish sailors) to refer to a special typeofhammer found on ships, and is also used in the sense ofsledgehammer in only one country, Cuba(see definition ofmandarria in section A4.4 above). Yet it defines mandarriazo as "Cuba. Golpeque se da con la intenci6n de hacer dano" and "2. coloq. Ven. Golpe dado con una mandania 0 concualquier tipo de martillo." Sense two of mandarriazo clearly implies that mandarria is used withthe meaning ofsledgehammer in Venezuela (which we mow to be the case), but the DRAE editorsfailed to catch this inconsistency in two definitions that are consecutive (mandarriazo is the verynext entry after mandarria), and thus failed to include "Ven." in the regional specification of sensetwo ofmandarria. This is just sloppy workmanship. Also, the definition ofmaceta, ''Martillo concabeza... que usan los canteros para golpear el cincel 0 puntero" is too restrictive. To put it in thevernacular, there are lots of folks besides quarry workers and stonemasons who use macetas, andthey use 'em for poundin' lots of things that ain't chisels.

AS HACKSAW

AS.! Summary

Sierra-with qualifiers such as de metal, para metal or de arco added for clarification ifnecessary­is the predominant term in Spain, most Spanish-speaking countries ofthe Southern Hemisphere, andparts of Central America, that is, in roughly half the Spanish-speaking world. In the other half, inmost countries of the Caribbean Basin, segueta is the term.

Note: Segueta appears in italics and, where the majority term, in boldface and italics.

AS.2 Terms by Country (2 base terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VE}\l"EZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

sierra (11/11).segueta (19/19).sierra (13/17), segueta (5/17).sierra (16/18), segueta (3/18).segueta (11/16), sierra (5/16).sierra (14/15), segueta (3/15).segueta (13/13).segueta (12/12), sierra (2112).

segueta (16/16).segueta (15/15).segueta (18/18).segueta (13/15), sierra (2115).

segueta (16/18), sierra (2118).

sierra (12/12).sierra (16/16).

333

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAYURUGUAYARGENTINACHILE

A5.3 Details

sierra (IS/IS).sierra (8/8).sierra (10/10).sierra (IS/IS).sierra (15/15).

General: In countries where sierra is commonly used in the sense ofhacksaw, modifiers such as dearco, de metal, para metal(es), delpara hierro, delparafierro, delpara acero, cortametales,eortahierro, etc. are added to sierra to the extent people have a need to distinguish hacksawsfrom other sierras such as power saws (sierras eIectricas); the diminutive form sierrita isalso sometimes used in the sense of hacksaw. The term segueta, in contrast, is alreadyspecific in the countries it is used, and does not require a modifier. In more technical and/orspecific language, speakers may distinguish between the hacksaw blade (la hoja) and thehacksaw frame (el area de la sierra or el arco de la segueta), but see Colombia below foranother possible scheme. The distinction between frame, blade and the two combined,however, is often not made as both items are typically found and needed in their combinedform (neither the frame nor the blade by itself is particularly useful). Thus, people typicallysaypasame la sierra orpasame la segueta and receive the entire apparatus, though ifseveraldifferent types ofsierras are available, then speakers from the non-segueta countries wouldsaypasame la sierra de area or the pasame la sierra de metal, etc., to specify the hacksaw.In section A5.2 above, only the short form sierra is presented, not the longer more specificterms such as sierra de arco. See saws in Appendix for other types of saws.

Mexico: The use of segueta is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as ''Herramientaconsistente en una hoja, por 10 general de acero, recta, angosta y larga con numerosos dientespuntiagudos en uno de sus bordes; la cual, sujeta a un armazon en forma de marco, se usapara cortar metal u otros materiales duros..."

Guatemala. £1 Salvador, Honduras & Nicaragua: Varying degrees ofcompetition betweensierra andsegueta were found in these four countries and, based on the data collected in this study,sierra appears to be more common than segueta in Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua,whereas segueta appears to be more common than sierra in Honduras. In these fourcountries, how common is the use ofsegueta in the sense ofhacksaw vis-a-vis sierra?

Colombia: Most respondents in this study indicated that segueta was the entire hacksaw, but twosaid they understood segueta to refer to the blade only and, when asked what the frame was,one said it was the sierra and the other that it was the marco or the arco.

Spelling ofsegueta: In countries where segueta is used in the sense ofhacksaw, many people thinkthe word is spelled eegueta. This is probably due in part to the fact that the verbs segar andeegar are homophones in Latin American Spanish, and to confusion about which spellingcorresponds to which meaning. Among less educated speakers, zegueta is also a commonspelling.

334

AS.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: segueta (D), sierra (A or D?).DRAE definitions: sierra, "Herramienta para cortar madera u otros objetos duros, que

generalmente consiste en una hoja de acero dentada sujeta a una empunadura"; segueta, "(De or.inc.) Sierra de marqueteria"; marqueteria, "(Del fro marqueterie). Trabajo de ebanisteria."

Comments: The DRAE's general, all-purpose definition of sierra does not capture orencompass the meaning of hacksaw because it describes a saw in which the blade is attached to ahandle, and a hacksaw's blade is attached to a frame. Compare theAHD's definition ofhacksaw: "Asaw consisting ofa tough, fine-toothed blade stretched taut in a frame, used for cutting metal." TheDRAE needs to include a separate sense corresponding to hacksaw in its definitions ofboth sierraand segueta, with appropriate regional specifications, and the DEUMex's description of seguetawould be an excellent model to follow.

A6 PLIERS A - REGULAR PLIERS, JOINT PLIERS, SLIP-JOINT PLIERS orDIAGONAL PLIERS (standard, adjustable noncutting pliers)

A6.1 Summary

Alicate(s) or pinza(s) are the most commonly used base terms for these types of pliers in manycountries, tenaza(s) in several Central American countries, and playo in Ecuador.

Note: Terms other than alicate(s) and pinza(s) appear in italics, and majority regionalisms inboldface and italics.

A6.2 Terms by Country (4 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS·

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

alicate(s) (8/11), tenaza(s) (2/11), pinzas (1/11).

pinza(s) (15/16), tenazas (1/16).

alicate (13/14), tenaza (2/14).

tenaza(s) (15/15).tenaza (5/6), tenanza (1/6).tenaza(s) (10/12), alicate (2/12).

alicate (9/11), pinza (1/11), tenaza (1/11).

pinza(s) (7/9), alicate (2/9).alicate(s) (10/16), pinza(s) (5/16), tenaza (1/16).

alicate (15/15).alicate(s) (18/18).alicate(s) (16/16).alicate(s) (14/15), pinzas(1/15).

pIayo (13/14), alicate (7/14).alicate (13/13).

335

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

A6.3 .Details

alicate (16/16).pinza(s) (8/9), tenaza(s) (2/9).pinza(s) (8/9), tenaza (1/9).pinza (13/15), tenaza (2/15).

alicate (13/14), tenaza (2114).

General: Both the singular and plural fonns, alicate-alicates,pinza-pinzas and tenaza-tenazas, canrefer to a single pair ofpliers. In this study, the majority ofrespondents from most countriesindicated the singular fonns (i.e. alicate,pinza or tenaza) when referring to a single pair ofjoint pliers, and in many cases the singular fonn was the unanimous choice: SeeGUATEMALA, HO!'ll1)URAS, COSTA RICA, DOMIN. REP., ECUADOR, PERU, BOLNIA, ARGENTINA

and CHILE in section A6.2 above. However, more research needs to be done to determinewhere each is more common and whether or not the singular fonns are more frequent inregions where word-final lsi tends to be aspirated or deleted such as southern Spain andcoastal areas of Spanish America. The modifiers camun!camunes, universal(es) ormecanica(s) are sometimes added to alicate(s),pinza(s) and tenaza(s) to specifyjoint pliers.In the lexica del habla culta studies, item 1402 is entitled TENAZAS and item 1403ALICATES, but it is unclear what type oftool respondents were shown in each case. See, forexample, Torres Martinez pp. 224-225, Samper Padilla pp. 182, OtaIora de Fernandez pp.341, or LOpez Morales pp. 76.

Mexico: Although the use ofpinza(s) in the sense ofpliers is confirmed by the DEUMex, it definesthe instrument broadly as "sing 0 pI 1 Instrumento de distintos materiales y formas,compuesto por dos palancas unidas en un punto, cuyas puntas 0 extremos se unen 0 separanbajo la presion de los dedos y que sirve para agarrar algo con fuerza: 'Aflojo la tuerca conlas pinzas', pinzas para las cejas, 'Se saco la espina con una pinza', pinza de cirujana,pinzas para calgar rapa." The fact that the term alicate is not listed in this dictionary is alsonoteworthy and suggests that this tenn is not "usual" in Mexico.

Ecuador: Some Ecuadorans in this study made statements such as ''playa se dice vulgarmente" anddescribed this term as "incarrecta" and "mal [armada" and indicated that alicate is the"correct" and "castiza" tenn. Others, however, indicated that playa is the only term foradjustable pliers, whereas alicate(s) are nonadjustable, wire-cutting pliers ("linesmanpliers"). Still others, including carpenters, plumbers, and other specialists accepted bothtenns and indicated they are synonyms.

Related tenns: See pliers in Appendix for infonnation on other types of pliers.

A6.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: alicate(s) (A), pinza(s) (A), playa (A or D?), tenaza(s) (A).DRAE definitions: alicate, "(Del err. hisp. *allaqqat, y este del err. clas. Laqqit, tenazas).

Tenaza pequena de acero con brazos encorvados y puntas cuadrangulares 0 de fonna de conotruncado, y que sirve para coger y sujetar objetos menudos 0 para torcer alambres, chapitas delgadas

336

o cosas parecidas. U. m. en pI. [Usado mas en plural] con el mismo significado que en sing.[singular]"; alicate de corte, "El que tiene las puntas en forma de cuchillas y se emplea, sobre todopor los electricistas, para cortar cables";pinza, "(Del fro pince, tenaza). Instrumento cuyos extremosse aproximan para sujetar algo";pinzas, "4. Instrumento de metal, a manera de tenacillas, que sirvepara coger 0 sujetar cosas menudas"; tenaza, "(Del 1at. tenaces, pI. de tenax). Instrumento de metal,compuesto de dos brazos trabados por un clavillo 0 eje que permite abrirlos y volverlos a cerrar, quese usa para sujetar fuertemente una cosa, 0 arrancarla 0 cortarla U. m. en pI. con el mismosignificado que en sing"; playo, "(Del ingi. pliers). Ecuad. Especie de tenazas pequefias,generalmente con ranuras finas en sus extremos."

Comments: Spanish speakers from different regions seem to have different notions ofwhattypes of tools the terms alicate(s), pinza(s) and tenaza(s) can refer to, differences that are notcaptured by the DRAE's definitions of these terms. The DRAE defines playo as a specific type ofsmall pliers, but based on the Ecuadorans queried in this study, playos seem to come in differentsizes, both large and small.

A7 PLIERS B - NEEDLENOSE PLIERS or LONGNOSE PLIERS

A7.1 Summary

Pinza and/or alicate, often with a modifier such as de punta or de pico, are the most commonly usedterms for needlenose pliers. Honduras, Nicaragua and Cuba have more regional usages.

Note: Terms other thanpinza(s), alicate(s)-or these terms with modifiers such as de punta, de picoor the less precise electrico(s)/eIectrica(s)-appear in italics, and Honduras and Nicaragua'spicuda(s)in boldface and italics.

A7.2 Terms by Country (4 or 5 base terms and over 20 modifiers plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

alicate(s) de punta (6/13), alicate(s) (3/13), alicate de boca plana (1113), alicate de

electricista (1113), alicate de punta tina (1113), alicate para electricidad (1/13), tenazas (1/13).

pinzas de punta (6/17), pinza(s) de pico (2117), pinzas electricas (2117), pinzas (1117),pinzas de cortar (1/17), pinzas de corte (1/17), pinza de electricista (1/17), pinza de nariz (1117),

pinzas para alambre (1117), pinzas para coTtar (1/17).

pinza(s) (13/15), alicate (1115), pinzas de punta (1/15).

pinza(s) (11115), tenaza de punta (2115), alicate (1/15), pinzas de punta (1115), pinzas

picudas (1115).

picuda(s) (6/11), pinza (2111), alicate (1/11), tenanza de punta (1/11), tenaza de pieD (1/11).

picuda(s) (8/15), alicate (4/15), pinza (4/15), tenaza de punta (2115), tenaza pieuda

(2115).

alicate de punta(s) (8/11), alicate de tenaza (1/11), pinzas (1/11), pinza electrica (1/11).

pinza(s) de punta (4/9), alicate de punta (3/9), pinza de pico largo (1/9), pinzaelectrica (119), pinzas narizonas (119).

337

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

A7.3 Details

pinza(s) (5/16), pinza (punta) de garza (3/16), alicates de punta fina (1/16), alicatepinza (1/16), alicate punta de garza (1/16), pinza de corte (1/16),pinza de pico de loro (1/16),

pinza punta de ganso (1/16), tenazas (1/16).

pinza (17/18), alicate de pinza (1/18).

pinza(s) (14/20), alicate de punta (2120), alicate de alarnbre (1/20), alicate de pinzas (1120),

pinzas de nariz larga (1120), pinzas para eleetricidad (1120).

pinza(s) (14/16), alicate(s) de punta (3/16), alicate de pinza (2116).

pinza(s) (12/17), pinza(s) (de) punta (2/17), alicate (1/17), alicate de punta (1/17),

cortapinzas (1/17), pinza cortafrio (1/17).

pinza(s) (8/1 0), alicate (1/10), pinza punta redonda (1/1 0).

alicate de punta(s) (6/15), pinza(s) (5/15), alicate (de) pinza (2115), alicate electrico

(1/15), tenaza (1/15).

alicate (de) punta (8/14), pinza (3/14), alicate con punta (1114), alicate de punta fina

(1/14), alicate pinza (1/14), lorito (1/14).

pinza(s) (219), pinzas de punta (219), pinza electrica (219), alicates de punta(1/9), pinza puntiaguda (1/9), tenaza (1/9).pinza(s) de punta (3/9), alicate(s) (3/9), pinza (1/9), pinza punta tina (1/9),pinza puntiaguda (1/9).pinza de punta (9/13), alicate (2113), pinza(s) (2113), pinza de pico fino (1/13).

alicate de punta(s) (9/15), pinza(s) (5/15), alicate de tenaza (1/15), alicate pinza

(1/15).

General: Most ofthe Spanish speakers queried in this study can be divided into two categories withrespect to the two types ofpliers tested. We could call "Type A" those speakers who use thesame base term for needlenose pliers as for joint pliers, but to the former they add a modifiersuch as de punta or de pica. Such speakers appear to view needlenose pliers as a type ofpinza or alicate. "Type B" speakers, in contrast, would be those who use one base term forjoint pliers and a different base term for needlenose pliers. They conceive the two toolsdifferently, that is, they do not view needlenose pliers as a type ofjoint pliers, as Type Aspeakers and some speakers ofUnited States English do (who would call joint pliers "regularpliers" or "ordinary pliers"). There also appear to be some Spanish speakers, whom we couldcall "Type C" speakers, who use one base term for joint pliers and use a compound term forneedlenose pliers that has a different base term from the one they use for the joint pliers. Thekey to understanding how the terms alicate(s),pinza(s), etc. function in the different varietiesof Spanish, however, may be determining the names used for "linesman pliers"(nonadjustable cutting pliers), a type that, unfortunately, was not tested in this study. Seepliers in Appendix.

T)pe A Sj>eakers (same base term for joint and needlenose pliers): Based on the data collected in thisstudy, Spaniards, Costa Ricans and Bolivians generally call joint pliers alicate(s) andneedlenose pliers alicate(s) de punta or alicate(s) followed by some other modifier.Mexicans and Argentines typically call joint pliers pinza(s) and needlenose pliers pinza(s)

338

de punta or pinza(s) followed by another modifier. (l,Quien dijo que los mexicanos y losargentinos no tienen nada en comtin?)

Type B speakers (different base term for joint and needlenose pliers): In contrast to Type A speakers,this study suggests that Guatemalans, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Venezuelans andColombians generally call joint pliers alicate(s) and needlenose pliers pinza(s); Salvadoranstypically calI joint pliers tenazas and needlenose plierspinza(s); Nicaraguans and Honduransjoint pliers tenazas and needlenose pliers picudas; and Ecuadorans joint pliers playo andneedlenose pliers pinza(s). The term picuda(s), however, appears to be an ellipsis oftenaza(s) picuda(s) and therefore, in a sense, Nicaraguans and Hondurans could be viewedas "Type A."

Type C speakers (different base terms and a modifier is added to needlenose pliers): SomePanamanians in this study called joint plierspinza(s) and needlenose pliers alicate de punta.More research needs to be done to determine if Type C speakers are predominant in anyparticular country or region.

United States English: In United States English, there may be a technical difference between theterms "needlenose pliers" and "longnose pliers" (which can also be spelled "needle nosepliers" or "needle-nose pliers" and "long nose pliers" or "long-nose pliers," respectively) inthat "needlenose pliers" have extra thin grippers whereas "longnose pliers" may be a moregeneric term ("needlenose pliers" would be a type of "longnose pliers"). In practice,"needlenose pliers" is probably the most commonly used term in everyday, nontechnicallanguage for any pliers that have fairly long thin grippers, whereas "longnose pliers" is theterm most often used for this general class ofpliers in the Home Depot and Ace Hardwareonline catalogues atwww.homedepot.comand www.acehardware.com,respectively.Inthesewebsites, there are pliers called "long needle nose pliers," "long chain nose pliers" and"curved nose pliers" (with the tips ofthe grippers offset at an angle), and one company, X2,even manufactures a pair of "long nose slip joint pliers" that do not appear to be verycommon as many other manufacturers do not seem to make them.

A7.4 Real Academia Regional Reyiew

Questions/Comments: The DRAE does not describe needlenose pliers in its definitions ofanyof the terms presented in section A7.2 above. Should it? Using English-language lexicography asa point ofcomparison, we note that the EWD also does not define specific types ofpliers. However,near its definition for pliers, it includes illustrations of slip-joint pliers, needlenose pliers and visegrips. The AHD neither defines needlenose or longnose pliers nor includes a picture ofthem, and anargument can be made that one can deduce the meaning ofthese terms from the meaning of"pliers,""needle," "nose" and "long." The same would apply in Spanish to terms like alicates de punta andpinzas de punta. The problem is that the DRAE seeks to be international in scope and the termsalicate(s) andpinza(s) mean different things to different Spanish speakers. Other types ofpliers suchas "linesman pliers" or "lineman pliers" (nonadjustable or solid-joint cutting pliers) are lesstransparent because they are associative rather than descriptive and because the association"lineman" or "linesman" (person who repairs electrical or telephone cables) maybe less well knownthan the name ofthe pliers. Although it would be helpful ifthe DRAE provided a picture ofthe three

339

or four most common types of pliers next to its definition of pliers (with a legend that indicatedwhich is which), ifyou start down that path, you must be prepared to seriously address variant termsand regional variation. It is interesting to note that the AHD and the EWD both define a few typesofwrenches (see section A9.4 below), but not different types of pliers.

AS WRENCH A - CRESCENT WRENCH / ADJUSTABLE WRENCH

A8.1 Summary

Llave ajustable and /lave inglesa are each used in a dozen or more countries, and /lave francesa inat least a halfdozen. Mexico, Guatemala, EI Salvador, Nicaragua, Colombia and Bolivia have highlyregional terms.

Note: Terms other than /lave inglesa, /lavefrancesa, /lave ajustable (and its variant /lave de ajuste)appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.

A8.2 Terms by Country (c. 13 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

ClJBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

Have inglesa (13/13).perica (7/20),perico (7/20), /lave perica (6/20), /lave (de) perico (2/20).

cangrejo (10/13), /lave (de) cangrejo (3/13), /lave de graduacion (I /13).

cangreja (13/14), /lavecangreja (1/14).

Have ajustable (9/9), Have inglesa (119).(llave) cresen (10/11), Have ajustable (2/11).

Have francesa (11/12), Have ajustable (1/12).

Have de ajuste (4/9), Have inglesa (3/9), Have ajustable (2/9).Have ajustable (3/1 0), /lave de expansion (3/1 0), /lave de (ex)tension (2/10), \lave

inglesa (2/10).

Have ajustable (14/16), (/lave) pico (de) cotorra (6/16), crayson (2116), llave pico

de loro (1/16).

Have ajustable (6/11), (/lave) cresen (3/11), Have de ajuste(I/11), \laveinglesa (1/11).

Have ajustable (8/10), Have inglesa (3/10).llave de expansion (14/22), /lave alemana (7/22), Have inglesa (5/22), Haveajustable (2122), /lave expansiva (2122), /lave de extension (1/22), /lave de graduacion (1/22),

/lave de peston (1/22), /lave pico de loro (1122).

Have francesa (9/10), Have inglesa (2/10).

Have francesa (6/11), Have inglesa (5/11), pico de loro (1/11).

llave cresen (12/16), Have inglesa (5/16), /lave cresel (1/16).

Have inglesa (7/8), Have ajustable (118), Have francesa (1/8).Have francesa (6/9), Have inglesa (2/9), Have ajustable (119).Have inglesa (12/20), Have francesa (7/20), Have ajustable (1120).

Have francesa (7/9), Have inglesa (2/9).

340

A8.3 Details

General: Given the proper context, terms such as /lave ajustable, /lave francesa and /lave inglesa,etc. can and often do get reduced to (unalla) ajustable, (una/la) francesa and (unalla)inglesa, respectively, for the sake of efficiency and under the principle of "entre buenosentendedores, media palabra basta." In some cases, the ellipsis-la cresen (Nicaragua) or laperica (Mexico)-may be more common than the full form (la llave cresen or la llaveperica),while in others the derived forms-la cangreja (EI Salvador) or el cangrejo(Guatemala)-appearto be much more common than their etymologies, la llave (de) cangrejaor la /lave (de) cangrejo, respectively.

Llave inglesa: Although /lave inglesa was offered by respondents from many countries in the senseof crescent wrench, many others stated that /lave inglesa refers to a monkey wrench. Amonkey wrench (see Figure A8" in Illustrations) is one in which the adjustment opens andcloses along an axis that is parallel to the shaft of the wrench, unlike the crescent wrench inwhich the adjustment opens and closes along an axis perpendicular to the shaft. In otherwords, a monkey wrench functions like a pipe wrench (see Figure A9 in Illustrations), butwithout the teeth in the gripping mechanism. However, since monkeywrenches are no longeras common as crescent wrenches, the term /lave inglesa now seems to be applied to crescentwrenches in many parts of the Spanish-speaking world, although perhaps not by someprofessionals who use both types of wrench and therefore maintain a terminologicaldistinction. The confusion regarding the meaning of llave inglesa is further complicated bythe fact that it can also refer to a pipe wrench. See section A9 below.

Mexico: The use ofperico is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as "II 1 Herramienta conque se aprietan 0 aflojan tuercas, que tiene dos picos curvos, ajustados por un tornillo sinfin." The terms perica andperico are an ellipsis of llave (de) perica and /lave (de) perico,respectively, and all of these can be considered variants of each other.

Cuba: Llave ajustable, /lave de expansion and/or /lave inglesa were the three terms given by themajority ofrespondents in this study when shown a picture ofa crescent wrench. However,the DRAE defines picoloro as the Cuban term for crescent wrench or perhaps monkeywrench (see section A8.4 below). The DECu, in contrast, seems to define picoloro as"groove joint pliers" or "tongue and groove pliers" (see pliers in Appendix): "Herramientapara aflojar y apretar tuercas, que consiste en unas pinzas largas que semejan el pico de unloro." What does picoloro refer to in Cuba and which terms are most commonly used inCuba to refer to a crescent wrench?

Dominican Republic: Llave ajustable was given by the largest number ofrespondents in this study.Llavepico de cotorra, /lave pico cotorra, pico de cotorra and pico cotorra (orpicocotorra)can be considered variants of each other and, viewed collectively, was the second-mostfrequently offered term.

Colombia: Llave de expansion and llave alemana were the two most frequently offered terms in thisstudy. One Colombian indicated that /lave alemana is the older, more traditional term andis being replaced by /lave de expansion.

341

Bolivia: Most respondents gave the spelling of /lave cresen, but some indicated /lave crecen. Theorigin of this term, as we know, is English "crescent wrench" and/or the brand nameCrescent.

Related terms: For information on "flat wrenches" or "rigid wrenches," see wrench A in Appendix.United States English: In the United States, "adjustable wrench" is the official term for this type of

wrench, the one that appears in catalogues and on the product packaging, but "crescentwrench" (from the brand name Crescent) is the term most commonly used by Americans inthis sense. An argument can also be made that for Americans "crescent wrench" is a moreprecise/specific term than "adjustable wrench" since "pipe wrenches" (see section A9 below)and "monkey wrenches" (see Figure A8" in TIlustrations), though not generally called"adjustable wrenches," are also adjustable.

A8.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: ajustable (D), cangreja (D), cangrejo (D), cresen (F), /lave ajustable (F), /lavealemana (F), /lave cresen (F), /lave de ajuste (F), /lave de expansion (F), /lave francesa (F), /laveinglesa (A), /lave perica (F), /lave pico coton-a (F), perica (D), perico (D).

DRAE definitions: /lave, "2. Instrumento que sirve para apretar 0 aflojar tuercas"; /laveinglesa, "Instrumento de hierro de forma de martillo, en cuyo mango hay un dispositivo que, al girar,abre 0 cierra mas 0 menos las dos partes que forman la cabeza, hasta que se aplican a la tuerca 0

tornillo que se quiere mover"; picoloro, "Cuba. Have inglesa (II instrumento de hierro para movertuercas 0 tornillos)."

Questions/Comments: The DRAE does not define most of the terms used in the sense ofcrescent wrench including such classics as /lave ajustable, /lave francesa, /lave cresen, cangrejo/aand perico/a. Even its definition of /lave inglesa, the term that appears to be used in Spain for bothcrescent wrench and monkey wrench, describes only the latter type. In addition, its definition ofpicoloro does not match up with the DECu's definition ofthe same term (see Cuba in section A8.3above). i,Quien tiene la raz6n aqui, y quien meti6 la pata? i,Quien la embarr6?

A9 WRENCH B - PIPE \VRENCH

A9.l Summary

Llave inglesa, /lave estilson, /lave de (orpara) tubo(s), and/or /lave de plomeria (or deplomero) andvariants of these are the most commonly used terms.

Note: Terms other than /lave inglesa, /lave estilson, /lave de tubo(s), /lave para tubo(s), /lave deplomeria, and /lave de plomero appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.

342

A9.2 Terms by Country (c. 14 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTARlCA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTORlCO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

A9.3 Details

!lave (de) grifa (3/8), llave de tubo(s) (3/8), !lave defon tanero (1/8), llave deplomeria (1/8).(Have) estilson (19/21), !lave de pipa (1/21), nave de plomero (1/21).

(llave) estilson (9/12), Have de tubo (3/12).(Have) estilson (11/12), !lave de eaneria (1/12).

llave de tubo (6/11), (llave) estilson (3/11), Have inglesa (2111), /lave de agua (1/11).

(llave) estilson (11/11), Have de tubo (1/11).

llave (de) caiieria (10/16), Have inglesa (4/16), llave de tuberia (3/16), nave

de plomeria (2116), !lave eabeza de mula (1/16), /lave de agua (1/16).

llave de tubo (6/8), llave de plomeria (1/8), llave inglesa (1/8).(llave) pico (de) loro (5/14), (llave) estilson (4/14), Have inglesa (4/14), Have

de tube (2114), nave de plomeria (1/14), Have de tuberia (1/14).

(llave) estilson (12/14), Have inglesa (2114).

llave depe"o (10/15), /lave de perra (2115), nave (de) plomero (2115), Have inglesa (2115),

estilson (1/15).

llave de tubo (6/13), llave inglesa (6/13), nave de plomeria (1/13), Have para tuberia

(1/13).

llave (de) tubo(s) (7/14), llave inglesa (3/14), lIave para tubo(s) (2114), (llave) pica

de lora (2114), /lave de agua (1/14), !lave de paso (1/14).

Have (de) tubo (8/11), Have inglesa (3/11), Have de tuberia (1/11), Have estilson

(1/11), nave para tube (1/11).

(Have) estilson (10/14), llave inglesa (7/14).(llave) estilson (12/14), Have inglesa (1/14), !lave para eanerias (1/14).

!lavefrancesa (3/8), Have de plomero (2/8), !lave para canerias (1/8), llavepara tubos (1/8), llave tuberias de agua (1/8), llave tubo (1/8).llave inglesa (5/6), llave de caiio (3/6).llave inglesa (5/14), /lave para canos (3/14), Have de plomero (3/14), llave(de) cano (3/14), Have estilson (2114), !lavefraneesa (1/14).

(Have) estilson (6/13), llave inglesa (6/13), llavefrancesa (3/13).

Llave estilson: Llave estilson derives from the brand name "Stillson" and is often abbreviated toestilson. The term is feminine, una estilson, since the word /lave is feminine. Otherphonetic/spelling variants that were offered bya few respondents from a numberofcountriesincluded !lave estimson and estimson, /lave tilson and tilson, and !lave tirso and tirso. Inaddition to phonetic change/distortion, there is also a wide range of spellings thatrespondents offered including stilson, stillson, stylson, etc., and these forms spelled withinitial uppercase s. As is the case with many words of foreign origin that are used more inspeech than in writing, there is a fair amount of linguistic insecurity regarding the writtenform.

343

Spain: The use of /lave grifa in the sense of pipe wrench is confirmed by the DRAE (see sectionA9.4 below).

Cuba: In this study, picoloro, and its variants /lave pico de loro, /lave pico loro, and pica de loro,as well as /lave estilson (and estilson) and /lave inglesa were the terms offered by themajority ofrespondents. However, the DRAE and the DECu indicate that picoloro refers toother tools and their definitions contradict each other (see sections A8.3 and A8.4 above).

Argentina: In this study, /lave para canos, /lave de plomero and/or /lave inglesa were given by themajority of respondents in the sense of pipe wrench. The DEArg, however, defines /laveprusiana as "Herramienta de metal, que se emplea para enroscar y desenroscar caiierias."Although not a particularly precise description, this sounds like a pipe wrench. Is it? Ifso,how common is the use of /lave prusiana in this sense vis-a-vis /lave para canos, /lave deplomero and /lave inglesa?

A9.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: estilson (F), /lave de caneria (F), /lave de cano (F), /lave de fontanero (F),/lave de perro (F), /lave de plomeria (F), /lave de plomero (F), /lave de tubo (F), /lave estilson (F),/lavefrancesa (F), /lave grifa (C), /lave inglesa (D), /lave para canos (F), /lave pico (de) loro (F),pico (de) loro (D).

DRAE definition: /lave grifa, "Have semejante ala inglesa, usada en fontaneria."Comments: The DRAE should provide a full description of/lave grifa that is independent of

the term /lave inglesa for several reasons. First, /lave inglesa means different things to differentpeople, and even ifwe limit ourselves to Peninsular Spanish usage, the term /lave inglesa is oftenused in Spain to refer to a crescent wrench, which is dissimilar to a pipe wrench in that the shapesare different and the crescent wrench does not have teeth while the pipe wrench does. Also, as ageneral principle, ifyou can tell dictionary users exactly what a thing is, you should tell them whatit is and not what it is like. In other words, when dictionary users look up the word /lave grifa, theyshould not be told it is like a /lave inglesa, but should be told what a /lave grifa is. Compare theAHD's definition ofpipe wrench: "A wrench with two serrated jaws, one adjustable, for grippingand turning pipe." Voila, simplicity itself.

AIO CROWBAR, WRECKING BAR, PRY BAR

AIO.l Summary

Pata de cabra (and phonetic variants such as pata cabra, paticabra, etc.) and/or palanca are usedin the majority of countries and can perhaps be considered General Spanish terms. More regionalterms include barra, barreta,pata de chancho and una. Mexico has a particularly impressive arsenalof regional terms and both Mexico and Chile have unique usages not found elsewhere.

Note: Terms other than pata de cabra and palanca appear in italics, and majority regionalisms inboldface and italics.

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AIO.2 Terms by Country (c. 15 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

AIO.3 Details

palanca (7/15), pata (de) cabra (6/15),palanqueta (3/15).barra (10/26), chiva (9/26), barreta (7/26), pata (de) cabra (6/26), pata dechiva (3/26), barra de chiva (3/26), una (3/26), chiva de barra (2126), barra de una(1/26), barreta de una (1/26), grifa (1/26),palanquera (1/26),pata de chivo (l/26),pie de chivo

(1/26), sacaclavos (1/26), una de cabra (1/26),

una (15/18), barrera (2118), palanca (1/18).

barra de una (13/17), pata (de) cabra (3/17), una (2117), llave de una (1/17), una de

gato (1/17).

barra de una (6/14), pata (de) cabra (5/14), barra (2114), sacaclavos (2114), palanca

(1/14), sacaunas (1/14).

pata de chancho (13/13).pata de chancho (14/14).pata (de) cabra (9/14), palanca (4/14), barra (2114), barra pata de cabra (2114).

pata (de) cabra (18/19), palanca (1/19).

pata (de) cabra (16/18), pie de cabra (1/18), pies cabra (1/18).

pata (de) cabra (11/17), barra (de carpintero) (3/17), cuiia (3/17), una (2117),

palanca (1/17).

pata (de) cabra (15/15).pata (de) cabra (15/24), palanca (8/24), barra (4/24), palanca para de cabra (2124),

barreta (1/24), una (1/24).

pata (de) cabra (15/19), barretilla (3/19), barreta (2119), llave de uiia (1/19), palanca

(1/19), tumbapuertas (1/19), una de cabra (1/19).

pata (de) cabra (12/20), palanca (5/20), barreta (2120), barrerilla (1I20),pata de gallo

(1/20), sacaclavos (1/20).

pata (de) cabra (10/17), barreta (7/17), barreta pata de cabra (1/17), diablo (1/17),

palanca (1117).

pata (de) cabra (6/9), palanca (4/9), barreta (1/9), barra (1/9), pie de cabra(1/9).una (6/9), barra (1/9), barreta (1/9), palanca (1/9), pata de cabra (1/9), unade gato (1/9).barreta (15/22), barra (2122), palanca (2122), pata de cabra (2122), sacaclavos (2122).

diablo (12/16), diablito (3/16), pata de cabra (3/16), barreta (1116).

General: The term pata de cabra is often pronounced and written in variant forms such as patecabra,paticabra, pat 'ecabra, etc. These phonetic/spelling variants are not indicated in sectionAI0.2 above and are represented there by the one umbrella tenn pata de cabra. Similarvariants may also occur with pata de chancho and pata de chivo, though in this study nomodified spellings were offered. Respondents from several countries indicated that aganzuais a type of small bar that can be used by thieves to break locks and open doors (perhapsequivalent to what in the United States is called a "jimmy"), but it is not clear how universal

345

the use ofganzua is in this sense. The DRAE defines palanqueta in a way that suggests itmay also be a synonym ofganzua (see section Al 0.4 below). Although the term barra wasoffered by a number of respondents from diverse regions in the sense of crowbar, manyothers stated that a barra is not a crowbar but refers to other types ofbars that do not havea "claw" for removing nails.

Spain: What, if any, are the differences in meaning between and regional distributions ofpalanca,palanqueta and pata de cabra? Is palanqueta used in the sense of jimmy, as its name (adiminutive ofpalanca) implies? Five ofthe six Spaniards who gavepata de cabra were fromGalicia, but one was from Valencia Those who gave palanca did not hail from any singleregion, which suggests it may constitute General Peninsular Spanish usage.

Mexico: Barra, and its variants, and chiva, and its variants, are the most commonly used terms, andbarra de chiva and chiva de barra can be considered variants ofboth barra and chiva. Onerespondent from Puebla indicated that a chiva is smaller than a barra. The DEUMex definesbarra as a different tool that does not have a claw for removing nails and does not definebarreta, chiva,pata de cabra orpata de chiva in the sense ofcrowbar. What are the regionalpreferences within Mexico among the different terms for this item?

Honduras: Many respondents indicated that a barra de una and apata de cabra are synonymous, butone said that a barra de una is a smaller crowbar than a pata de cabra, and one indicated thata barra de una was a "flat bar" (see bars in Appendix).

Costa Rica: The use of pata de chancho is confirmed by the NDCR (Quesada Pacheco), whichdefines it as "[Cary.] Utensilio de trabajo que es de hierro y tiene en un extremo una uiialarga, el cual se utiliza para sacar c1avos 0 desarmar construcciones hechas con tablas."

Cuba: The DECu confirms the use ofpata de cabra, defining it as "Barra corta de acero con unextremo plano y el otro curvo, con una uiia en forma de V, que se utiliza generalmente parahacer palanca, p. ej. para abrir una puerta" but does not indicate a Peninsular Spanishequivalent. One respondent indicated that an esparraguillo is a small pata de cabra.

Dominican Republic: Pata de cabra was offered by the vast majority ofrespondents. The two thatoffered pie de cabra or pies cabra (piescabra) were from el Cibao, but several otherCibaefios gave pata de cabra.

Venezuela: The DHA V confirms the use ofpata de cabra, defining it as "Herramienta que consisteen una barra de metal con uno de los extremos terminado en una punta ungulada que seutiliza principalmente en labores de demolici6n."

Colombia: Pata (de) cabra and palanca are the two most commonly used terms, and palanca patade cabra can be considered a variant of both.

Chile: The nECHconfirms the use ofboth diablo and diablito in the sense ofcrowbar. It lists diabloas a synonym ofdiablito, which it defines as "Barreta de fierro provista de un mango largocon un extremo curvado ypartido en forma de V, que se emplea como palanca para separarelementos firmemente unidos... 'Confes6 haber asesinado a su c6nyuge con un diablito defierro' ... Var [variante]: diablo." It appears that for some Chileans diablo is the unspecifiedterm and diablito a diminutive, whereas for others diablito is the base term-it is a diminutivethat has been lexicalized-and diablitito would be the first-order diminutive form. Moreresearch needs to be done on this point and on the relative frequencies ofthe two competingunmarked forms.

346

Related terms: For information on "flat bars" and "nail pullers" ("eat's paws"), see bars inAppendix.

AIO.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: barra (D), barra de chiva (F), barra de una (F), barreta (D), cuna (D), chiva(D), diablo (D), diablito (D),palanca (D),palanqueta (C?),pata de cabra (B),pata de chancho (F),sacaclavos (D), una (D), una de cabra (F).

DRAE definitions: palanca, "(Del 1at. palanga, y este del gr... garrote). Barra inflexible, recta,angular 0 curva, que se apoya y puede girar sobre un punto, y sirve para transmitir una fuerza";barreta1

, "Barra 0 palanca pequeiia de hierro que usan los mineros, los albafiiles, etc."; palanqueta,"(Del dim. de palanca). Barreta de hierro que sirve para forzar las puertas 0 las cerraduras";pata decabra, "3. PerU. Herramienta de hierro usada en albafiileria, con dos uiias, que sirve para sacar clavosy palanquear"; pie de cabra, ''Palanqueta hendida por uno de sus extremos en forma de dos uiias uorejas"; sacaclavos, "herramienta para sacar clavos"; serrucha, 'jerg. Hond. ganzna (II garlio paraabrir cerraduras)."

Comments: Asserting that pata de cabra with the meaning of crowbar is a regionalism ofPeru alone is nothing short ofabsurd, and what is noteworthy is that the DRAE does not provide thereader with a Peninsular Spanish or a Castilian equivalent ofpata de cabra. This combined with thefact that the definition ofpata de cabra states this tool is used in masonry but not other fields (suchas carpentry, especially demolition) leads one to believe that the DRAE editorslIexicographers whowrote this definition were virtually clueless about what a crowbar is and what the geographicdistributions of the terms used for it are. Compare the DHA V's definition of pata de cabra inVenezuela above, which aptly states that the tool is used in demolition. The DRAE should probablyacknowledge pata de cabra as the General Spanish term as it is used in practically all twentySpanish-speaking countries, including Spain (though perhaps not common in Castilla), and shouldcross-reference all other terms to pata de cabra, with appropriate regional specifications. The otheroption would be to define palanca as the base term and cross-reference all other terms to it.

All CLAMP (such as a "C-clamp," "pipe clamp" or "bar clamp")

All.I Summary

Prensa-with modifiers such as manual or de mano, etc. added for clarification-is the mostcommonly used term.

Terms other than prensa and its variants appear in italics, and Cuba's sargento in boldface anditalics.

347

All.2 Terms by Country (c. 12 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

Al1.3 Details

gato (5/11), prensa (de tornillo) (2/11), torniqueta (2/11), torniquete (1/11), torno portatil(1/11).

prensa (de mana/manual) (13/14), abrazadera (1/14), gendarme (1/14),prensadora(1/14), sargento (1/14).prensa (de mana/manual) (8/11),prensadora (1/11), sargento (1/11), torno (1/11).prensa (de mana/manual) (8/12), sargento (3/12), abrazadora (1/12), ajustador(1/12), prensa de tornillo (1/12).

prensa (de mana/manual) (7/7).prensa (de mana/manual) (6/8),prensa portatil (1/8), sargento (1/8).prensa (de mana/manual) (5/11), sargento (5/11), prensa de carpintero (1/11).

prensa (de mana/manual) (7/8), abrazadera (1/8).sargento (6/9),presilla (2/9), abrazadera (1/9), tomiquete (1/9).prensa (de mana/manual) (7/11), sargento (6/11).prensa (de mano/manual) (7/11), sargento (3/11), prensa desargento (1/11).prensa (de mano/manual) (6/1 0), sargento (2/10), pinza ajustable (1/10), torniquete(1/10).

prensa (de mano/manual) (10/11), prensa de carpinteria (1/11).

prensa (de mano/manual) (9/1 0), prensadora (1/1 0).

prensa (de mano/manual,(7/1 0), prensadora (2/10), tornillo de presion (1/1 0).

prensa (de mano/manual) (10/10).prensa (de mana/manual) (2/7), tomiquete (2/7), prensador (1/7), prensaportatil (117), sargento (1/7).prensa (de mano/manual) (5/7), morsa (chica) (317).prensa (de mano/manual) (9/12), morsa (de mano) (2/12), prensa de mordaza (1/12),sargento (1/12).prensa (de mano/manual) (9/10), abrazadera (1/10).

General: The item tested on respondents was a C-clamp (see Figure All in lllustrations).Prensa: The modifiers de mano, manual, portatil and others can be added to prensa to distinguish

"clamps" from "vises" (which are often called prensas de banco or prensas de mesa), andfrom othermeanings ofthe wordprensa. Vises (see section A12 below) are similar to clampsbut are attached to a work bench or other structure and generally have a larger grippingsurface.

Morsa: The DEArg (Argentina) defines morsa as "Especie de prensa pequefia que emplean, entreotros, los carpinteros y los mecanicos, para mantener sujetas las piezas sobre las cualestrabajan" and the NDU (Uruguay) defines morsa almost identically. In this study, however,most Argentines and Uruguayans queried indicated that a morsa generally refers to a "vise"rather than a "clamp." Whether the word generally refers to a clamp, a vise, or either one,River Plate Spanish morsa most likely derives from Italian, a language in which morsa

348

means clamp or vise: The Vocabolario della Lingua Italiana (Zingarelli) indicates thatItalian morsa derives from morso from the verb mordere, to bite, and defines morsa as a viseas follows: "[f. sost. di morso (2); 1582] 1 Attrezzo fissato al tavalo da lavoro, costituito dauna ganascia fissa e una ganascia mobile, Ie quali blocano, mediante un dispositivo a vite,il pezzo da lavorare: m. parallela; m. a coda; m. a piede." The Dizionario della LinguaItaliana (Istituto Geografico de Agostini) defines morsa as "1. strumento di ferro 0 di legno,formato da due ganasce, una fissa e l'altra mobile, con il quale si tiene fermo il pezzo dalavorare," which suggests that morsa can refer to either a clamp or a vise. The massive Italianimmigration to the Buenos Aires-Montevideo region at the end ofthe 19th and beginning ofthe 20th century also lends credence to the notion that River Plate Spanish morsa derivesfrom Italian morsa. Nevertheless, questions remain such as how, and to what extent, morsawas able to displace words of traditional Spanish stock such as prensa and tom(ill)o, andhow the different terms compete in the interior ofArgentina and Uruguay, regions that haveless Italian influence. See Argentina and Uruguay in section A14.3 below for a similar case,fratacholfretacho.

Sargento: The DECu (Cuba) defines sargento as ''Prensa manual que se usa en carpinteria paramantener fija una pieza, p. ej. despues de que ha sido encolada." In this study, Cuba was theonly country from which a majority of respondents, when shown a picture of a C-clamp,indicated it was called a sargento. One Cuban, however, indicated that a presilla C is a C­clamp and a sargento is a pipe clamp. And both an Argentine respondent and a Costa Ricanrespondent indicated that a sargento refers specifically to a "pipe clamp" but not to a "C­clamp" (or any other type ofclamp). Two Salvadorans, however, stated they call a C-clampa sargento, and a third Salvadoran said a sargento is a type ofC-shaped spring clamp usedby masons for holding forms together (a clamp that works by spring action, not with ascrew).

C-clamps: Many respondents indicated that prensa C is used for a C-clamp, and a few indicatedother base terms followed by C, but some indicated prensa G. While it is not particularlyfruitful to argue over whether a C-clamp is shaped more like a C or more like a G, it wouldbe interesting to fmd out where the modifier C is more common, where G is more common,and where a separate term (such as sargento) is more common.

AH.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: gato (C), morsa (B),prensa (A?), sargento (D).DRAE definitions: gato, "4. Instrumento de hierro que sirve para agarrar fuertemente la

madera y traerla a donde se pretende. Se usa para echar aros a las cubas, y en el oficio deportaventanero. 1111. Carp. Instrumento de hierro 0 de madera compuesto de dos planchas con untornillo que permite aproximarlas de modo que quede fuertemente sujeta la pieza que se coge entreambas"; morscr, "Arg. Instrumento que sirve para sujetar piezas que se trabajan en carpinteria,herreria, etc., compuesto de dos brazos paralelos unidos por un tornillo sin fin que, al girar, lasacerca"; prensa, "Maquina que sirve para comprimir, cuya forma varia segilll los usos a que seaplica"; tornillo, "2. Instrumento con que se mantienen sujetas las piezas que se estan trabajando,por medio de dos topes, uno fijo y otro movil."

349

Questions/Comments: Should gato, morsa, prensa and/or sargento be cross-referenced toeach other? The evidence suggests that at least some of these can refer to the same thing, but youwouldn't mow that from reading the DRAE's definitions of these terms. The DRAE indicates thatthe origin ofGeneral Spanish morsal (the walrus) is Finish or Lap byway ofFrench (''Del fro morse,y este del fines mursu 0 dellapon morssa"), but no etymology is provided for River Plate Spanishmorsel- (the tool), which appears to derive from Italian (see Morsa in section All.3 above).

A12 VISE

A12.1 Summary

Prensa-often with the modifiers de banco or de mesa added for clarification-is the most commonlyused term. Tornillo de banco is also common in a number ofcountries, and Argentina and Uruguay

.have a usage not found elsewhere.

Note: Terms other than prensa, prensa de banco, prensa de mesa or prensa with other modifiersappear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.

A12.2 Terms by Country (c. 6 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

tomo (3/7), prensa (de banco/de mesa) (217), tornillo (de banco) (217), prensade sujecion (117).prensa (de banco/de mesa) (10/13), prensa de tornillo (2/13), tornillo (de presion)

(2113).

prensa (de banco/de mesa) (9/11), prensador (1/1 I),prensadora (1/11).

prensa (de banco/de mesa) (10/1 0).prensa fija (417), prensa (de banco/de mesa) (2/7), prensa de presion (1/7),prensa estable (1/7).prensa (de banco/de mesa) (6/7), prensa de yunque (1/7).prensa (de banco/de mesa) (7/10), prensa de presion (1110), prensa rnecanica (1/10),

tornillo de banco (1110).

prensa (de banco/de mesa) (7/7), tornillo de banco (117).tornillo de banco (11/13), prensa (2113).

prensa (de banco) (5/8), prensa fija (3/8).prensa (de banco/de mesa) (11/11).prensa (de banco/de mesa) (10/12), prensa de presion (1112), tomiquete (1/12), lorna

(1/12).

prensa (de banco/de mesa) (9/12), prensa de rnordaza (1/12), prensa fija (1/12), prensa

industrial (1/12), prensa para banco (1/12).

prensa (de banco/de mesa) (5/9), tornillo de banco (4/9).tornillo de banco (6110), prensa (de banco/de mesa) (4/10), prensa de tornillo

(11l0),prensadora de banco (1/10).

350

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAYURUGUAYARGENTINACHILE

A12.3 Details

prensa (de banco/de mesa) (9/10), prensadora (1110).

prensa (de banco/de mesa) (717), tornillo de banco (117).morsa (5/8), prensa (4/8), morsa grande (1/8).morsa (14/15), morsa de mesa (1/15).

tornillo (de banco/de mesa) (6/10), prensa (de banco/de mesa) (3/10), prensa

de tornillo (1/10), tornillo mecanico de banco (I II 0).

General: In most Spanish-speaking countries, prensa de banco and prensa de mesa are the mostcommonly used terms in general language. To what extent are tornillo de banco or tornomore common than prensa in technical language?

Bolivia: The Lexica del habla culta de La paz (Mendoza: 499 and 809) suggests that tornillo (givenby seven our oftwelve respondents) and prensa (offered by five) are synonyms, but it is notclear from the description respondents were given in that study whether the tool beingdiscussed was a clamp or a vise. In this study, none of the ten respondents gave tornillo.

A12.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: morsa (B or D?), prensa (A or D?), prensa de banco (F), prensa de mesa (F),tornillo (D), tornillo de banco (A or C?), toma (D).

DRAE definitions: tornillo de banco, "Utensilio usado en carpinteria, cerrajeria, etc., que secompone de una parte fijada en el banco y otra que se mueve mediante un tornillo, entre las quesujeta, apretandola, la pieza que se trabaja";prensa, "Maquina que sirve para comprimir, cuya formavaria seglin los usos a que se aplica"

Questions/Comments: TheDRAEprovides a veryprecise definition corresponding to "vise"of the term tornillo de banco, but does not list the more widely used terms prensa de banco andprensa de mesa, and its definition ofprensa is too general to be of assistance to a dictionary userwho did not already know what a prensa de banco or a prensa de mesa is. However, one can arguethat dictionary users who understand the very general definition provided for prensa can figure outthat a prensa de banco refers to a "vise." How true is this in practice, and how much "figuring out"should a dictionary user be expected to do?

A13 TROWEL A - POINTING TROWEL, BRICK TROWEL or MASON'S TROWEL

A13.1 Summary

Cuchara-with the modifiers de albanil or de albanileria added for clarification ifnecessary-is themost commonly used term in about half the Spanish-speaking world, but in the other half moreregional terms are used.

351

Note: Tenns other than cuchara (de albani/lde albanileria) appear in italics, and majorityregionalisms in boldface and italics.

AI3.2 Terms by Country (c. 6 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

AI3.3 Details

paleta (de albanil/de a/bani/eria) (16/16).cuchara (de albafiillde albafiileria) (20/20).cuchara (de albafiillde albafiileria) (15/15).cuchara (de albafiillde albafiileria) (17/17).cuchara (de albafiillde albaiiileria) (10/10).cuchara (de albafiillde albaiiileria) (13/15), palaUstre (1/15), paleta (1/15).

cuchara (de albafiillde albaiiileria) (11/11).palaUstre (4/1 0), palustre (3/10), palajustre (2110), balaUstre (1/10).

cuchara (de albaiiillde albafiileria) (15/15).plana (17/17).pa/austre (8/13), paleta (3/13), balaUstre (2113).

cuchara (de albafiillde albafiileria) (14/14).pa/ustre (19/20), palaustre (1120).

bailejo (17/18), balaustre (1/18).

badilejo (14/14).badilejo (11/14), pato (2114), paleta (1114).

cuchara (de albafiillde albafiileria) (8/8).cuchara (de albafiillde albaiiileria) (10/10).cuchara (de albafiillde albafiileria) (20/20).plana (9/10), cuchara (1/1 0), paleta (1/10).

General: The modifiers de albani! and/or de albani/eria are added to cuchara and paleta wheneverthe speaker feels specification is necessary (since cuchara and paleta are corrunonly usedwith other meanings), whereas the other tenns presented in section A13.2 above, such aspalau.stre and badilejo, are specific tenns that already refer to pointing trowels without theneed for a modifier.

Spain: the DRAB defines paleta and pa/ustre with no regional specification in the sense ofpointingtrowel (see section ABA below), but in this study all respondents offered only the fonnertenn, as well as the variants paleta de a/bani! and paleta de albani!eria. The Encuestaslexicas de/ habla culta de Madrid (Torres Martinez: 173) and the Lexico de/ habla culta deGranada (Salvador: 236) both confinn the preference for the tenn paleta by educatedMadrilefios and Granadinos. In the fonner, eleven Madrilefios indicated paleta and fourpalustre, and in the latter, nineteen Granadinos indicated paleta, two pa/ustra, two palustreand one repellador. In the Lexico del habla culta de Las Pa/mas de Gran Canaria (SamperPadilla: 141), in contrast, pa/a or pala pequena was given by seven educated Grancanarios,pa/eta de albani! or paleta pequena by three, palilla by one and cuchara pequena by one.

352

How common is the use ofpala, palustre and palustra in the sense ofpointing trowel in thedifferent regions of Spain?

Mexico: The use of cuchara is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as "2 Instrumento dealbaiiileria consistente en una pieza plana y puntiaguda de metal y un mango, que sirve paraponer mezcla y aplanarla." In this study, cuchara (de albani/lde albani/eria) was the onlyterm offered by all twenty respondents, but in the Lhico del habla culta de Mexico (LopeBlanch: 155), ten educated Mexico City respondents indicated cuchara, and ten paleta, inaddition to other minority responses. How common is the use of paleta in the sense ofpointing trowel in Mexico?

Costa Rica: The NDCR defines cuchara as "[Alb.] Llana del albaiiil." However, all respondents inthis study indicated that a cuchara (de albani/lde albani/eria) is a pointing trowel, not afinishing trowel, as the NDCR claims. The NDCR and the DRAEboth seem to make the samemistake (see sections AB.4 and A14 below).

Cuba: The DECu correctly defines cuchara as ''Plancha meti.lica triangular, con mango de madera,que usan los albaiiiles para remover y aplicar la mezcla" but mistakenly indicates that lIanais the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. Compare the DEArg's definition of cuchara underArgentina below, which correctly indicates thatpaleta is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent,and the discussion of this issue in section A13.4 below.

Venezuela: The DHA V confirms the use ofcuchara, defining it as "Instrumento de albaiiileria queconsiste en una plancha de hierro, generalmente de forma triangular, provista de un mangoo asa que se utiliza para colocar y alisar el yeso 0 la mezcla sobre ladrillos 0 paredes."However, the DV (Tejera) defines cuchara as "Llana 0 trolla que usan los albaiiiles paratender el yeso 0 mezcla de cal 0 cemento en las obras," and it is possible this source mayhave copied this incorrect information from the DRAE (see section ABA below and CostaRica above).

Colombia: The NDCol (Haensch and Werner 1993a) confirms that palustre is the GeneralColombian Spanish term, which it does not define since it indicates thatpalustre is also usedin Spain (remember that the NDCol is a contrastive dictionary). This source, however, doesdefine babi/ejo, palaustre, palaustre, balaustre, balaUstre and balustre as "Herramienta dealbaiiil usada para extender la mezcla, consistente en una pala triangular con un mangoperpendicular en la inserci6n y doblado luego." The NDCol indicates that palaustre,palaUstre, balaustre and balaUstre are used in the Atlantic Coast region and in thedepartment of Norte de Santander, that babi/ejo is used in the departments of Caqueta,Cauca, el Huila, Nariiio and el Valle, and that balustre is used in Boyaca, Cauca,Cundinamarca, el Huila, Norte de Santander and el Valle. In this study, all Colombianrespondents gave palustre except for one from the Atlantic Coast who gave palaustre. Onerespondent from Cundinamarca indicated that balaustre refers to mezcla ('mortar'). TheLhico del habla culta de Santafe de Bogoui (Oti.lora de Fernandez: 279) confirms thepreference ofpalustre among educated Bogotanos. In that study, ten respondents indicatedpalustre, two espatula, two paleta, one pala de albani/ and one balustre, among otherminority responses.

Ecuador: The HEDE defines bai/ejo as "Norte. Plana, llana, herramienta de los albaiiiles." In thisstudy, however, respondents from different regions of the country-not only from northern

353

Ecuador-indicated that bailejo is used in the sense of a pointing trowel, not a finishingtrowel (see section Al4 below), except for one from el Carchi (which is in the "Sierra Norte"bordering Colombia), who indicated that balaustre refers to the pointing trowel.

Peru: The DP (Arona) defines badilejo as "Instrumento primordial del albaiiil; la lIana: he aqui suverdadero nombre. Nuestro provincialismo ha sido derivado, sin duda, de lapalabra espanolabadil, que es una cuchara 0 pala de hierro para remover la lumbre en la chimenea." In thisstudy, however, no respondent indicated that badilejo refers to the finishing trowel (la llana,see section A14 below); all said it is a pointing trowel.

Bolivia: The Lexico del habla culta de La paz (Mendoza: 163) confirms the use ofboth badilejo andpato. Of the nine educated Paceiios in that study who answered the question, badilejo andits diminutive form (badilejito) were offered by five andpato orpatito by four, among otherminority responses.

Argentina & Uruguay: The DEArg (Argentina) defines cuchara (de albanil) and badalejo as"Herramienta de albaiiileria, empleada para remover y aplicar la mezcla, formada por unaplancha triangular y un mango de madera." The definitions indicate that cuchara (de albanil)is the General Argentine Spanish term, that badalejo is used in the Northwest ofArgentina,and that paleta is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. The definition ofcuchara (de albanil)in the NDU (Uruguay) is almost identical to the DEArg's definition ofthis term. The Lexicodel habla culta de Buenos Aires (Academia Argentina de Letras: 112) and the Lexico delhabla culta de Cordoba, Argentina (Toniolo: 165-166) both confirm the use ofcuchara (dealbanil), which was offered by seven out often educated Porteiios in the former study andby five out often educated Cordobeses in the latter; three Porteiios, however, offeredpaleta,and three Cordobeses gave pala (de albanil), in addition to other minority responses.

A13.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: badilejo (D), bailejo (D), balaustre (D), balaUstre (D), cuchara (D),palaustre(F), paleta (C), palustre (C), plana (D).

DRAE definitions: paleta, "5. Utensilio de palastro, de forma triangular y mango de madera,que usan los albafiiles para manejar la mezcla 0 mortero"; palustre l

, "(De pala). Paleta de albafiil";llana, "13. Herramienta compuesta de una plancha de hierro 0 acero y una manija 0 un asa, que usanlos albaiiiles para extender y allanar el yeso 0 la argamasa"; badilejo, "(Del dim. de badil). lIana (IIherramienta que usan los albaiiiles)"; bailejo, "Ecuad. lIana (/1 herramienta que usan los albaiiiles)";cuchara, •.". Can. yAm. [Canarias y America] lIana (II herramienta que usan los albaiiiles)"; plana1

,

"(Del lat. plana). lIana (II herramienta que usan los albaiiiles)."Questions/Comments: The DRAE's definition of paleta is too restrictive in saying "... y

mango de madera.." since not all pointing trowels have handles made ofwood. More importantly,the Real Academia is under the mistaken impression that cuchara and bailejo are used in someregions of Spanish America in the sense of finishing trowel (/lana) when, in fact, they refer to thepointing trowel. The DRAE also defines badilejo with no regional specification in the sense offinishing trowel (/lana). Where, ifanywhere, is this the case? All evidence in this study indicates thatbadilejo is used in the sense ofpointing trowel in Peru and Bolivia only, and nowhere in the senseof finishing trowel. They really dropped the ball and missed the boat on this one.

354

A14 TROWEL B - FINISHING TROWEL, FLAT TROWEL, PLASTERER'S TROWELor SMOOTHING TROWEL (trowels with the handle on the top-center of the blade)

A14.1 Summary

Llana can be considered the General Spanish term, but other words such as plancha, plana and/orjlota are more common in many countries.

Note: Terms other than /lana appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.Some terms presented in section A14.2 refer to metal trowels and some to wooden ones (see sectionA14.3 below).

A14.2 Terms by Country (c. 18 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTARlCA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTORlCO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

A14.3 Details

llana (10/13), plancha (2113), alisador (1/13).llana (16/24), plana (8/24),jlota (5/24), paleta (2124), trola (2/24), diana (1124),plancha (1/24), planador (1/24).plancha (10/12), alisador (1/12), aplanador (1/12), repelladora (1/12).

plancha (11/13), ajinador(2I13),plana (2113), ajinadora (1/13), lIana (1/13).

codal (6/12),plana (6/12),plancha (5/12), planchuela (3/12), aJisadora (1/12).plana (4/10), lIana (2110), paleta (2110), ajinador (1/10), diana (1/10), plancha (1/10),repellador (1 110).llaneta (S/13),plancha (7/13), paleta (2113).llana (8/1 0), jlota (2110). plana (2110), paJeta (1/10).jlota (8/18), plana (7/18), lIana (5/18),frota (2118), palela (1/18).flota (15/1 7), Ilana (2/17), diana (1/17).

llana (7/13),jlota (3/13), resanadora (2I13),paleta (liB).llana (3/9), paleta (3/9), alisador (1/9),frisador (1/9), plancha (1/9).llana (15/16), paleta (1/16).llana (lO/1S),paleta (9/18), diana (1/18), plana (1/1 8), plancha (1/18).

plancha (11/16), paleta (5/16), plana (1/16).

plancha (l3/16),jrotacho (5/16), paleta (2I16),frotador (1/16).fratacho (2/1 0), latacho (2/1 0), llana (2/1 0), paleta (2/10), plancha (2/10),alisador (1/10).llana (4/9),fretacho (3/9),fletacho (2/9),fratacho (1/9),frotacho (1/9).fratacho (10/20), lIana (8/20), alisadora (1/20),jletacho (1/20),fretacho (Ilio).

llana (9/9), platacho (219), patacho (1/9).

General: Here we are combining, if not apples and oranges, at least apples and pears (actuallydifferent varieties ofapples and pears), because in many Spanish-speaking countries-perhapsin all~ne term is used to refer to finishing or flat trowels made of metal, and another for

355

ones made ofwood. The distinction is significant in that the two tools are used to flatten andsmooth out different materials and create different effects. Some masons use wooden flattrowels for coarse smoothing out ofconcrete on floors or other surfaces, and the metal onesfor finer finishes. There are also rubber floats used for smoothing out the surface ofplaster,cement, stucco, grout, etc. The Spanish termsjlota andfrota (when used in the sense offlattrowel or float) derive from English "float."

Spain: The DRAE defines llana, plana and trulla in the sense ofa metal flat trowel, andfrauis in thesense ofa wooden one (see section A14.4 below). Areplana and rru/la regionally markedwithin Spain? There is evidence that plana may be more common in southern Spain sincein the Encuestas lexicas del habla culta de Madrid (Torres Martinez: 173), fourteen educatedMadrilefios indicated /lana, one pala, and one plana, whereas in the Lexico del habla cultade Granada (Salvador: 236), thirteen respondents indicated plana, eight llana, and oneaplanador, among other minority responses; in the Lexico del habla culta de Las Palmas deGran Canaria (Samper Padilla: 141), most respondents were unable to answer the question,but three educated Grancanarios gave /lana, one gave jlota as a second choice (his firstchoice was /lana), and one gave alisadora, among other minority responses.

Mexico: In this study, many respondents indicated that a plana refers to a wooden flat trowel anda /lana to a metal one, whereas others said that a flota refers to a wooden flat trowel and a/lana or a trola to a metal one (trola appears to derive from English "trowel"). Still otherssaid ajlota refers to a "float" (see General above). In the Lexico del habla culta de Mexico(Lope Blanch: 154), seven educated Mexico City respondents indicated /lana, two pala, oneplana and one aplanador, in addition to other minority responses.

El Salvador: Most respondents indicated plancha as the generic term for flat trowels, but one saidthat a /lana is a metal one and aplancha a wooden one. Another said aplancha can be madeof either metal or wood and that an ajinadora is made of metal.

Honduras: Plana, plancha or planchuela refer to a metal flat trowel and codal to a wooden oneaccording to several respondents.

Costa Rica: Llaneta refers to a metal one and plancha to a wooden one according to severalrespondents.

Panama: Most respondents gave only /lana, but one indicated that plana refers to a metal one, and/lana and jlota to a wooden one.

Cuba: The DECu defines jlota as "Herramienta de albafiil que consta de una plancha con un mango,y que sirve para extender y alisar algunos materiales, especialmente cemento y yeso." In thisstudy, many respondents confirmed this stating that a jlota can refer to any flat trowel.However, some stated that aflota orfrota refers to a wooden one, whereas aplana is a metalone, and one said that ajlota is specifically a "float" (see General above). The DECu alsodefinesjlotear as "Extender 0 alisar con lajlota un material, especialmente cemento 0 yeso:'una personajlotea un material'." See cement/plaster (verbs) in Appendix.

Dominican Republic: The vast majority ofrespondents in this study indicated thatjlota can refer toeither a metal or a wooden flat trowel. However, a few said ajlota was a wooden one and a/lana or a diana a metal one.

Colombia: The Lexico del habla culta de Santafe de Bogoui (Otalora de Fernandez: 278) confirmsthe use of/lana in the sense of(some kind of) flat trowel among educated Bogotanos. In that

356

study, twelve indicated llana, three mistakenly gave palustre (some ofwhom also indicatedpalustre for the pointing trowel), and one said aplanador, among other minority responses.

Ecuador: Llana refers to a metal flat trowel and paleta to a wooden one according to manyrespondents.

Peru: Plancha refers to a metal one and paleta to a wooden one according to a few respondents.Bolivia: Plancha refers to a metal flat trowel andfrotacho orfrotador to a wooden one according

to several respondents. The Lexico del habla culta de La Paz (Mendoza: 163) seems toconfirm the use ofplancha for the metal flat trowel, which was given by four respondents;llana was also given by two.

Paraguay: Llana refers to a metal one and fratacho or latacho to a wooden one according to a fewrespondents. One Paraguayan said he believed latacho to be a deformation offratacho andthat the latter was the "correct" term. What is the origin of latacho?

Uruguay: The NDU defines fretacho as "var fletacho Pequefia tabla de madera pulida, de formarectangular y con un asa en una de sus caras, que se emplea en albafiileria para extender yalisar el revoque" and indicates that fratds is used in both Spain and Uruguay in this sense.In this study, respondents indicated that llana refers to a metal finishing trowel andfretachoor (less often) fratacho to a wooden one. No Uruguayan in this study offered or confirmedthe use of/ratds, and we note that in the DEArg the same authors of the NDU make nomention offratas being used in Argentina (see ArQentina below), which suggests that onewould probably be hard pressed to find a Uruguayan who used this term.

Argentina: TheDEArg definesfratacho, with the regional specifications of"Argentina Rioplatense,""Cuyo" and ''Nordeste de Argentina," and jletacho, with the regional specifications of"Argentina Central" and "Noroeste de Argentina" as "Pequena tabla de madera pulida, deforma rectangular y con un asa en una de sus caras, que se emplea en albafiileria paraextender y alisar el revoque." The DEArg also indicates thatfratds is the Peninsular Spanishequivalent ofArgentinefratacholfletacho and definesjletachar andfratachar (with the sameregional specifications corresponding to jletacho and fratacho) as "Extender y alisar yeso,argamasa 0 cualquier mezcla sobre una pared con un jletacholJratacho: alguienjletachalfratacha una pared"; enrasar is given as the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. Mostrespondents in this study indicated that llana refers to a metal flat trowel and fratacho,fretacho or jletacho to a wooden one. Of the respondents in the Lexico del habla culta deBuenos Aires (Academia Argentina de Letras: 112) who were able to answer the question,four offered llana and three fratacho, and in the Lexico del habla culta de Cordoba,Argentina (Toniolo: 165), six indicatedfratacho, five llana, threefretacho and onejletacho.However, it appears that neither the respondents in these two studies, nor the researchersconducting them, grasped the distinction between the metal flat trowel and the wooden one.With regard to the River Plate Spanish terms fratacho, fretacho and jletacho, there isevidence to suggest that these words derive from Italian. The Dizionario della LinguaItaliana (lstituto Geografico de Agostini) definesfrattazzo andfrettazzo as "2. tavoletta dilegno, quadrata 0 rettangolare, che i muratori usano per spianare sulle pareti la calce fresca,impugnandola per il manico," and the Vocabolario della Lingua Italiana (Zingarelli) defines/rattazzo andfratazzo as "Tavoletta rettangolare di legno, con maniglia, usata dal muratoreper spianare la malta con cui si intonaca un muro. SIN. spianatoio." For another example of

357

a River Plate name for a tool that appears to derive from Italian, see Morsa in section AII.3above.

Chile: The DECH defines platacho as "alb. Plana 0 llana rUstica de madera: 'Los maestros solonecesitan de un platacho, herramienta similar a la que usan los estucadores, y unaespatula' ..." and defines platachar as "Pasar el platacho para extender y allanar el yeso 0 laargamasa: 'falta platachar las murallas del patio' ..." as well as platacheo and platachadaas "alb. Accion y efecto de platachar." In this study, two respondents also made thisdistinction between llana (metal finishing trowel) and platacho or patacho (wooden one),but none indicated that a platacho could refer to a plana (pointing trowel), as the DECH'sdefinition ofplatacho suggests; see section AI3.2, CHILE, above. In the Lexico del hablaculta de Santiago de Chile (Rabanales: 158-159), six respondents indicated llana, threeplatacho, and five did not answer the question, but the distinction between llana andplatacho (metal vs. wooden flat trowel) seems to have been lost on both the respondents andthe researchers conducting the study. What is the origin ofplatacho?

Diana vs.llana: A handful ofthis study's respondents offered a term for these items that, to my ear,sounded like diana (see MEXICO, NICARAGUA, DOMIN. REP. and ECUADOR in section A14.2above). However, diana is not defined in the DRAE with any meaning related to those ofllana, and what I perceived as a dental stop (phrase-initial Idf) may have actually been anaffricate that is "lighter" than the consonantal sounds in Englishjudge, which is a possiblerealization ofphrase-initial Iy/. Ifso, then what I transcribed as diana is reallyjust a phoneticvariant of llana. Research by phonologists needs to be done on this point.

Origin of the use ofplana in parts of Spanish America: Can the use ofplana (= 'flat trowel') inMexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Cuba-and perhaps elsewhere in Spanish America-beattributed to Andalusian influence? We note that plana, in the sense of flat trowel, appearsto be more common in Granada than in Madrid (see Spain above). Andalucista theories ofLatin American Spanish generally attempt to explain phonetic and phonological similaritiesbetween the speech of Andalucia and that of Spanish America such as: a) aspiration anddeletion of word-final and syllable-final s in Andalucia and coastal Spanish America; b)neutralization ofs and z into a single phoneme lsi in Andalucia and all of Spanish America(historically these were four phonemes in the Castellano dialect that were reduced to two innorthern and central Spain and became one in southern Spain); and c) the pronunciation ofj and g (followed by e or i) as a simple aspiration in Andalucia and much of SpanishAmerica. If Andalusian influence can account for some phonetic and phonologicalcharacteristics ofLatin American Spanish, perhaps it can also explain specific shared lexicaland semantic features. For an analysis ofthe andalucista theories ofLatin American Spanish,see chapter two ofLatin American Spanish, ''The linguistic heritage ofSpain" (Lipski 1994:34-62).

A14.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: codal (D), diana (D), jletacho (F), jlota (B), fratacho (B), fretacho (F),frotacho (F), latacho (F), llana (A), llaneta (F), paleta (D), plana (C), plancha (D), platacho (F).

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DRAE definitions: liana, "13. Herramienta compuesta de una plancha de hierro 0 acero yunamanija 0 un asa, que usan los albaiiiles para extender y allanar el yeso 0 la argamasa";flota, "8.Cuba. Ilana (II herramienta que usan los albaiiiles)";plana 1, "(Dellat.plana).llana (II herramientaque usan los albaiiiles)"; trulia2

, "(Del lat. trulla). lIana (II herramienta que usan los albaiiiles)";frattis, "(De fratasar). Arq. Utensilio compuesto de una tabla pequeiia y lisa, cuadrada 0 redonda,con un tarugo en medio para agarrarla. Sirve para alisar una superficie enfoscada, humedeciendolaprimero";fratacho, "Ur. fratas."

Questions/Comments: TheDRAEhas properly definedflota,fratacho,plana and liana (albeitin some cases with improper regional specifications), but it has left many Spanish American usagesuncovered with respect to these two items. Curiously enough, the DRAE does not list fletacho butdoes define fletachar as "Ur. fratasar." These and other lacunae (see DRAE grades above) need tobe filled. In terms ofetymologies, the DRAE indicates that the origin of trulla is Latin trulla, but theAHD states that English "trowel" derives from Late Latin truella, the diminutive ofLatin trua, ladle.Which etymology is more accurate, the DRAEs or the AHD's, or are they essentially equivalent?Also, unless the DRAE's etymologists have a better theory as to the origin of River Plate Spanishfratacho, fretacho, etc., the etymologies "(Del it. frattazzo)" or "(Del it. frettazzo)" should beincluded in the DRAE's definitions of these terms (see Argentina in section A14.3 above).

Al5 PICK or PICKAX

Al5.l Summary

Pico is the General Spanish term, but regional terms are common in Mexico, Central America,Puerto Rico, Colombia, Bolivia and Chile.

Note: Terms other than pico appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.Some Spanish speakers use two different base terms for two different types ofpickax (see sectionA15.3 below).

Al5.2 Terms by Country (c. 8 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

pico (14/14).pico (18/21), talache (8/21), ta/aeho (2121), pieo/eta (1/21), saeapieo (1121), ta/aeha

(1/21), zapapieo (1/21).

piocha (14/1 7), pico (5/1 7), eoba (1/17), pioeha de pieo (1117).

piocha (18/18), pico (5/18).piocha (10/11), pico (3/11).piocha (8/12), pico (6/12), eoba (1/12).

pico (10/12), sacho (8/12).pico (8/10), piqueta (5/10), zapapieo (III 0).

pico (12/15), pieo pioeha (2/15), pieach6n (2115).

pico (14/14).

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PUERTORlCO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

A15.3 Details

pico (11/1 7), picota (7/1 7), piqueta (2117), pica (l/17).

pico (13/13).pica (11/17), pico (7/17), zapapico (2117), zapapica (1/17).

pico (9/11), zapapico (5/11), sacapico (1/11).

pico (13/13).picota (15/1 7), pico (4/17).pico (8/8).pico (9/9).pico (15/15).picota (13/15), pico (4/15).

General: Some Spanish speakers use two different base terms to distinguish between two differenttypes ofpickax. One term is used for a pickax that has a point on one end and a narrow bladeon the other (often called a "pick" and used for digging in hard or rocky ground or forchipping stone), and another term for a type that has a point on one end and a wider blade onthe other (also called a "mattock" and whose wide end is used for digging in compact soil).In the ensuing descriptions, we will refer to these two types of pickax as "narrow-bladepickax" and ''wide-blade pickax," respectively. The wide-blade pickaxes sometimes have ablade that is more curved than the narrow-blade ones. In this study, these two types ofpickaxwere shown to respondents, but they were not specifically asked to differentiate betweenthem and many did not. Other types of pickaxes were not targeted in the field work andresearch needs to be done to determine which Spanish speakers use different base terms fordifferent types ofpickax and what the distinctions are. The lexica del habla culta studies donot indicate what type of pickax respondents were shown.

Spain: TheEncuestas lexicas del habla culta de Madrid (Torres Martinez: 173), the Lexica del hablaculta de Granada (Salvador: 235-236), and the Lexica del habla culta de Las Palmas deGran Canaria (Samper Padilla: 141) all confirm the overwhelming preference for the termpica by educated Madrileiios, Granadinos and Grancanarios. In the first study, fifteenMadrileiios indicatedpico and onepiqueta; in the second, 22 Granadinos indicatedpica, twoespiocha, and one piquete; and in the third, nine Grancanarios indicated pica and onepiqueta, among other minority responses.

Mexico: In this study,pico was the only term given by about half the respondents, but many othersindicated that a talache, talacho or talacha refer to a wide-blade pickax and a pica to anarrow-blade pickax. In the Lexico del habla culta de Mexico (Lope Blanch: 154), sixteeneducated Mexico City respondents indicated pica, eleven zapapico and one talacha. Howcommon is zapapico in Mexico and, if it is common, to what type of pickax does it refer?

Guatemala. El Salvador, Honduras & Nicaragua: For El Salvador, the DS (Romero) defines piochaas "Herramienta de albaiiileria para picar la tierra. Se parece al pica pero se diferencia de elen que este tiene los dos extremos puntiagudos y la piocha solo uno y el otro es comohachuela 0 azadon." And in this study, many Central American respondents from these fourcountries confirmed this distinction between piocha (wide-blade pickax) and pica (narrow-

360

blade pickax), while others gave onlypiocha for both or indicated that the two terms are usedinterchangeably.

Costa Rica: The NDCR defines sacha as "[Agr.] Pico, instrumento de trabaj0 agricola." In this study,a majority ofrespondents indicated that sacha andpica are synonyms, but some said a sachais a wide-blade pickax and a pica a narrow-blade one.

Panama: A couple of respondents indicated that a piqueta is a wide-blade pickax and a pica anarrow-blade one, but others said the two were synonyms.

Puerto Rico: In this study, most respondents indicated pica or picota as a generic term, but a fewsaid that a picota is a wide-blade pickax and a pica a narrow-blade one. In the Lexica delhabla culta de San Juan de Puerto Rico (LOpez Morales: 66), only four respondentsanswered the question and all four gave pica. Is picota regionally marked within PuertoRico?

Venezuela: The Lexica del habla culta de Caracas (Sedano: 146) confirms the use ofpico, the termgiven by all twelve respondents in that study.

Colombia: A majority of respondents in this study gave only pica or pica, but one said that apicarefers to a wide-blade pickax whereas a pica or zapapico refer to a narrow-blade pickax. Ispica used more in some regions of Colombia and pica in others? In the Lexico del hablaculta de Santafe de Bogota (Otalora de Fernandez: 278), sixteen respondents indicated pica,seven pico, and one zapapico, among other minority responses.

Ecuador: A couple ofrespondents indicated that zapapico is a wide-blade pickax andpica a narrow­blade one.

Peru: In the Lexica del habla .culta de Lima (Caravedo: 183), ten educated Limefios indicated pica,and one zapapico.

Bolivia: The Lexico del habla culta de La Paz (Mendoza: 162) confirms the use ofpicota, given byeleven out oftwelve respondents, but pica was also quite well represented as it was offeredby ten out of twelve respondents with many indicating both pica and picota. In this study,picota was the only term offered by the majority of respondents, with a handful indicatingpica (see section A15.2 above), and the fact that many were not educated Bolivians mightexplain the lower representation ofGeneral Spanishpico vis-a.-vis regionally markedpicota.

Argentina: The Lexica del habla culta de Buenos Aires (Academia Argentina de Letras: 112) andthe Lexico del habla culta de Cordoba, Argentina (Toniolo: 165) both confirm the exclusiveuse ofpico as it was the orily term given by all dozen or so respondents from both cities.

Chile: The DECH confirms the use ofpicota in the sense ofpickax, defining it as "Herramienta quese usa para picar la tierra. Consta de un palo en el cual va encajada perpendicularmente unabarra de hierro, algo curvada hacia adentro, que remata en puntas aguzadas en un extremoo en ambos..." The Lexico del habla culta de Santiago de Chile (Rabanales: 158) alsoconfirms the use ofpicota: Of the seven respondents in that study who were able to answerthe question, all seven gave picora. Among this study's respondents, picota was also theoverwhelming choice, and one indicated that pica could not and would not be used in Chilein this sense as this word is taboo. (The DRAE defines pico l as "18. Chile y C. Rica. pene."Thus the jokes about how in Chile it is not advisable to use phrases such as llegaron a lascinco y pica.)

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A15.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: pica (D), pico (A or D?), picota (D), piocha (D?), piqueta (C), sacho (A),ta/ache (F), zapapico (A or C?).

DRAE definitions: pico, "3. Herramienta de cantero, con dos puntas opuestas aguzadas yenastada en un mango largo de madera, que sirve principalmente para desbastar la piedra. II 4.Instrumento formado por una barra de hierro 0 acero, de unos 60 cm de largo y 5 de grueso, algoencorvada, aguda por un extremo y con un ojo en el otro para enastarla en un mango de madera. Esmuy usado para cavar en tierras duras, remover piedras, etc.";piocha2

, "(Del fro pioche, depic, pico).Constr. Herramienta con una boca cortante, que sirve para desprender los revoques de las paredesy para escafilar los ladrillos"; sacho, "3. C. Rica. pica (II herramienta de cantero)"; zapapico, "(Dezapa 1

, pala, y pico). pica (II herramienta de cantero). 112. pica <II instrumento para cavar)"; azadonde peto and azadon de pico, "zapapico"; piqueta, "(Del dim. de pica). zapapico."

Comments: The DRAE defines pico as a stone-chipping tool used by quarry workers or.stonemasons with sharp points on each end (sense three), and as a tool that has a blade on only oneend (sense four). Senses three and four ofpico are the only two that define tools, which means thatthe DRAE's definition ofpico does not include a sense that corresponds to the wide-blade pickax.In addition, its definition ofpiocha indicates that it is a different tool from a pico, one used to chipoffmortar from walls and bricks. Perhaps in Spain a piocha is a tool used primarily in masonry, butin much ofCentral America it is generally a wide-blade pickax commonly used in agriculture. Also,the DRAE's definition ofpiqueta cross-references the reader to zapapico which, in turn, cross­references the reader to pica without specifying which ofthe two senses ofpico (de cantero orparacavar) the cross-reference refers to, or whether" it can refer to either. That is simply too muchlegwork for the dictionary user to go through who, after chasing down two cross-references, is stillnot exactly sure what a piqueta is. Lastly, it fails to tell the reader that pico, pica, picota, piocha andta/ache can be synonyms. The DRAE needs to do a fair amount ofwork on these trouble spots to fixthem and get this job done right.

A16 HOE

A16.1 Summary

Azadon is more common than azada in most of Spanish America with the exception of the RiverPlate region and the Antilles. Spain, Cuba, Venezuela, Colombia and possibly Ecuador, Peru andArgentina have more regional terms.

Note: Terms other than azada and azadon appear in italics, and Cuba's guataca in boldface anditalics. Some Spanish speakers use two different base terms to refer to two different types ofhoe (seesection A16.3 below).

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A16.2 Terms by Countl")' (c. 12 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

A16.3 Details

azada (8/13), azadon (5/13), /egan (1113).

azadon (16/16), ta/ache (1/16).

azadon (15/15).azadon (17/17).azadon (919).azadon (6/6).azadon (919).azadon (7/9), azada (1/9), coa (1/9).guataca (11/16), azadon (8/16), azada (2116).

azada (14/14), azad6n (2114), /egona (1/14).

azada (12/14), azad6n (2/14).

chicora (Sill), escardilla (5/11), azadon (4/11), azada (1/11).

azadon (16/16), recatan (1/16), revo/con (1/16), zapan (1/16).

azadon (9/1 0), tampa (l/1 0).

azadon (5/7), azue/a (In), tampa (In).

azadon (11/12), azada (1/12), azadilla (1/12).

azada (919).azada (8/8).azada (13/16), zapa (4/16), zapin (1/16).

azadon (8/10), azada (2110).

General: To some extent we are mixing, ifnot apples and oranges here, at least oranges, tangerinesand grapefruits, as the above terms can refer to different types of hoes. The two mostcommon types, however, are a narrower-blade hoe used for digging in more compact ground,and a wider- and shorter-bladed one used for digging in softer soil. The blade ofthe narrow­blade hoe is often longer and slightly curved, whereas the wide-blade hoe generally has ablade that is shorter, wider and flat. In the descriptions of usage that follow, we will callthese two types of hoes the "narrow-blade hoe" and the "wide-blade hoe," respectively.Respondents in this study were only shown a picture of a narrow-blade hoe and a majorquestion remains largely unresolved: Which Spanish speakers (i.e. the agricultores,labradores and campesinos, etc. from which regions ofthe Spanish-speaking world) tend touse one base term for the wide-blade hoe and another for the narrow-blade hoe, and whichgenerally use the same base term for both and distinguish between them by applyingadjectives or other modifiers to them?

Spain: The DRAE's definition of azada and azad6n indicate that both terms can refer to bothnarrow-blade and wide-blade hoes. TheDRAE also defmes almocafre, escardilla, escardilloand leg6n as types ofhoes, in some cases providing a detailed description, and in some casesnot (see section A16.4 below). In this study, most respondents indicated azada and/orazad6n, and one gave leg6n. A few non-Spanish terms were also offered including legoiia

363

and eixada (Gallego) and magall (Catahm). See section A16.4 below for the definitions ofother related tenns such as alcotana, batidera, etc.

Mexico: TheDEUMex defines azad6n as "Instrumento de labranza compuesto por una pala de hierroafilada en uno de sus extremos, y que en el opuesto tiene un anillo donde se inserta un mangocon el que forma angulo agudo. Se usa para quitar las malas hierbas y arrimar tierra a lasplantas." It defines azada in terms of azad6n as "Herramienta de labranza semejante alazadon perc de pala mas corta y plana; se usa para barbechar terrenos de poca extension."In other words, the DEUMex seems to indicate that azad6n is the narrow-blade hoe andazada the wide-blade hoe. The DRAE indicates that in Mexico talacho refers to a type ofazada (see section A16.4 below). See also the DEUMex's definition ofcoa in Coa below.In this study, all respondents gave azadon when shown a picture of a narrow-blade hoe,except one who indicated that both azadon and talache are used in this sense.

Costa Rica: The NDCR defines paleta as "5. (Zona Noroeste) [Agr.] Azada larga, empleada paradesherbar y sembrar."

Cuba: Are azad6n and guataca synonyms in Cuban Spanish, or do they refer to different types ofhoes? Ifthey can be synonyms, are theyregionally weighted within Cuba? TheDECu definesguataca as "Instrumento agricola formado por un mango de madera largo y fino en uno decuyos extremos va insertada una lamina rectangular de hierro, con un borde cortante. Seemplea para cavar 0 remover tierras roturadas 0 blandas" and indicates that azada is used inthis same sense in Spain and azadon in both Spain and Cuba The DRAE, however, statesthat a guataca is a "short azada" (see section A16.4 below). In this study, severalrespondents stated that guataca and azad6n are synonyms, but one said the guataca has awider blade. This is consistent with the DECu's description of the guataca being used to"cavar 0 remover tierras roturadas 0 blandas" (emphasis added) since the hoe with theshorter and wider blade is often used for this purpose. One Cuban who said azad6n andguataca are synonyms indicated that the former is used more in the Oriente and the lattermore in central and western Cuba, but this was not corroborated by others in this study.

Dominican Republic: Legona was offered by one respondent in the sense ofa small hoe, generallyused with one hand, but the majority ofDominicans in this study offered only azada. Azada,however, was often pronounced (and even written) (h)aza or (h)asa. How common is thisabbreviated pronunciation in other regions of the Spanish-speaking world where -ada and-ado can also get reduced to a and ao, respectively, in the speech ofsome educated speakersin informal situations and in that ofmany uneducated speakers in all situations? The loss ofd in the suffix -ado (e.g. cansao < cansado and quedao < quedado), and, to a lesser extent,in words with ada (na < nada) is a general phenomenon in popular and/or relaxed speech,though it is more common, and more socially accepted, in some regions of the Spanish­speaking world than in others. In the case of the Dominican Republic, Lipski states that"Intervocalic Id/ regularly falls in all sociolects and in all regions" (Lipski 1994: 238). Thusit is possible that for some Dominicans, including educated ones, the full/original azada hasbecome lost and the phonetic change (azada ~ aza) has undergone lexicalization. Ifso, onepossible explanation for this is that educated Dominicans, to the extent they hear about hoesat all, hear about them from Dominican campesinos, and what they hear from them isinvariably aza. If educated Dominicans also read about azadas, this would provide an

364

alternate model for them to follow, but insofar as they do not, the model from below theyfollow is aza. See Sellalotodo in section B2.3 below for another possible example of thislexicalization.

Venezuela: Are azadon, chicora and escardilla the same tool or different tools in Venezuela? Thisis, as they say in Venezuelan Spanish, la pregunta de las sesenta y cuatro millochas (thesixty-four thousand dollar question). The evidence seems to suggest, but does not definitivelyestablish, that the escardilla is a local Venezuelan name for the azadon, whereas the chicorais a somewhat different tool, perhaps a type of shovel. The DBA V defines chicora andchicura as "rur hnplemento de labranza compuesto por un palo largo de madera y una puntade hierro recta, fuerte y cortante que se utiliza para abrir pequefios huecos en la tierra" (is itperhaps what in the Antilles is called a coa?), and defines escardilla as "Instrumento quesirve para escarbar y limpiar la tierra de hierbas." The DV' is more specific, defining chicoraand chicura as "Centr Llan Truj Instrumento de labranza que sirve para abrir hoyos en latierra. Consiste en una pieza de hierro 0 de madera en fOITIla de pala estrecha y fuerte; estapala se prolonga en un cabo de madera al que va fijada," and defines escardilla as "DecCentr Llan Azad6n con la lamina de mas 0 menos 20 centimetros de largo, de formacuadrangular algo curva. Se usa para remover la tierra y para limpiar las siembras de malashierbas." Thus the D V seems to indicate that the escardilla is a type of hoe, and that thechicora is a type ofshovel, but the exact nature of the latter tool is not entirely clear to me.In this study, a number of respondents indicated that escardilla and azadon are synonyms,one that a chicora is a different type of hoe than an escardilla, and another that escardillaand chicora are synonyms used in different regions ofVenezuela. A Google image searchofchicora conducted in mid 2005 did not turn up any pictures ofthis tool, but a text searchofescardilla and azadon turned up a number ofVenezuelan documents in which the phrases"escardilla 0 azad6n" or "azad6n (escardilla)" appeared. For example, the following appearsin a document entitled, Capitulo 6 Proteccion y Sanidad Vegetal, Seccion 2 Combate yControl de Malezas: "Es el metodo de combate de maleza mas antiguo usado por el hombreal hacerse sedentario. Consiste en arrancar las malezas alrededor de las plantas de maiz,utilizando las manos 0 estacas elaboradas con diferentes materiales, 0 cortarlas con machete,azadon 0 escardilla. Este metodo se continua usando pot agricultores con menores recursosecon6micos y/o tecno16gicos, sobretodo en pequefias unidades de producci6n; tambien 10usan productores medianos cuando se imposibilita, tecnica 0 econ6micamente, la utilizaci6nde maquinaria agricola 0 la aplicaci6n de herbicidas" (Rodriguez Tineo; emphasis on azadonand escardilla added). There is also evidence to suggest that chicora may be distinct fromescardilla (and, therefore, from azadon) as the following citation illustrates: "Cabe destacar,que dentro de la actividad de la entrega formal de los titulos de tierras en la zona de Valle deLa Cruz, se concedieron 7 micro creditos para fines de producci6n agricola, como parte dela ardua labor desempefiada por la Corporaci6n de Desarrollo Agricola (Cordami), dondetambien se donaron los kits de herramientas a los labradores del campo, contentivos de susbotas, machete, pico, pala, escardilla, lima y chicora [sic], a manera de facilitar los trabajoscorrespondientes de estos cultivadores" ("Recorrido por Municipio Paez"; emphasis onescardilla and chicora [chicora] added). How do Venezuelan campesinos conceive ofanddistinguish between their azadones, chicoras and escardillas?

365

Colombia: The NDCol defines recaton as "Ant[ioquia] , Cald[as], Quind[io], Risar[aldas], ValleInstrumento formado por un mango largo de madera, con una paleta cortante de hierro en unode sus extremos, usado para hacer hoyos en la tierra y para sembrar." This same sourceindicates that barreton is used in this sense in the departments of Boyaca, Cordoba,Cundinamarca, el Choco, el Huila, Narino, Norte de Santander and Santander-departmentswhich we note are spread out over much of the country-and that cavador is used in thissense in the Atlantic Coast region. In this study, all respondents indicated azadon, and oneeach indicated recaton (Antioquia, small hoe), revolcon (el Valle), and zapon (Risaraldas),departments in the western interior part of the country.

Ecuador: In this study, azadon was given by the majority ofrespondents when shown a picture ofa hoe, but one serrano said a lampa is a hoe. See information in Lampa below.

Argentina: Most Argentines interviewed in this study gave onlyazada and said they had never heardof a zapa. However, one indicated that the azada's blade and handle form an acute angle,which makes it ideal for digging, whereas the zapa's blade and handle fmm a right angle andis used to break up dirt. Another stated that an azada is a hoe that has a hole in the blade,which makes it useful for mixing mortar, whereas a zapa does not have a hole in the blade.A third said he thought a zapa had a shorter handle than an azada; a fourth that a zapin is atype ofhoe used for mixing mortar.

Coa: The DEUMex (Mexico) indicates that a coa is "similar to an azadon," defining it as"Instrumento de labranza parecido al azadon, compuesto por.un mango largo de maderaunido a una pala de hierro terminada en punta, con uno de sus lados rectos y el otro curvo."The DECu (Cuba), in contrast, defines it as "agr Utensilio que sirve para abrir hoyos en latierra, y que consiste en un palo terminado en punta 0 engastado en una punta de hierro, aveces en fonna de espatula 12 hist Palo tenninado en punta endurecida al fuego, que usabanpara sembrar los indios que poblaban la isla de Cuba." It appears that the Cuban meaning haskept closer to the term's historical roots, which makes sense since the Tainos lived in theAntilles. See also the DRAE's description of the different senses of coa in section 16.4below.

Lampa: Luis Cordero's Diccionario Quichua - Quichua Shimiyuc Panca (a bilingual Spanish­Quichua and Quichua-Spanish dictionary published in Ecuador) defines lampa as a Quichuaword meaning, "Azada plana y vertical, de uso comtin en algunas provincias de la SierraEcuatoriana." The HEDE (Ecuador) also defines lampa as "Cierta clase de azada..."However, in an extended discussion of the terms azada, azadon, lampa and lampon, theHEDE seems to describe the lampa as a shovel and azada as a hoe. The DB (Bolivia) defineslampa rather ambiguously as "Azada, pala" as does the DECH (Chile), which defines it as"lab. [laboral] Azada 0 pala usada principalmente por mineros y campesinos..." The DRAEalso indicates that lampa is used in the sense ofazada in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru(see section A16.4 below), while theHEDE and theDECH seem to indicate that lampa canmean shovel (pala). In this study, azadon was given by almost all respondents from Ecuador,Peru, Bolivia and Chile when shown a picture of a narrow-blade hoe, and most Ecuadoranand Peruvian respondents said that a lampa is a shovel (pala), not a hoe, and that lampa andpala are synonyms. Ecuadorans and Peruvians also stated that lampa is more commonly usedto refer to a shovel than pala, especially in popular speech. In the case ofEcuador, this was

366

directly confirmed by several Costeiio obreros all ofwhom responded lampa when asked thename ofthe tool (shovel) they were using, and acknowledged pala only with a fair amountof coaxing; one Ecuadoran from the Sierra, however, indicated that a lampa is a hoe. Arethere regional preferences within Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile with regard to themeaning of lampa? Who uses it in the sense of shovel and who in the sense ofhoe, or canthe term refer to tools that could be considered a cross between a shovel and a hoe? Ver y oirpara creer.

A16.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: azada (A), azadan (A), chicora (A?), guataca (A?), zapa (A?).DRAE definitions: azada, "(Del lat. vulg. *asciata, de ascia, azuela, especie de hacha).

Instrumento que consiste en una lamina 0 pala cuadrangular de hierro, ordinariamente de 20 a 25 ernde lado, cortante uno de estos y provisto el opuesto de un aniBo donde encaja y se sujeta el astil 0

mango, formando con la pala un angulo un tanto agudo. Sirve para cavar tierras roturadas 0 blandas,remover el estiercol, amasar la cal para mortero, etc. II 2. azadon (II instrumento que se distingue dela azada por la pala, algo curva ymcis larga que ancha)"; azadan, "(Del awn. de azada). Instrumentoque se distingue de la azada en que la pala, cuadrangular, es algo curva y mas larga que ancha. II 2.azada (II instrumento de pala cuadrangular, ordinariarnente de 20 a 25 cm de lado)"; azuela, "(Dellat. *asci61a, dim. de ascia). Herramienta de carpintero que sirve para desbastar, compuesta de unaplancha de hierro acerada y cortante, de diez a doce centimetros de anchura, y un mango corto demadera que forma recodo"; alcotana, "(De alcouin, por su forma). Herrarnienta de albaiiileria, quetermina por uno de sus extremos en forma de azuela y por el otro en forma de hacha, y que tiene enmedio un anillo en que entra y se asegura un mango de madera, como de medio metro de largo. Hayalgunas con boca de piqueta, en vez de corte"; batidera, "Instrumento parecido al azad6n, de astilmuy largo, que se emplea para batir 0 mezclar la cal con la arena y el agua al hacer argamasa";chicora, ''Ven. Instrumento de labranza para cavar la tierra, que consiste en una pieza estrecha dehierro, en forma de pala, con uno de los cabos afilados y el otro con una cavidad para adaptarlo yfijarlo a un mango largo de madera"; coa, "(Voz taina). Ant. [AntiBas] Palo aguzado que los indiostamos usaban en la labranza para abrir hoyos en los conucos. II 2. Cuba, Hond., Mix. y Pan. Especiede palo usado para la labranza. II 3. Ven. chicora"; escardilla, "(Del dim. de escarda, azadiIIa).a1mocafre II 2. And. [Andalucia] Azadilla de boca estrecha y mango corto, menor que el escardiBo";almocafre, "(Quiza del ar. hisp. *abu kilff, y este del ar. elcis. abii kaff, el de la mano). Instrumentoque sirve para escardar y limpiar la tierra de malas hierbas, y para trasplantar plantas pequenas";azadilla, "(Del dim. de azada). almocafre"; escardillo, "Azada pequena para escardar"; guataca,"Cuba. Azada corta que se usa para limpiar de hierba las tierras"; lampa, "(Del aim. [aimara]lampa). Bol., Chile, Ecuad. y Peru.. azada"; legan, "(Del lat. ligo, -anis, azad6n). Especie deazad6n"; sacho, "(Del lat. sarciilum). Instrumento de hierro pequeno y manejable, en forma deazad6n, que sirve para sachar"; sachar, "Escardar la tierra sembrada para quitar las malas hierbas,a fin de que prosperen mcis las plantas utiles"; talacho, "Mh. Especie de azada"; zapa 1

, "Especie depala herrada de la mitad abajo, con un corte acerado, que usan los zapadores 0 gastadores"; zapador,"(De zapar). Militar perteneciente 0 encuadrado en unidades bcisicas del arrna de ingenieros";gastador, "3. En los presidios, hombre que va condenado a los trabajos publicos. Ir condenado en

367

calidad de gastador. II 4. Mil. Soldado que se aplicaba a los trabajos de abrir trincheras y otrossemejantes, 0 bien a franquear el paso en las marchas, para 10 cuaillevan palas, hachas y picos."

Comments: TheDRAE' s definitions ofazada and azad6n are somewhat contradictory. Sensetwo ofazada reads "azadon" and indicates that this tool is distinguished from the azada in that theblade is somewhat curved and longer than it is wide; sense one ofazad6n likewise indicates that theazad6n is a tool that is distinguished from the azada. Yet sense two ofazada is azad6n and sensetwo ofazad6n is azada. In other words, although there are two tools that can be distinguished fromeach other, the two terms, according to the definitions, can not, as both terms can refer to both tools.The DRAE's handling ofthese two terms also completelyglosses over the dialectal differences. Moreuseful and accurate would be to select either azada or azad6n and give it two descriptions, one sensedescribing the wide-blade hoe and the other defining the narrow-blade one. It should then define theother word in terms ofthe first. Selecting azada for primary coverage, its definition could read (usingessentially the DRAE's own wording), "Instrumento que consiste en una lamina 0 pala cuadrangularde hierro, ordinariamente de 20 a 25 centimetros de lado, cortante uno de estos y provisto el opuestode un anillo donde encaja y se sujeta el astil 0 mango, formando con la pala un cingulo un tantoagudo. Sirve para cavar tierras roturadas 0 blandas, remover el estiercol, amasar la cal para mortero,etc. II 2. Instrumento parecido a este pero con la pala algo curva y mas larga que ancha. Sirve paracavar tierras mas duras y para quitar las malas hierbas." If the same base term is used for narrow­blade and wide-blade hoes, a statement could then be added such as ''D. [Usado] en ambos sentidosprincipalmente en Arg., Esp., Par., P. Rico, R. Dom. y Ur." Azad6n could then be defined as "azada(II dos instrumentos). U. en ambos sentidos principalmente en Am. Cent., Bol., Chi., Col., Cu., Ec.,Esp., Mex. y Peru." If applicable, the DRAE editors could also specify the regions of Spain whereeach term is more prevalent. (However, the DRAE has a disconcerting tendency to give detailedinformation about regional differences between provinces in Spain, but gloss over regionaldifferences between countries in Spanish America.) Then the remaining more regional terms, suchas almocafre, chicora, guataca, etc. could be defined in terms ofazada, with any differences in thetool and appropriate regional specifications indicated. Finally, the DRAE editors should make uptheir minds whether they want to abbreviate the word "centimeter" as cm or spell it out as centimetroand apply the policy consistently throughout the dictionary (see the definitions ofazada and azuelaabove for an inconsistency in this regard). We note that in the definition ofalcotana above "meter"is spelled out as metro, that "cm" does not appear in the DRAE's list of "abreviaturas y signosempleados" (pp. LIV), and that "m" is already spoken for ("masculino" pp. LVI).

At7 DRILL BIT

At7.t Summary

Broca is the General Spanish term for standard drill bits, but mecha is more commonly used in theDominican Republic, Venezuela, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina, and barrena in Cuba and PuertoRico.

Note: Terms other than broca appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.

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A17.2 Terms by Country (4 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGEl'\'TINA

CHILE

A17.3 Details

broca (12/14), barrena (2/14).

broca (16/16).broca (12/12).broca (13/13).broca (8/8).broca (12/12).broca (11/11).broca (9/9).barrena (9/15), broca (5/15), barreno (2115).

mecha (14/18), barrena (3/18), barreno (3/18).barrena (15/15).mecha (12/12).broca (14/14).broca (9/9).broca (11/11).broca (11/11).mecha (6/7), broca (2/7).mecha (9/9).mecha (17/18), broca (7/18).broca (14/15), mecha (7/15).

General: The items in question are the bits sold in hardware stores to drill holes in wood, metal,masonry, or other materials; different types of bits are used for different materials. (Nottargeted in this study were large bits or devices for drilling holes in the ground such as thoseused in the mining or oil industries, which the DRAE indicates are generally called barrenos;see section A17.4 below.) In many countries where General Spanish broca is not the mostcommonly used word in everyday language for standard drill bits, there is some evidence tosuggest that broca may be a more technical term.

Cuba: Barrena was the only term given by the majority ofrespondents, but two indicated that brocais a more technical term for drill bit than barrena.

Ecuador: The HEDE defines barreno as "Herrarnienta de carpintero para taladrar madera. //2.Herramienta de meca.nicos para taladrar." In this study, however, all respondents gave onlybroca in the sense of drill bit.

Argentina & Uruguay: The DEArg (Argentina) confirms the use ofmecha, defining it as "Varilla deacero, terminada en punta y con filo helicoidal, que se adapta al taladro 0 a instrumentossimilares, para perforar madera, hierro, cemento, etc." and indicates that broca is thePeninsular Spanish equivalent. The DEArg's definition does not indicate that broca is usedin this sense in Argentina, yet over a third of the respondents in this study stated that broca

369

is also used in Argentina, albeit not as often as mecha. The definition ofmecha in the NDU(Uruguay) is almost identical to that of the DEArg.

Chile: The DECH confirms the use of mecha, defining it as "2. lab. [laboral] Broca; rosca, espigao barreno de un taladro..." In this study, a majority ofrespondents indicated broca, but somealso said that mecha is the more popular or "low-class" term (depending on one's outlook),and broca a fancier or more "proper" term.

A17.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: barrena (C or D?), barreno (C?), broca (A), mecha (D).DRAE definitions: barrena, u(De or. inc.; cf. lat. veruina). Instrumento de acero con una

rosca en espiral en su punta y una manija en el extremo opuesto, que sirve para taladrar 0 haceragujeros en madera, metal, piedra u otro cuerpo duro. Hay otras sin manija, que se usan conberbiquf'; barreno, u(De barrena). barrena (II Instrumento de acero para taladrar 0 hacer agujeros).U. comUnrnente para significar la de mayor tamaiio"; broca, ''2. Barrena de boca conica que se usacon las maquinas de taladrar"; berbiqui, "(Del fro vilebrequin, y este del neerl. wimmelkjin).Manubrio semicircular 0 en forma de doble codo, que puede girar alrededor de un pufio ajustado enuna de sus extremidades, y tener sujeta en la otra la espiga de cualquier herrarnienta propia parataladrar."

Questions/Comments: The DRAE should define broca from scratch without reference tobarrena using the DEArg's definition of mecha as a model (see Argentina & Uruguay in sectionA17.3 above). Ifanything, barrena should be defined in terms ofbroca since the latter is the GeneralSpanish term for a standard drill bit. The DRAE's definition ofbarrena also fails to mention dialectaldifferences, and that ofmecha does not include a sense corresponding to drill bit. As ofthis writing,in the early 21st century, how valid is the distinction the DRAE makes between barrena (bit with ahandle or without one and used with a berbiquz) and broca (bit used with a drill)? Clearly, it doesnot accurately describe usage in Cuba and Puerto Rico, countries in which barrena means broca(standard drill bit used with a drill). Yet even in Spain it would appear that the distinction may soonbe more historical than current. In the United States, 18-volt-battery cordless drills are commonlyused in construction, in addition to standard drills with a power cord, and one can only wonder howmuch longer the berbiqui will continue to be used in the Spanish-speaking world. (In English thisdevice is called a "brace," though it is more common for people to refer to the set as a ubrace-and­bit.")

B MATERIALS, DEVICES AND MISCELLANEOUS

Bl PLYWOOD

B1.1 Summary

Madera contrachapada is the only term that could be considered General Spanish since it appearsto be used, to some extent, throughout the Spanish-speaking world. Plywood, or variants ofthis term,

370

are common in about half the Spanish-speaking world, primarily in the northern half of SpanishAmerica. Other more regionallymarked terms include triplex, triplay, madera contraenchapada andmadera terciada.

Note: Terms other than madera contrachapada appear in italics, and majority regionalisms inboldface and italics.

B1.2 Terms by Country (c. 15 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RlCA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTORlCO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

B1.3 Details

contrachapado (5/11), madera contrachapada (3/11), laminado (2/11), madera

laminada (2111).

triplay (16/17), madera contrachapada (1/17).

plywood (12/12).plywood (10/10).plywood (9/9).plywood (11/11).plywood (13/13).plywood (11/13), madera laminada (2113), madera contrachapada (1/13).

plywood (15/19), madera contrachapada (4/19), madera laminada (2/19), panel

(1/19).

plywood (11/11).plywood (12/15), panel (5/15), madera laminada (1/15).

contraenchapado (13/16), madera contraenchapada (3/16).triplex (15/18), madera triplex (3/18).plywood (8/14), triplex (5/14), madera triplex (3/14), contrachapado (2/14),

contraenchapado (2/14), madera contrachapada (2/14).

triplay (18/20), plywood (4/20), madera enchapada (1/20), madera laminada (1/20).

venesta (9/1 0), plywood (1/1 0).

madera terciada (7/8),plancha terciada (1/8).madera compensada (5/8), compensado (4/8).madera terciada (12/15), madera contrachapada (1/15), multilaminado (1/15), sandwich

de terciada (1/15), terciada (1/15), terciado (1/15).

madera terciada (9/12), madera enchapada (3/12), contrachapada (1/12),

enchapado (1/12), terciado (1/12).

Contraenchapado: The DHA V (Venezuela) does not confirm the use of contraenchapado in thesense of plywood, defining it as "Mueble 0 tabla hecho con alglin material mas 0 menosresistente y recubierto con una capa delgada de madera."

Madera terciada: Many respondents from Argentina and Paraguay said that madera terciada refersto plywood, but others described madera terciada as a thin panel that has only one layer, or

371

a panel that has a veneer surface (like the DBA V's description ofcontraenchapado above).Perhaps it can refer to all three.

Plywood: The use of plywood in northern Spanish America is confinned by a number oflexicographical sources. The DECu (Cuba) defines plywood as "Conglomerado de maderaformado por varias placas delgadas encoladas" and indicates that the word is pronounced"aproximadamente [pleigu], [pleiu] 0 [pleigud]"; no Peninsular Spanish equivalent isprovided. The NDCR (Costa Rica) defmes plywood as "(pronunciado pIeibud) Lamina demadera contrachapada." And the DUEN (Nicaragua), though it does not define plywood,does include in an appendix entitled "Siglas y acr6nimos actuales mas usuales" the acronymPLYNIC, which is glossed as Plywood de Nicaragua, S.A. fu this study, the term plywoodwas offered with a variety of pronunciations and spellings including playwood, playwud,playgu, playwu, pleiwood, pleiwud, pleibud and pleiwu, sometimes with an accent mark onthe a or e in the first syllable, and occasionally with an accent on the u in the second syllable(e.g. pleiwu). All of these spellings are attempts to render graphically what is beingpronounced, or efforts to carry over into Spanish elements from the English word "plywood,"or some combination of the two.

Triplay: The DEUMex indicates that triplay refers specifically to three-plyplywood, and defines thisterm as "Madera laminada en tres hojas, flexible y resistente, que se usa en construcci6n 0

para forrar ciertos muebles." While triplay no doubt derives from English "three-ply(plywood)," in this study many Mexican and Peruvian respondents stated that they usetriplay generically to refer to any plywood, whether three-ply, five-ply, seven-ply, etc.Respondents also gave a variety of spellings including triply, triplay, triplai, tripley andtriplei. Regardless ofhow it is spelled, the word is pronounced in one oftwo basic ways: [tri­PLAI] or [tri-PLEI]. One Peruvian indicated that triplay is used more by lay people andplywood more by professionals in the construction industry.

Triplex: Triplex, and its variant madera triplex, were found to be used in Colombia and Ecuador.Triplex is also pronounced, and sometimes spelled triples or triple. fu Ecuador, triplex andmadera triplex seem to be more common in the Sierra andplywood more so in the Costa, butmany Ecuadorans from both regions are familiar with both sets of tenns.

Related terms: Seeparticle boardpanels in Appendix for infonnation on other types ofpanels usedin construction.

B1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: compensado (F), contrachapado (C), contraenchapado (F), maderacompensada (F), madera contrachapada (C), madera contraenchapada (F), madera laminada (F),madera terciada (F), madera triplex (F),panel (D), plywood (F), triplay (F), triplex (D), venesta (F).

DRAE definitions: contrachapado, "adj. Dicho de un tablero: Fonnado por varias capas finasde madera encoladas de modo que sus fibras queden entrecruzadas. U. 1. c. s. m. [Usado tambiencomo sustantivo masculino]"; contrachapeado, "contrachapado. U. 1. c. s. m."

Comments: TheDRAEhas basically limited itselfto describing Peninsular Spanish usage andhas left out most Spanish American words for plywood. It is not clear whether the reason for this isignorance of Spanish American usage on the part of its editors or, perhaps more likely, the fact that

372

they find Anglicisms such as plyvvood and triplay too distasteful to include in a dictionary whosemotto used to be "fijar, limpiar y dar esplendor." The latter explanation, however, does not accountfor the omission of terms such as madera compensada, madera contraenchapada and maderaterciada that are just as castizo as madera contrachapada.

B2 TAR

B2.1 Summary

Alquitrcin and brea are General Spanish terms that can refer to tar and that seem to compete in mostparts of the Spanish-speaking world, but the evidence in this study suggests the two are not heardeverywhere with equal frequency. Aslalto and petroleo, though used less often than brea andalquitrcin in the sense oftar, may also be General Spanish usages. Regionally marked terms includechapopote and/or chapapote-in Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba and parts of Spain-and bleque inParaguay and perhaps in Argentina and Uruguay as well.

Note: Terms other than alquitrcin, brea, aslalto and petroleo appear in italics, and majorityregionalisms in boldface and italics.

B2.2 Terms by Country (c. 9 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATE~LA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CL'BA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

alquitran (14/17), brea (5/17), chapapote (2117), piche (2117).

chapopote (12/13), chapapote (1/13).

chapopote (12/12).alquitrful (5/11), asfalto (4/11), brea (4/11), chapopote (2111).

brea (5/6), asfalto (1/6).alquitran (11/11), asfalto (2/11), brea (1111).

brea (6/9), alquitran (5/9), asfalto (4/9), petr6leo (2/9).brea (6/10), alquitran (5/10), asfalto (1/10).

chapapote (l0/15), alquitran (2/15), asfalto (2/15), chapopote (2/15), asfaltil (1/15), brea

(1115).

petr61eo (7/13), brea (5/13), sellalotodo (3/13), alquitr<in (2/13).

brea (19/20), asfalto (2/20).

asfalto (9/12), alquitran (3/12), brea (3/12).brea (12/16), alquitran (4/16), asfalto (2116).

brea (8/8), asfalto (1/8).brea (11/13), alquitran (2113), asfalto (1/13).

alquitrful (14/15), brea (3/15).bleque (10/10), asfalto (4/10), brea (2110), alquitran (1/10).

alquitran (6/8), brea (2/8).alquitran (10/14), brea (9/14), bleque (4/14), asfalto (2114).

alquitran (14/15), brea (4/15), asfalto (1/15).

373

B2.3 Details

General: The item described to respondents in lay terms was black tar: "Una sustancia negra ypegajosa que, mezclada con gravilla 0 piedritas, se usa para pavimentar calles y carreteras."When respondents gave as/alto, which happened not infrequently, I would then saysomething like "Si, pero lque nombre Ie da usted a la materia base, sin las piedritas?" Some,especially Venezuelans, would still say as/alto, whereas most would then say brea, alquitranor a more regional term. More surveys need to be done with people who are clear on thedifference.

Asfalto: Although aslalto was offered by a number ofrespondents in the sense oftar and is definedby the DRAE in this sense, it appears most Spanish speakers make a distinction between thebase material (alquitran, brea, or a regional term for tar), and the compound made oftar andgravel (as/alto = "asphalt"). Note, however, that a majority of Venezuelan respondentsindicated aslalto when asked to name the base material.

.Bleque: The DEArg (Argentina) and the NDU (Uruguay) both define bleque as "Sustancia viscosay pegajosa, de color oscuro, que se obtiene por destilacion de madera y hulla" and indicatethat alquitran is used in this same sense in Spain (and in Argentina and Uruguay). TheNuevoDiccionario de Americanismos e Indigenismos (Morinigo) defines bleque as "(Del inglesblack.) Arg., Par. y Uru. Preparado de alquitnin." In this study, two Argentines indicated thatbleque is an older term that is no longer used as often as alquitran or brea, but one stated thatbleque refers to a heavy, more viscous tar (alquitran pesado or brea pesada) than alquitranor brea.

Chapapote: The DECu (Cuba) defines chapapote as "Asfalto espeso con que se pavimentan callesy carreteras" and the DHAV (Venezuela) defines it as "Sustancia derivada del petroleo quesolidificada se aplica sobre el suelo de las carreteras para formar el pavimento." In this study,chapapote was offered in the sense oftar by a majority ofCubans, by a couple ofSpaniardsfrom Galicia (Gallegos), and by one Mexican from Quintana Roo (in the Yucatan). SeveralCubans, who indicated chapapote is the most commonly used term for tar, stated that breaand alquitran are technical terms not frequently used in everyday language.

Chapopote: In this study, chapopote was indicated for tar by a majority of Mexicans andGuatemalans, and by a minority of Salvadorans. However, the DEUMex's definitions ofchapopote and brea indicate that the two may be distinct in Mexican usage. Chapopote isdefined in this source as "Sustancia negra, pesada y espesa que forma parte del petroleo; seencuentra en distintos lugares, particularmente en el mar, y se utiliza para asfaltar caminos,impermeabilizar techos y paredes, etcetera." Brea, in contrast, is defined as "1 Substanciaviscosa de color rojo oscuro que se obtiene por destilacion del alquitnin de ciertas maderas,del carbon mineral y de otras materias de origen organico; es insoluble en agua" and "2Mezcla de esta sustancia con pez, sebo y aceite que se usa para calafatear los barcos yhacerlos impenneables." (It is not clearwhy the DEUMex sometimes spells the Spanish wordfor "substance" sustancia and sometimes substancia even within the definition of the sameword!)

374

Mene: Mene is defined in the DHA V (Venezuela) as "1 coloq Petr6leo. 12 coloq Asfalto," but in theDRAE as "Ven. Manantial natural de petr6Ieo." How common are these three uses inVenezuela?

Piche: Piche was offered by two respondents from Galicia, Spain and probably derives from English"pitch" (pez, alquitran).

Sellalolodo: Sellalotodo was given by a few respondents from the Dominican Republic in the senseof a type of liquid tar used as a sealant, but was pronounced sellaloto. See DominicanRepublic in section A16.3 above for information on the elision of intervocalic Idl and itspotential for lexicalization.

Technical terms: Technical terms for tar provided by a small number ofrespondents from differentcountries include emulsion aslaltica,pintura aslaltica and membrana aslaltica. What are thetechnical distinctions between them?

B2.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: alquitran (A), aslalto (A), bleque (F), brea (D), chapapote (B), chapopote (B),petroleo (D), sellalotodo (F).

DRAE definitions: alquitran, "(Del ar. hisp. alqitran 0 alqatran). Producto obtenido de ladestilaci6n de maderas resinosas, carbones, petr6leo, pizarras y otros materiales vegetales yminerales. Es liquido, viscoso, de color oscuro y fuerte olor, y tiene distintas aplicacionesindustriales"; alquitran de petroleo, "EI [alquitran] obtenido por destilaci6n del petr6leo. Se usacomo impermeabilizante y como asfalto artificial"; aslalto, "(Dellat. asphaltus, y este del gr....).Sustancia de color negro que constituye la fracci6n mas pesada del petr6leo crudo. Se encuentra aveces en grandes dep6sitos naturales, como en ellago Asfaltites 0 mar Muerto, 10 que se llam6 betlinde Judea. Se utiliza mezclado con arena 0 gravilla para pavimentar caminos y como revestimientoimpermeable de muros y tejados"; betun de judea and betunjudaico, "asfalto"; brea, "Sustanciaviscosa de color rojo oscuro que se obtiene haciendo destilar al fuego la madera de varios arbolesde la clase de las Coniferas. Se emplea en medicina como pectoral yantiseptico"; chapapote, "(Deor. nahua 0 caribe). Asfalto mas 0 menos espeso que se halla en Mexico, las Antillas y Venezuela112. Cantb. y Gal. [Cantabria y Galicia] alquitran.113. coloq. Ven. Sustancia viscosa de cualquiertipo extendida por el suelo"; chapopote, "(Del nahua chapopotli). Mex. chapapote 01 asfalto)"; pezelastica, "Mineral semejante al asfalto, pero menos duro y bastante elastico."

Comments: TheDRAE makes a distinction between brea (a dark red substance derived fromwood) and alquitran (a dark substance derived from wood, coal, petroleum and other mineral orvegetable matter), a distinction that does not appear to be made by most Spanish speakers who useeither brea or alquitran for black tar. What the DRAE fails to capture is that, in the everyday usageof the different regions, terms such as alquitran, brea, chapapote, chapopote and bleque can referto the same thing. Alquitran, alquitran de petroleo and brea should be given full descriptions, andthe remaining terms should be cross-referenced to them.

375

B3 SAWHORSE

B3.1 Summary

Burro is the most conunonly used tenn in about twelve countries and caballere in seven. In SpanishAmerica, the dividing line or isogloss seems to lie somewhere between Lima and Guayaquil. InEcuador and points north ofEcuador, burro is more common. From Peru to the south, caballere ismore common. Banco is also used in the sense of sawhorse in many parts of the Spanish-speakingworld.

Note: Tenns other than burro, cabal/ere and banco (and variants of these) appear in italics; CostaRica's burra appears in boldface and italics.

B3.2 Terms by Country (c. 8 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PlJERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

B3.3 Details

caballete (11/16), borriqueta(2I16), burro (2116), banco (1/16), burra (1/16), caballo (1/16),

pato (1/16).

burro (16/21), banco (7/21), cabal/(ir)o (4/21).burro (14/18), burrito (2118), caballo (2/18), banco (1/18).

burro (9/15), banco (6/15), burrito (3/15), banquito (2115), burro de ttabajo(I/15),

sentadera (1/15).

burro (9/10), banco (1/10).

burro (11/13), burra (3/13).burra (9/12), burro (3/12), banco de carpinteria (1112).

burro (8/1 0), burro de mesa (1/10), cabalJete (1/10), caballo (1/1 0).

burro (11/14), caballete (4/14), banco (3/14).burro (10/14), banco (8/14).burro (9/15), caball(it)o (de rrabajo) (4/15), banco (de soporte) (2115), cabalJete

(1/15).

burro (11/13), banco (1/13), caballete (1/13), caballo (1113).

burro (12/14), banco para carpinteria (1/14), burriquete (1/14), cabalJete (1/14).

burro (10/12), caballete (3/12), banco (1/12).

caballete (12/15), burro (2115), caballito (2115), banco (1/15).

caballete (13/14), caballito (1/14).

caballete (7/7).caballete (9/9).caballete (17/17).caballete (13/13), banco (de trabajo) (2113), burro (1113). caballo (1/13).

General: The image respondents were shown and asked to identify was a standard, flat-topcarpenter's sawhorse with no board or panel on top, like the one on the left-hand side in

376

Figure B3 in lllustrations. The sawhorse on the right in Figure B3 is for sawing logs and thiswas not shown to respondents. If the burro-cabal/ete isogloss lies somewhere betweenGuayaquil and Lima, what theories can explain this?

Banco: Many respondents from different countries gave banco, banco de carpinteria or banco withother modifiers when asked to identify a carpenter sawhorse (see General above), andperhaps it can be argued that people who use banco in the sense of sawhorse are in factconfusing the sawhorse itselfwith the work bench that is created when a board or panel isplaced on top of two sawhorses. However, such "confusion"-if, indeed, we want to call itthat-appears to be rather widespread, even among people who work with sawhorses, andtherefore the use of banco to refer to a sawhorse should probably be recognized ascommonplace even if technically incorrect.

Spain: The DRAE's definitions of asnilla, borrico, borriquete, burro, cabal/ete and, possibly,pa/omilla include descriptions that appear to refer to different types ofsawhorses (see sectionB3.4 below). In this study, the majority of respondents gave cabal/ete and a couple offeredborriqueta and burro.

Mexico: The use of burro in this sense is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as "II 3Armazon, generalmente de madera con dos pares de patas abiertas, que se usa para sosteneralguna cosa: 'Con dos burros y una tabla pusieron una mesa en el patio'."

Costa Rica: The NDCR confirms the use ofburra, defining it as "4. Aparato de madera 0 de metalque consta de dos sostenes en forma de A, unidos en su vertice por un larguero, el cual se usapara apoyar 0 sostener objetos."

Venezuela: The use ofburro is confirmed by the D V, which defines it as "Soporte de cuatro patas,de madera 0 hierro, con solo un liston 0 barra encima."

Colombia: Burro was given by the majority ofrespondents from diverse regions, but burriquete wasoffered by one from the Atlantic Coast and cabal/ete by one from Antioquia.

B3.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: banco (D?), burra (A or B?), burro (A or D?), cabal/ete (A), cabal/o (A orD?).

DRAE definitions: asnilla, "(Del dim. de asna). Sosten formado con un madero horizontalapoyado en cuatro tornapuntas arriostradas que sirven de pies"; borrico, "(Del lat. burriicus,buriicus, caballejo). 2. Armazon compuesta de tres maderos que, unidos y cruzandose en angulosagudos hacia su parte superior, forman una especie de tripode que sirve a los carpinteros para apoyaren ella la madera que labran"; borriquete, "borrico (II de carpintero)"; burro, "2. Armazoncompuesta de dos brazos que forman angulo y un travesafio que se puede colocar a diferentes alturaspor medio de clavijas. Sirve para sujetar y tener en alto una de las cabezas del madero que se ha deaserrar, haciendo descansar la otra en el suelo"; burra, "5. C. Rica. burro (II armazon para sujetarun madero que se asierra)"; cabal/ete, "(Del dim. de cabal/o). 4. asnilla (II sosten portatil)"; cabal/o,"4. burro (II armazon para sujetar un madero que se asierra)"; pa/omilla, "9. Armazon de tres piezasen forma de triangulo rectangulo, [sic] que sirve para sostener tablas, estantes u otras cosas."

Questions/Comments: The DRAE defines asnilla and cabal/ete with one description (a four­legged sawhorse), borrico and borriquete with another (what appears to be a type of three-legged

377

sawhorse), and burro, burra and caballo with a third (what appears to be a type of two-leggedsawhorse used for cutting wood such that one end of the wood is placed in the sawhorse and theother end rests on the ground). Do Spaniards who work with different types ofsawhorses generallyuse these different names to refer to these types? These distinctions may correctly describePeninsular Spanish technical usage, but fail to paint an accurate picture ofSpanish American usagein which, for example, burro and caballete can be synonyms but are regionally weighted terms:speakers tend to prefer one term over the other depending on geographic region.

B4 FORM (for pouring concrete)

B4.1 Summary

Encofrado is the General Spanish term, but in a number of countries other words such as cimbra,encajonado, encajuelado,forma,formaleta or tablero, etc. are used more often than encofrado.

Note: Terms other than encofrado appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.

B4.2 Terms b:y Country (c. 14 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VE~EZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

encofrado (9/11), mollie (2111).cimbra (11/25),forma (9/25), encajonado (5/25), cajon (3/25), dala (3/25),armex (2'25), molde (2'25), caja (1/25), en1arimado (1/25).formaleta (9/14),jorma (2/14), cajon (1/14), encajuelado (1/14), molde (1/14).molde (7/14), encajonado (3/14), mo/dura (3/14),jorma (2114),formaleta (2'14),cajon (1/14).encofrado (4/8), encajue/ado (3/8),forma (2/8),formaleta (2/8).formaleta (12/12).formaleta (10/11), molde (1111).formaleta (617), encofrado (117).encofrado (11/13), molde (1/13),forma (1113).molde(n) (8/13), cana(s)to (3/13), cana(s)ta (2113), cajon (1113), encofrado (1113),marco (1113).molde (8/1O),jormaleta (2110), cajon (1/10).encofrado (12/12).formaleta (9/12), armadura (1/12), encofrado (1/12), molde (1/12).encofrado (12/15), tablero (6/15).encofrado (919).encofrado (5/6), encajonado (1/6).encofrado (515).encofrado (4/4).encofrado (10/14), mo/de (3/14), encajonado (1/14).molde (317), encofrado (217), mo/daje (117), forma (117).

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B4.3 Details

General: In the technical language of each country, how (if at all) are different base terms appliedto different types of forms? These include forms for foundations, forms for sidewalks andother slabs, forms for colwnns, and suspended forms such as those used to build an upperfloor of a building.

Mexico: The DEUMex describes cimbra as "Armazon 0 molde de madera, de fierro u otrosmateriales sobre el que se lleva a cabo el colado de concreto 0 cemento de un techo 0 unaboveda y que se retira una vez que ha fraguado y endurecido." This indicates that in Mexicocimbra is a type of form used to build an upper storey of a building, a vault, or some othersuspended structure, rather than to build a foundation. (The DRAE, in contrast, definescimbra as a "centering"; see section B4.4 below.) The DEUMex also defines the verbcimbrar as "Colocar las cimbras en una construccion..." That encofrado is not listed as anentry in this dictionary also lends credence to the notion that it is not part of"el espanol usualen Mexico" and yet, ifcimbra is only used in the restricted sense ofa suspended form, whatterms in Mexico are applied to the form used for a foundation and/or other forms that falloutside of :ie restrictions outlined in the DEUMex's definition of cimbra? In this study,some respondents indicated that cimbra refers only to raised forms (up in the air, like thatdescribed in the DEUMex's definition), but others said cimbra can refer to any form used forpouring concrete. The use of forma in the general sense of form was also given by anontrivial percentage of respondents. It should be noted, however, that most Mexicansqueried on this topic (and on all topics in this study) were Mexicans living in the UnitedStates either temporarily or semi-permanently. Given its similarity to English "form," isforma a term commonly used in this sense in Mexico, or is it only used by Mexicans livingin the United States who have been influenced by the English word "form"? Since manygenerations ofMexicans have worked in the construction industry in the United States, someofwhom returned to Mexico, I suspect it is common in Mexico as well. We note that anothermeaning of the wordforma, which also resembles English "form" in form and in meaning,is defined by the DEUMex as "9 Hoja de papel impresa con las instrucciones que debenseguirse y los datos que se requieren para efectuar algilll tcimite." This suggests that formain the sense of"form to fill out" (in other words, more or less equivalent to formu/ario) isnot an Anglicism that only uneducated Mexicans living in the United States use, as somehave alleged, but is part ofmainstream Mexican Spanish, though its use is no doubt criticizedby some Mexicans. It is possible that the use offorma, in the sense of a form for pouringconcrete is also part ofMexican Spanish, either general or regional, and is not limited to thelanguage of Mexicans living in the United States. If so, is its use in Mexico due to theinfluence ofEnglish "form," is it the result ofa narrowing ofa more general sense offorma(mo/de en que se vacia y forma a/go), or a combination of the two factors? The NuevoDiccionario de Americanismos e Indigenismos (Morinigo) defines da/a as "Mex. Viga decemento armado, encajada en una pared, a 10 largo, para darle mayor resistencia" Were thethree Mexicans who gave da/a in the sense of form confused (or misunderstood by me), oris dala used by some Mexicans in the sense of form?

379

Costa Rica: The NDCR confinns the use offormaleta, defining it as "[Alb.] Armazon de madera quesirve de molde para construir una viga 0 cualquier cosa de cemento" and definesfonnaletearas "tr. Hacer formaletas."

Panama: Panameiiismos (Isaza Calderon) also confirms the use offonnaleta, defining it as "Moldede diversas formas y tamanos dentro del cual se vacia el hormigon."

Dominican Republic: Many respondents in this study said molden rather than molde, though inreality the pronunciation was often somewhere between molden and moiden. The moide andmoiden pronunciations were given mostly, but not exclusively, by respondents from theCibao. Is the addition ofa word-final n to malde, and to other words ending in unstressed e,common in other Spanish-speaking countries? Compare the use of naiden (nadie) that iscommon in parts of rural Mexico (and perhaps elsewhere). In the case of naiden, there ismetathesis ofd and i to form naide-which is a popular form of nadie in many parts of theSpanish-speaking world (Lipski 1994: 148}-and, in addition, an n is added to the unstressedword-final vowel e,just as in the case ofmoldenlmoiden « molde). The addition ofthis [n]in the Dominican Republic may also be a case of"hypercorrection" since phrase-final andword-final In! is sometimes elided in this country (Lipski 1994: 238). The neutralization ofsyllable-final liquids III and Irl in favor ofIl/ (whereby words such as alma and anna bothsound like alma) is widespread in the Dominican Republic and elsewhere in the HispanicAntilles (Lipski 1994: 231-232,239,332-333), and, at the vernacular level, the vocalizationof these liquids (such that alma and anna both sound like aima, or somewhere in betweenalma and aima) is common in most ofthe northern halfof the Dominican Republic (Lipski1994: 239). Dominicans themselves sometimes refer to the pronunciation ofwords like aima(alma) and mujei (mujer) as "hablar con la i." In the case ofcana(s)to and cana(s)ta, severalrespondents pronounced these words with no aspiration (or [s]) that I could perceive, but thepresence of lsi may have been marked by a compensatory lengthening of the precedingvowel. Research needs to be.done to determine the extent to which the aspiration or elisionofsin canasto and canasta may have become lexicalized giving canato and canata (perhapspronounced canaato and canaata), respectively. For information on these issues and adiscussion of the possible causes of the vocalization ofliquid consonants in the DominicanRepublic (including theories on a possible African, Haitian, Canary Island and/or Murcianorigin), see ''Nuevas perspectivas sobre el espanol afrodorninicano" (Lipski 2004c).

Puerto Rico: The majority of respondents indicated molde, but one said afonnaleta is a fonn usedfor pouring a sidewalk and a molde one for a building's foundation.

Colombia: The NDCol defines formaleta as "Molde para hacer tapias, adobes, ladrillos 0 tejas. IArmazon metaIico 0 de madera que sostiene el peso de un arco 0 de otra construccion, entanto esta no se halla en condiciones de sostenerse a sl misma"; cimbra is offered as thePeninsular Spanish equivalent for sense two. Thus this source states thatfonnaleta can referto a fonn or mold for making bricks, tiles, etc. (sense one) and to a "centering" or frame thatholds up an arch or other suspended structure while it is being built (sense two). In this study,however, a majority ofrespondents indicated that fonnaleta can refer to a form for pouringconcrete.

380

Ecuador: The term tablera was offered by Ecuadoran masons from the Costa all ofwhom indicatedtablera and encofrado are synonyms and that the former is used more often than the latter.Is tablero also used in the Sierra in the sense of form?

Argentina: The majority ofrespondents indicated encofrado, a few molde, and one said molde is theform by itself and encofrado or rnolde encofrado is the form once it is filled with concrete.

Related concept: The DECu defines zapata as "En un edificio, parte subterranea que sirve de soporteala construccion" and indicates that cimiento is an equivalent used in Spain and Cuba. In thisstudy, Dominicans and Puerto Ricans also confirmed the use of zapata in the sense offoundation.

B4.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: cimbra (D), dala (D), encajonado (D), encajuelado (F), encofrado (A),forma(D),formaleta (B), rnolde (D), tablero (D).

DRAE definitions: encofrado, "(Del part. de encofrar). Molde formado con tableros 0 chapasde metal, en el que se vacia el hormigon hasta que fragua, y que se desmonta despues"; cirnbra, "(Deor. inc.; cf. cat. cindria). 2. Constr. Armazon que sostiene el peso de un arco 0 de otta construccion,destinada a salvar un vano, en tanto no esta en condiciones de sostenerse por sf misma"; dala, "(Delfro daIle, y este del neerl. daal, tubo). Mar. Canal de tablas por donde salia a la mar el agua queachicaba la bomba";forma, "3. Molde en que se vacia y forma algo";formaleta, "(Del cat.formalet,arco de medio punto). Armazon que sostiene un arco. II 2. C. Rica. Armazon de madera con que seconstruye una viga 0 cualquier pieza de cemento"; rnolde, "(Del cat. ant. motle). Pieza 0 conjuntode piezas acopladas en que se hace en hueco la forma que en solido quiere darse a la materia fundida,fluida 0 blanda, que en el se vacia, como un metal, la cera, etc."; zapata, "8. Cuba. Zocalo de fabricaen que se apoya una pared 0 tabique."

Questions/Comments: Formaleta and the other commonly used regional synonyms (such ascirnbra,forma, encajonado, encajuelado, rnolde and tab/ero) should be cross-referenced to GeneralSpanish encofrado. We also note that theDRAE's definitions ofcimbra (sense two) andformaleta(sense one) are very similar to each other and correspond to what in English is called a "centering"(defined bytheAHD as "A temporary, usually wooden framework on which an arch, vault, or domeis supported during construction"). Can cimbra and formaleta be synonyms in Peninsular Spanishusage? If so, they should be cross-referenced.

BS WASHER (metal washers for screws and bolts)

BS.l Summary

Arandela is the most commonly used word for metal washers (used with screws and bolts) in overhalf the Spanish-speaking world and can be considered the General Spanish term. Guacha, and itsvariants, are used in five countries, and Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile have unique usages not commonin any other country.

381

Note: Terms other than arandela appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.The item addressed in this section is the metal washer used with screws and bolts, not the rubber orplastic washer used in plumbing. See washers in Appendix for some limited information on theregional variation in the names for the latter type.

B5.2 Terms by Country (c. 8 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RlCA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTORlCO

VENEztJELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

B5.3 Details

arandela (15/15).rondana (19/23), arandela (3/23), guacha (1/23), guasa (1/23).

guasha (7/14), roldana (5/14), rondana (2114), arandela (1/14), guacha (1/14).

guacha (12/15), arandela (4/15), guasha (1/15).

guacha (13/13).arandela (12/12).arandela (13/13), guacha (1/13).

guacha (9/13), arandela (6/13), guasha (2113).

arandela (17/17).arandela (14/14).arandela (18/18).arandela (15/15).arandela (22/22), guasa (1122).

anillo (10/22), arandela (10/22), rodela (10/22).guacha (16/21), arandela (5/21), anillo (3/21), guasha (1/21).

bolandalvolanda (11/14), arandela (4/14).arandela (6/6).arandela (12/12).arandela (20/20).golilla (18/18).

General: The modifiers plano and de presion get added to the base terms for metal washers whenone wants to refer specifically to "flat washers" (arandela plana, guacha plana, etc.) vs."spring washers" or "cut washers" (arandela de presion, guacha de presion, etc.). The termsguacha, guasha and guasa are also sometimes written with initial hu (e.g. huacha) or, lessoften, with an etymological w (wacha), but in section B5.2 above they are spelled with initialgu because this appears to be the most common spelling and for the sake of uniformity. Inthe case of loan words (prestamos) and also with popular and vulgar language, Spanishcontinues to grapple with the issue ofhow the phoneme /g/ when followed by a semi-vowel[u] should be represented graphically, whether by gu, hu or (less often) w. Although thisambivalence occasionally crops up in word-internal positions-aguate-ahuate, aguautle­ahuautle and giiegiienche-huehuenche are examples-it is especially frequent word-initially,as the following pairs of terms illustrate: giiisqui-whisky, guizcala-huizcala, guaco-huaco,guachar-huachar, guaje-huaje, guarache-huarache, guaso-huaso, giievada-huevada,

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giiev6n-huev6n, giievonada-huevonada, giiisquil-huisquil, giiillin-huillin, giiilo-huilo, giiipil­huipil, giiiro-huiro and giiero-huero. With the exception of huaso, and the gii spellings inthe words deriving from huevo, all ofthe preceding terms are listed with both variants in theDRAE. In the case of some of these pairs, one spelling is generally preferred over theother-Mexican giiero ('blond') is rarely spelled huerlrwhile in that of giiisqui-whisky,Hispanized or Castilianized gilisqui may be preferred in Spain and etymological (English)whisky or whiskey in Spanish America. The gil spelling is also used to represent cases inwhich the phonemes Ig/ and fbi when followed by the semi-vowel [ul and (generally) lei getneutralized in favor of Ig/, especially, though not exclusively, in popular language. This isreflected in a number of nonstandard spellings used to depict uneducated speech such asagiielo « abuelo), giieno « bueno), giielta « vuelta) and giiey « buey). See "El espanol quese habla en el Salvador y su importancia para la dialectologia hispanoamericana" (Lipski2000) for a detailed description of this neutralization and a discussion of its phonologicalcauses.

Spain: The DRAE defines rondana without regional specification as more or less a synonym ofarandela (see section B5.4 below), but in this study respondents offered onlyarandela. InSpain, how common is rondana in the sense defined by the DRAE and, how is itdistinguished from arandela?

Mexico: The use of rondana in the sense of metal washer is confirmed by the DEUMex, whichdefines it as "Pequena pieza circular y delgada, como un disco, generalmente de metal conun agujero en el centro, que se utiliza para que haya un ajuste perfecto entre una tuerca y untornillo." Interestingly enough, the DEUMex defines arandela somewhat differently as"Pieza metalica en forma de disco con una perforaci6n en el centro, que se utiliza paraimpedir el roce entre dos piezas de una maquina, para afianzar 0 apretar algo, como untornillo, para impedir filtraciones de liquidos entres dos piezas, etcetera." In this study, themajority ofMexican respondents indicated that rondana is the only term commonly used inthe sense ofmetal washer. The DEUMex indicates that rondanas are used "para que haya unajuste perfecto entre una tuerca y un tornillo" but, as anyone who has used metal washersknows, they serve other purposes as well, such as to distribute the pressure ofa bolt's heador nut over a larger surface area and thus prevent them from digging into and damaging thesurface of the material that is being bolted down.

Guatemala: Why did English ''washer'' get Hispanized to guacha with a ch sound in most Spanish­speaking countries that have taken the loan word from English (El Salvador, Honduras,Panama, Peru), but in Guatemala guasha seems to be the most common pronunciation? Isit because the sh sound is common in Quiche and other indigenous languages ofGuatemala,and therefore Guatemalans, unlike most Spanish speakers, had no trouble maintaining thesh sound ofEnglish ''washer'' since it was already part of their phonetic repertoire? Ifso, isguasha also used in some regions ofPeru (such as the Highlands) that also have a substratelanguage with an sh sound, Quechua? If not, why not? See Panama below.

El Salvador: The DS confirms the use of guacha, which is defined as "(lex. mec. [lexico demecanieos]) Arandela 0 especie de empaque que se pone entre la cabeza de un tornillo y lapieza en la eual se mete. Sirve para que zoque mejor el tornillo." We note that the DRAE

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defines the verb zocar as "Guat., Hond. y Nic. apretar (II oprimir)," but it would appear thatzocar is also used this way in El Salvador.

Panama: The use ofguacha is confirmed by the DTP (Higuero Morales), which defines huacha as"Arandela. Proviene del termino ingles washer" and guacha as "Ver huacha." In this study,two respondents gave the pronunciation guasha, but indicated they would spell the wordguacha. This is consistent with the fact that some Panamanians pronounce the affricate chas a fricative sh sound, especially word-internal intervocalic ch's (Lipski 1994: 299). In otherwords, some Panamanians would sayguasha, but write the word with a ch just as they wouldsay mushasho but would write muchacho. In Guatemala, in contrast, many people say andwrite the wordguasha. More research needs to be done concerning this point. See Guatemalaabove.

Colombia: All of the respondents in this study indicated arandela as the term for metal washers ingeneral, except for one, a building engineer, who stated that arandela is the flat or regularwasher and guasa depresion the cut washer. See, however, the NDCol's definitions ofguasaand empaque under washers in Appendix.

Ecuador: Rodela is more common in the Sierra and anillo more so in the Costa. Arandela is used inboth regions, but is less popular than rodela and anillo in their respective regions. (Bothanillo and rodela could be considered majority regionalisms in their respective regions,Costa Ecuatoriana and Sierra Ecuatoriana, respectively.)

Bolivia: Is the proper spelling yolanda or bolanda? In this study, eight out of eleven Boliviansindicated they believed bolanda was the correct spelling while three preferred yolanda,which is certainly not enough data to draw conclusions about prevailing usage. However,from an etymological standpoint, yolanda is probably the "correct" spelling since the wordmost likely has the same origin as volandera, which theDRAE defines as "(Del Iat. volandus,part. fut. pas. de volire, volar)... 5. Rodaja de hierro que se coloca como suplemento en losextremos del ejedel carro para sujetarlas ruedas." IfamajorityofeducatedBolivians believethe word is spelled bolanda, but based on etymology the word should be spelled yolanda,should we say the majority is "wrong" and try to change their practice by including only theword yolanda in dictionaries and teaching only this spelling to students, or should we go withprevailing usage and admit bolanda? Or should both variants be listed in dictionaries and thematter explained in a "usage note"? Like many language-planning issues, this is aphilosophical as well as a linguistic question.

Chile: The DECH confirms the use ofgolilla and indicates that arandela is less commonly used inthe sense ofmetal washer. It defines golilla as "Anilla, volandera, estornija 0 arandela planay sin hilo que se emplea para ajustar un perno 0 una tuerca y evitar que deterioren lasuperficie del material al que va adherida... Mas usual que los sins. [sin6nimos] academicos."

B5.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: anillo (D), arandela (A), bolanda (F), golilla (A), guacha (F), guasa (D),guasha (F), huacha (F), rodela (D), roldana (A), rondana (C), yolanda (F).

DRAE definitions: arandela l, "(Del fro rondelle). Pieza generalmente circular, frna y

perforada, que se usa para mantener apretados una tuerca 0 un tornillo, asegurar el cierre hennetico

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de una junta 0 evitar el roce entre dos piezas"; rondana, "Rodaja de plomo 0 cuero engrasado,agujereada en el centro, que se utiliza para asiento de tuercas y cabezas de tomillos"; golilla, "Chile.rondana"; roldana, "2. Guat. rondana."

Comments: The DRAE does not cross-reference rondana to arandela and defines the twosomewhat differently when, in fact, they can be synonyms. It also cross-references golilla androldana to rondana instead of to General Spanish arandela. With the exception of golilla androldana, the DRAE provides no information on the terms' regional distributions.

B6 BEARING (ball bearing, roller bearing, etc.)

B6.1 Summary

Rodamiento and cojinete can be considered General Spanish terms for ball bearing-rodamiento moreso than cojinete-but most countries have a more regional term that in everyday language is usedmore often than either ofthese two. Balero is used in Mexico and El Salvador, balinera in Colombiaand several Central American countries, caja de bola(s) in the Antilles, and ruleman or ruliman ina number of South American countries. Costa Rica, Venezuela and Peru have unique usages notfound elsewhere.

Note: Terms other than rodamiento and cojinete appear in italics, and majority regionalisms inboldface and italics.

B6.2 Terms by Country (c. 10 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBLA.

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

rodamiento (9/10), cojinete (3/10).baIero (14/17), rodamiento (2117), rulimtin (2117), balinera (1/17).

cojinete (8/1 0), balinera (1/1 0), rulemtin (1/1 0).

balero (13/13).balinera (12/12).balinera (13/13).rol (11/12), balinera (2112), cojinete de rodamiento (1/12).

balinera (13/13).caja de bola(s) (19/20), cojinete (3/20), rodamiento(2I20).

caja de bola(s) (20/20), roberi (5/20).caja de bola(s) (16/17), cojinete (1/17), rodamiento (1/17).

rolinera (14/16), cojinete (1/16), rodamiento (1/16), rulinera (1/16).

baIinera (22/24), rodamiento (4/24).ruliman (20/21), rodamiento (5/21).rodaje (17/21), rodamiento (2121), rulimtin (2121).

rodamiento (14/15), rulimtin (1/15).

ruleman (7/11), mleman (4/11), cojinete (2111).

ruleman (12/12), rodamiento (1/12).

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ARGENTINA

CHILE

B6.3 Details

rulemtin (18/20), rodamiento (3/20), bolillero (2/20), cojinete (2/20), nileman (2/20).

rodamiento (18/18), cojinete (1/18).

General: The item tested on respondents was the ball bearing, the most common type of bearing.However, a few indicated that the base terms they offered for ball bearings are also used,perhaps with modifiers, to refer to other types ofbearings as well. Research needs to be doneto determine how other types ofbearings such as roller bearings orneedle bearings are calledin different regions, whether by the same base term as those listed in section B6.2 above,possibly with a different modifier, or by another term. For example, if a caja de bolas is aball bearing in the Antilles, would a roller bearing there be a caja de rodillos, a caja de bolasde rodillos, a caja de bolas con rodillos, or perhaps some other term that is not derived fromcaja de bolas? Other terms such as balero and balinera that derive from a word for ball (balaand balin, respectively) pose similar questions, though the DEUMex's definition of baleroseems to resolve the matter in the case ofMexico (see Mexico below). In the case ofGeneralSpanish rodamiento, which specific term for ball bearing is more common or preferred (andwhere), rodamiento de bolas or rodamiento a bolas?

Mexico: The use ofbalero in the sense ofball bearing is confirmed by theDEUMex, which definesit as "(Mec) Rodamiento con el que se protege de la fricci6n un eje 0 una flecha que rota; estaformado por cierta cantidad de balines colocados entre dos pistas circulares y concentricas."The definition goes on to describe two other types of bearings, baleros de agujas (needlebearings) and baleros de rodillos (roller bearings). The fact that neither rodamiento, norcojinete is listed as a separate entry in the DEUMex also suggests that balero is really theonly term for this item that is part of"el espanol usual en Mexico."

El Salvador: The DS defines balero as "(lex. mec.) Cojinete 0 pieza en que se apoya un eje paragirar. 2. Bolitas de acero que en fOIma de anillo ayudan al movimiento circular de una pieza3. Rodo." Although sense three of the definition is not very clear, by rodo the author of theDS appears to be referring to rodillo, which the DRAE defines as "4. Pieza de metal,cilindrica y giratoria, que forma parte de diversos mecanismos." In this study, all respondentsoffered balero for the ball bearing, but several indicated that balinera refers to the circularpart of the device that is inside the bearing.

Nicaragua: The DUEN confirms the use of balinera, defining it as "Dispositivo formado por doscilindros metcilicos entre los cuales se coloca una corona de bolas que sirven para elrodamiento."

Cuba: The DECu confirms the use of caja de bolas, defining it as "Cojinete formado por doscilindros concentricos entre los cuales se intercala una corona de bolas que pueden girarlibremente en cualquier maquinaria."

Dominican Republic: All respondents offered caja de bola(s), though in this survey it was moreoften pronounced caja de bola (this was also true for Cuba and Puerto Rico). However, ahandful of Dominicans also gave roberi and, of these, a couple said it was a roller bearing,and one (each) said it was a ball bearing with smaller balls, a more technical (shop-talk)

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synonym ofcaja de bola, or the part of the ball bearing that turns. However roberi is used,English "ball bearing" appears to be its origin.

Colombia: The NDCol confirms the use of balinera, defining it as "Dispositivo mecanico,consistente en una corona de bolas de acero contenidas entre dos anillos, fijo el uno a un ejeyel otro a una rueda" and indicates that cojinete and rodamiento de bolas are the PeninsularSpanish equivalents.

Paraguav. Uruguay & Argentina: The DEArg (Argentina) defines rulemim, with the alternatepronunciation ofrUleman, as "Pieza que cumple las funciones de cojinete, formada por arosmetalicos concentricos entre los que se intercala una corona de bolillas de acero, que giralibremente" and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is rodamiento de bolas. Inother words, it indicates that a ruleman or rUleman is specifically a ball bearing (as opposedto other types of bearings such as roller bearings). The definition of ruleman in the NDU(Uruguay) is almost identical to the DEArg's definition of this term. How common is thepronunciation of this term with the stress on the first syllable (rUleman) as compared to thestress on the third syllable (ruleman) in each of the three countries? See Ruliman vs.Ruleman/Ruleman below. The DEArg also defines buje as "Pieza en la que se apoya y girael eje de una maquinaria,'; and indicates that it is synonymous with cojinete de una pieza,which is used in Argentina and Spain, but the DRAE lists buje as a General Spanish term (seesection B6.4 below).

Ruliman vs. Ruleman/Ruleman: Why did the spelling with an i ofruliman evolve in Ecuador (andperhaps in Peru and Bolivia as well) when the spelling with an e (ruleman or perhapsrUleman) is used in the River Plate region? We note that rulemcm is closer in spelling to itsFrench etymon, roulement; that French roulement has a secondary stress on the first syllable;and that in rapid speech Spanish ruleman sounds just like ruliman. One possible explanationfor the spelling preferences in different Spanish-speaking countries is that ruleman took rootin Argentina and Uruguay (and by extension in Paraguay) because more people in BuenosAires and Montevideo were familiar with French and, when Hispanizing the word, they keptthe e thus partially retaining the French spelling. In Ecuador, on the other hand, the wordentered Spanish primarily through word ofmouth and was simply written as heard, ruliman,without paying attention to the French spelling. The fact that ruleman can be pronouncedrUleman in River Plate Spanish also supports the notion ofa stronger French influence there.See Paraguay. Uruguay & Argentina above.

Related terms: What are all the terms for the balls of ball bearings, such as balines, municiones,bolitas, chibolitas, etc., and how, if at all, are they regionally distributed?

B6.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: balero (F), balinera (B), caja de bolas (F), cojinete (A or D?), rodaje (D),rodamiento (A), rol (D), roberi (F), rolinera (F), ruleman (A), ruliman (F).

DRAE definitions: rodamiento, "Mec. Cojinete formado pordos cilindros concentricos, entrelos que se intercala una corona de bolas 0 rodillos que pueden girar libremente"; cojinete, "5. Mec.Pieza 0 conjunto de piezas en que se apoya y gira el eje de un mecanismo"; balero de rodamiento,"Mex. Rodamiento a bolas"; balinera, "(De balin). Nic. rodamiento"; buje, "(Del lat. buxis, caja).

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cojinete (II pieza en que se apoya y gira un eje)"; ruleman, "(Del fro roulement). Arg., Par. y Ur.rodamiento."

Comments: With respect to this item, the DRAE has described usage fairly accurately inabout halfthe Spanish-speaking world, most notably Spain, the Southern Cone and possibly Mexico(it should, however, define balero more generally, without the qualifier de rodamiento), but theDRAE is pretty much in the dark with regard to usage in the rest of the Spanish-speaking world.

B7 STEAMROLLER

B7.1 Summary

Aplanadora is the General Spanish term commonly used in all ofSpanish America with the possibleexception of the Dominican Republic. Spain has a unique term not common elsewhere.

Note: Terms other than aplanadora appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface anditalics.

B7.2 Terms by Country (c. 9 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERu

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGE~TINA

CHILE

apisonadora (9/1 0), ap!anadora (1/10).

aplanadora (13/14), plancha (2/14), compactadora (1/14).

aplanadora (9/10), apalmazador (1/10), rolo (1/10).

aplanadora (717).aplanadora (6/8), aplanador (118), compactadora (1/8).aplanadora (9/10), planadora (2/10).

aplanadora (12/13), planadora (1/13).

aplanadora (717), rodillo (117).aplanadora (10/12), cilindro (aplanador) (4/12), planadora (1/12).

rodillo (13/14), aplanadora (2/14), planadora (1/14).

aplanadora (14/21), rolo (6/21), cilindro (4/21), aplanador( 1121 ),p/anadora (1121).

aplanadora (6/8), compactador (1/8), rodillo compactador (1/8).aplanadora (13/16), compactador(a) (2/16), cilindradora (1/16), motoniveladora (1/16).

aplanadora (8/11), rodillo (5/11), planadora (1/11).

aplanadora (8/11), rodillo (3/11), compactadora (1/11).

aplanadora (9/1 0), compactadora (1/10).

aplanadora (517), compactador (117), rodillo (117).aplanadora (6/6).aplanadora (14/14).aplanadora (10/12), bicicleta del alcalde (1112), compactadora (1/12), rodillo (1/12).

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B7.3 Details

Compactador(a): The terms compactadora or compactador were offered by a handful ofrespondents from different countries in the sense of steamroller. However, many otherrespondents indicated that a compactador(a) is not a steamroller but a vibrating machine(also called a vibradora, according to some) that is used to further compact the ground afterthe steamroller has gone over the terrain. A Google image search ofcompactadora conductedin mid 2005 turned up mostly pictures ofmachinery other than steamrollers, though at leastone was of a machine that looked similar to a steamroller but appeared to have grooves inthe wheels. Is the use ofcompactador(a) in the sense ofsteamroller prevailing usage in somecircles? This question needs to be researched.

Mexico: In this study, all respondents gave aplanadora and a couple also indicated thatplancha wasused in this sense. The DEUMex, however, lists only plancha, which is defined as "3Maquina provista de un gran rodillo metilico, muy pesado, que se hace pasar sobre la tierrade una calle, un terreno, etc., para aplanarla y darle firmeza; aplanadora" and does not listaplanadora as a separate entry. The fact that aplanadora is not an entry in the DEUMex issomewhat odd since it is not a dictionary solely of Mexican regionalisms but a generaldictionary written from the Mexican perspective, and since aplanadora, in the sense ofsteamroller, seems to be more "mainstream Mexican usage" than plancha. How common isthe use ofplancha as compared to aplanadora in the sense of steamroller in Mexico?

Guatemala: Although the majorityofrespondents indicated aplanadora, one gave apalmazador, andwe note that the DRAE defines the verb apelmazar as "(De pelmazo). 2. tr. El Salv., Hond.y Nic. apisonar." Where else in Central America (and perhaps elsewhere) mightapelmazador(a) and/or apalmazador(a) be used in the sense of steamroller?

EI Salvador: The DS confinns the use ofaplanadora, defining it as "Maquina con rodillos pesados,usada en la construcci6n de calles para alisar y compactar el suelo."

Nicaragua: The DUEN also confinns the use ofaplanadora, defining it as "Maquina de gran pesoque se usa en la pavimentaci6n 0 reparaci6n de carreteras y calles."

Costa Rica: Aplanadora was offered by the majority of respondents in this study. However, theNDCR does not list aplanadora and defines planadora as "Vehiculo que con un cilindro dehierro en la parte delantera sirve para aplanar las calles." Perhaps this is b.ecause the authordoes not consider aplanadora to be especially regional or Costa Rican. How common isplanadora vis-a.-vis aplanadora in Costa Rica?

Cuba: The DECu confirms the use of both aplanadora and cilindro, defining them as "Maquinaprovista de rodillos grandes y pesados, que se emplea para apisonar y alisar calles, caminosy terrenos" and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is apisonadora.

Venezuela: The DHAVconfirms the use ofaplanadora, defining it as "Maquina con ruedas a modode rodillos grandes y pesados, usada en la construcci6n y reparaci6n de vias publicas."

Colombia: The NDCol defines cilindradora as "Maquina locom6vil, con ruedas a modo de rodillosgrandes y pesados, usada en la construcci6n y reparaci6n de vias publicas," and definesaplanadora almost identically. TheDRAE also confirms the use ofcilindradora in Colombia(see section B7.4 below). In this study, however, only one Colombian was found whoacknowledged the use ofcilindradora in the sense ofsteamroller, and he indicated it was an

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old term that is no longer common in his country. A Google search ofthe terms cilindradoraandpavimenlo, however, produced several texts, not all from Colombia, in which the formerterm appears with the meaning ofsteamroller. For example, the following quotation is fromthe technical specifications of a public works project: "A 10 largo de andenes, muros,cabezotes, sardineles y otros lugares inaccesibles a la cilindradora, la mezcla se compactarcicuidadosamente mediante el uso de pisones de mano calientes 0 compactadores mecanicosque apliquen una compresi6n equivalente" (Alcaldia Mayor de Cartagena de Indias;emphasis on cilindradora added). Interestingly enough, a very similar quotation was foundin what may be a Mexican Internet document authored by an Argentine called Pavimentoswhich states: "En las zonas inaccesibles para la cilindradora se obtendra la compactaci6nde la mezcla mediante compactadores portatiles mecamcos adecuados" (Liberatore). Thequestion remains as to how frequent the use ofcilindradora is in the sense ofsteamroller (orsome other type ofcompacting roller machine) in Colombia and beyond.

Ecuador: The HEDE confirms the use ofaplanadora, defining it as "Rodillo, maquina movida pormotor que lleva un pesado rodillo para compactar 0 aplanar el suelo destinado a calle, plaza,carretera, pista, etc.; apisonadora." The HEDE does not define rodillo, but the precedingdefinition seems to confirm the data from this study, which indicate that rodillo is used inEcuador in the sense ofsteamroller.

Argentina & Uruguay: The DEArg (Argentina) and the NDU (Uruguay) both confirm the use ofaplanadora, which they define as "Maquina con tracci6n propia, provista de rodillos grandesy pesados, que se emplea para apisonar y alisar calles, caminos y terrenos en general" andindicate that apisonadora is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. One Argentine respondentindicated that rodillo macizo refers to one of the heavy wheels of the aplanadora.

Chile: The DECH confirms the use ofaplanadora, defining it as "Apisonadora; maquina locom6vilarmada sobre rodillos grandes y pesados que se utiliza para apisonar y aplanar calles,caminos y terrenos... Sin. [sin6nimo] bicicleta del alcalde, 1a acep. No es usual el sin.academico" (i.e. apisonadora is not common in Chile), and it defines bicicleta del alcaldeas "fest. [festivo] fam. [familiar] Aplanadora..." In this study, one respondent also indicatedthat bicicleta del alcalde is used as a humorous and colloquial equivalent of aplanadora.

B7.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: apisonadora (C), aplanadora (A), cilindro (B), planadora (B), rodillo (D),rolo (D).

DRAE definitions: apisonadora, "Maquina autom6vil que rueda sobre unos cilindros muypesados, y que se emplea para allanar y apretar caminos y pavimentos"; aplanadora, "Am.apisonadora (II maquina)"; cilindradora, "Col. apisonadora (II maquina)"; cilindro, "8. Cuba.apisonadora (II maquina)"; planadora, "e. Rica. apisonadora (II maquina)"; rodillo, "2. Cilindromuy pesado de piedra 0 de hierro, que se hace rodar para allanar y apretar la tierra 0 para consolidarel firrne de las carreteras"; rodo, "Cilindro muy pesado para allanar el suelo."

Questions/Comments: The DRAE states accurately that aplanadora is used in SpanishAmerica, but needs to fine-tune the definitions and/or regional specifications of some of the otherterms so that the dictionary user is provided correct information about where terms such as rodillo

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and planadora are commonly used in the sense ofsteamroller. Apisonadora would be an excellentcandidate to receive the "Esp." (Espana) regional specification, a designation which appears in theDRAE's list of abbreviations but needs to be used much more liberally. The phrase "sobre linOS

cilindros muy pesados" that appears in the DRAE's definition ofapisonadora does not accuratelydescribe those steamrollers that have just one of these cilindros or rodillos in the front end of themachinery and have rubber tires (or some other locomotion device) in the rear end. The definitionsofaplanadora in the DEArg ("provista de rodillos grandes y pesados"), the DHAV ("con ruedas amodo de redillos grandes y pesados") and the DECH ("armada sobre rodillos grandes y pesados")suffer from the same limitation. See Figure B7 in lllustrations and the DEUMex's, the NDCR's andthe HEDE's defmitions ofplancha and (a)planadora in section B7.3 above to confmn this.

B8 SCREW ANCHOR

B8.1 Summary

Tarugo appears to be the most commonly used term, followed by taco.

Note: Terms other than tarugo and taco appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface anditalics.

B8.2 Terms by Country (c. 14 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PlJERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAY

ARGENTINA

CHILE

taco (6/11), tarugo (2111), expansion (1/11), tojino (III I), tugino (1111).

taquete (10/10).tarugo (6/7), taquete (1/7).ancla (6/6).taco ficher (4/4).espiche (5/8), expansor (1/8), taco de expansion (1/8), tarugo (1/8).espander/expander (9/10), tarugo (1/1 0).

taco (9/10), anclaje de p/ztico (1110), casquillo (1/1 0).

expansiOn (5/7), taco (2/7).tarugo (10/10).expansiOn (12/12).ramplli (12/16), ramp/ug (2116), ramp/un (2116), ramp/ex (I/16), ramp/ux (1116).

chazo (12/12).taco fisher/taco ficher (7/8), tarugo (3/8), taco (1/8).tarugo (9/10), taco (Ill 0).

ramplu (5/9), tarugo (3/9), ramplug (1/9).tarugo (5/5).taco fisher (6/7), taco (dejijacion) (2/7), tarugo (1/7).tarugo (15/15), taco fisher (5/15),jisher (1/15).

tarugo (9/9).

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B8.3 Details

Ancla(je): The word anclaje (anclaje pkistico, anclaje metalico, etc.) appears to be a technicalGeneral Spanish tenn for this item, as it appears in web sites from different Spanish-speakingcountries. See, for example, "Hilti Espanola S.A." (Spain), ''Boletin de Aclaraciones No.D164-2 Licitaci6n Publica Internacional..." (Honduras) and "Durlock" (Argentina) inReferences. Is the use ofanclaje and ancla (see EL SALVADOR in section B8.2 above) in thesense of screw anchor a calque ofEnglish "(screw) anchor," or does it represent a paralleldevelopment that is unrelated to the evolution ofthe meaning ofanchor in English?

Chazo: The NDCol (Colombia) defines chazo as "Pedazo 0 taco de madera que se introduce en unapared para fijar algo en e1." Although chazo no doubt still has this meaning, the tenn nowalso refers to the factory-made plastic screw anchor. Some Colombians, including college­educated ones, believe this word is spelled chaso.

Rampl';' or ramplug: The DBA V (Venezuela) confinns the use of ramplug, defining it as "Pieza,generalmente de plastico, que se empotra en una pared para sujetar clavos 0 tomillos." In thisstudy, the majority of Venezuelans indicated that ramplu was both the spoken and writtenfonn of the word, but one stated that the term should be written ramplug but is generallypronounced as if written ramplu. The origin of ramplu and ramplug, also used in Bolivia,may be English "raw plug" or "raw plug anchor." (See, for example, "Er Maracucho Rajao...Conozca sobre la Real Academia del Habla Maracucha. Vocablos de uso comun enMaracaibo y zonas circunvecinas" and Maria Julia Brunette's Diccionario de Construccion,among other Internet sources.)

Taco fisher. taco ficher, etc: These tenns most likely derive from a brand name (Fisher?). TheHonduran respondents (only four) pronounced the word as if spelled taco ficher; theArgentines and Uruguayans tacofisher; and the Ecuadorans were mixed, some pronouncingit with an affricate ch and some with a fricative sh sound. A few Ecuadorans and Honduransleft out or elided the r offisher/ficher, but in all cases, the stress was on the first syllable, [FI­cher], [FI-che], [FI-sher] or [FI-she]. How should this word be spelled? Ficher andfisher arepossibilities, but Hispanizing the word into RiverPlateSp~shcould also yieldfiyerorfillersincey and II (which correspond to a single phoneme in most ofthe Spanish-speaking worldincluding the River Plate region) are pronounced there like the g in English beige, or as ansh sound.

Taquete: The use of taquete in Mexico in the sense of screw anchor is confinned by the DEUMex,which defines it as "Pedazo cilindrico ypequeno de madera, plastico 0 metal, que se encajaen un hueco hecho para tal efecto en una pared para luego fijar a el clavos, tornillos, etc. delos que se han de colgar 0 fijar objetos pesados..." Tarugo, however, is defined in theDEUMex as a different object, made exclusively ofwood, in which screws are not inserted:"2 Pedazo de madera corto y grueso que sirve como pieza de sosten 0 refuerzo en obras decarpinteria..."

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B8.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: ancla (D), chazo (D), espiche (D), expander (F), expansion (D), ramplli (F),taco (A or C?), taco fisher (F), taquete (F), tarugo (D).

DRAE definitions: chazo2, "nudillo (II zoquete de madera)"; nudillo, "3. Arq. Zoquete 0

pedazo corto y grueso de madera, que se empotra en la fcibrica para clavar en el algo; como las vigasde techo, marcos de ventana, etc."; espiche, "(Etim. disc.). 2. Estaca pequefia que sirve para cerrarun agujero, como las que se colocan en las cubas para que no salga elllquido 0 en los botes para queno se aneguen"; taco, "14. coloq. Trozo de madera 0 de plastico, de forma mas 0 menos alargada,que se empotra en la pared para introducir en el clavos 0 tomillos con el fin de sostener algilnobjeto"; tarugo, "Trozo de madera 0 pan, generalmente grueso y corto. 115. El Salvo y Nic. Pedazode madera, trapo u otro material que sirve para tapar un agujero."

Comment: The DRAE lists older, more traditional senses ofchazo, espiche, taco and tarugo(such as wooden plugs) that can be viewed as antecedents ofthe modem screw anchor, but it needsto update its definitions of these and other terms so that this modem sense is also covered.

B9 TIRE REPAIR SHOP

B9.1 Summary

Most Spanish-speaking countries have a regional name for (generally small) shops that fix and/orretread tires.

Note: Regional words appear in italics and where they are the majority terms, in boldface and italics.

B9.2 Terms by Country (c. 11 terms plus variants)

SPAIN

MEXICO

GUATEMALA

ELSALVADOR

HONDURAS

NlCARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PAl';AMA

CUBA

DOMIN. REP.

PUERTO RICO

VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA

ECUADOR

PERU

no specific regional term (6/6).vulcanizadora (13/15), talachera (7/15), vulka (2115).

pinchazo (10/11), reencauchadora (1/11).

llantera (6/8), llanteria (2/8).llantera (9/9).vulcanizadora (9/9).no specific regional term (5/8), llantera (2/8), reencauchadora (1/8).no specific regional term (4/6), llantero (1/6), reencauchadora (1/6).ponchera (6/6).gomera (9/15), gomero (8/15), gorneria (3/15).gomera (6/7), no specific regional term (1/7).cauchera (11/11).montallantas (4/7), vulcanizadora (3/7), reencauchadora (1/7).vulcanizadora (10/1 0).vulcanizadora (4/7), llanteria (3/7), reencauchadora (1/7).

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BOLIVIA

PARAGUAYURUGUAYARGENTINACHILE

B9.3 Details

llanteria (8/8), gomeria (2/8),parchadora (1/8).gomeria (5/5).gomeria (SIS), recauchutadora (liS).gomeria (919).vulcanizacion (919).

General: The tenns presented in section B9.2 above were the ones offered with the meaning ofa tireshop that is generally a small family-owned business. Larger garages or factories where tiresare retreaded are often called reencauchadoras, recauchadoras or recauchutadoras,depending on which base verb (reencauchar, recauchar or recauchutar) is used; see retreadin Appendix for limited infonnation on the distribution of these verbs, and the DRAE'sdefinition ofreencauchadora in section B9.4 below. However, a handful ofrespondents, aminority in each case (see section B9.2 above), indicated that the tenns reencauchadora orrecauchutadora are used in the sense ofthe small tire repair shops. In Spain, Costa Rica andPanama, a majority of respondents gave no specific (short) name for this type of shop, butsome gave longer descriptive names such as taller de reparacion de llantas, taller deneumaticos y recauchutados, etc. In a number ofSpanish-speaking countries where llanterais not commonly used in the sense of a small tire repair shop, this term is used to refer tolarger businesses that sell and install tires, rims, hubcaps, etc. and do balancing andalignment of tires but do not necessarily fix flats.

Spain: Do these types of shops exist in Spain and, if so, how common are they and what are theycalled? It is noteworthy that the DRAE does not indicate a compact Peninsular Spanishequivalent of llantera, nor does it provide one for sense two ofgomeria (see section B9.4below). Also suggesting a lack ofa Peninsular Spanish equivalent is the fact that neither theDECu nor the NDCol provides one for the Cuban and Colombian names for this item (seeCuba and Colombia below). However, the DEArg indicates that taller de vulcanizacion isthe Peninsular Spanish equivalent ofArgentinegomeria (see Argentina & Uruguay below).

Mexico: Half a dozen respondents said that vulcanizadora and talachera both refer to tire repairshops, and a couple also indicated that vulka, spelled with a k, is the short form forvulcanizadora. Many other Mexicans, however, stated that a talachera is a more rudimentaryshop that only fixes flats but does not do retreading, whereas a vulcanizadora is a larger,higher-tech operation that also does retreading. Still others said a talachera is a shop thatdoes any type ofminor car repairs, or even minor repairs ofany sort, and that the expressionhacer talacha can mean fixing flats or doing general repairs. The following examples,provided by respondents in this study, suggest that hacer talacha and talachar can refer towork in general: "Ayer estuve en la talacha hasta las 12 de la noche." "-i,Ad6nde van?-Atalachar (a trabajar)." The DEUMex does not list talacha, talachera, talachar or talache (seesection A15 - pick/pickax above).

Guatemala: The Guatemalan use of pinchazo in the sense of tire repair shop is an example ofmetonymy in which a word for '(tire) puncture' has come to be used to refer to somethingassociated with tire punctures, namely, the shop that fixes them. This usage is confirmed by

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the following citations from Guatemalan Internet documents, although the fact thatpinchazoappears in quotation marks in the first example may suggest that some Guatemalans are notentirely comfortable with it: "A pocos pasos, entre ambas edificaciones hay un 'pinchazo',uno de estos hospitales de llantas que abundan en caminos y calles del pais" (Hernandez),and "Como tambien se tiene alguna pequeiia industria, un taller de herreria en el cual seocupa el senor, 0 pone un pinchazo cerca del paso de la carretera, se pone una venta dehelados, de aguas, entonces hay no solo actividades agricolas pecuarias en la comunidadcampesina, tambien se incursiona en actividades comerciales y servicios..." (Galicia;emphasis on pinchazo added).

Cuba: The DECu defines ponchera as "Taller en el que se arreglan los ponches de los nemmiticos"and defines ponche as "2 Pequeno orificio en un neumatico, causado generalmente por unobjeto punzante, que produce perdida de aire." It indicates that the Peninsular Spanishequivalent of Cuban Spanish ponche (sense two) is pinchazo, but provides no PeninsularSpanish equivalent for ponchera which (like the data in this study) suggests that there maynot be one. The DECu also defines vulcanizadora and recapadora as "Taller en que sevulcanizanlrecapan los neumaticos."

Dominican Republic: The majority ofrespondents in this study said that both gomera and gomerocan refer to a tire repair shop, and that gomero could also refer to the man who fixes tires.A few indicated that gomeria refers to a tire repair shop, but others said this was a place thatsells tires but does not repair them.

Venezuela: The DHAV confirms the use of cauchera, defining it as "Establecimiento dedicado alexpendio, montaje y reparacion de ~ cauchos" and defines caucho as ''Neumatico que secoloca en las ruedas de los vehiculos automotores y de otros, como por ej. una bicicleta." TheDVdoes not define cauchera in the sense oftire repair shop, but does define cauchero as "2.Persona que cambia y repara neumciticos."

Colombia: The NDCol defines montallantas as "Lugar donde se arreglan y montan los neumaticosde los vehiculos" and indicates that vulcanizadora is used in this same sense in thedepartments ofCauca, Narifio and el Valle (southwestern Colombia), and that llanteria isused in the Atlantic Coast region.

Ecuador: The HEME defines /lantera as "Fabrica de llantas 0 neumaticos. II Establecimiento en elque se reparan llantas y tuhos neumaticos. cf. vulcanizadora," but since vu/canizadora is notlisted as an entry in this dictionary, it is not clear where, or in what definition, the reader isbeing directed to make this comparison.

Peru: One respondent indicated that a llanteria is a smaller, more primitive tire repair shop than avulcanizadora.

UruguaY & Argentina: The DEArg (Argentina) and the NDU (Uruguay) confirm the use ofgomeria,which they define as "Taller de venta, reparacion y vulcanizacion de neumaticos paravehiculos automotores" and the former indicates that tallerde vulcanizacion is the PeninsularSpanish equivalent.

Chile: The DECH defines vulcanizacion as "2. fig. [figurado] Establecimiento donde se vulcaniza:'Una vulcanizacion y nueve restaurantes' ..." but it is not clear from this definition whetherthese establishments retread tires, fix flats or do both, or what is meant by the abbreviation"fig." Perhaps the DECHwrite;:s mean that the use ofvulcanizacion to refer to one of these

395

shops is figurative insofar as such shops do not actually vulcanize rubber but just fix tires.In other words, the regional meaning ofvulcanizacion may be another example ofa type ofmetonYmY in which the name of a process, vulcanization, is applied to another relatedmeaning, fixing and retreading tires. See Guatemala above.

Related terms: A number of the terms for tire repair shops derive from words that are regional orhave regional meanings (ponche, talacha or vulcanizar), while others derive from a word fortire that is regionallyweighted (llanta, goma or caucho). The tenns used for tire puncture/flattire, such aspinchazo,pinchadura andponche, also appear to be regionallydistributed and/orused differently indifferent countries. For information on the regional distribution of thewords for tire, see "Car terminology in the Spanish-speaking world" (Moskowitz: 338).

United States English: Small low-tech tire repair shops, like those found in Latin America, are notcommon in the United States, and therefore there is no United States English equivalentother than "tire repair shop" or some other descriptive term.

B9.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: cauchera (0), gomera (0), gomeria (A), llantera (B), llanteria (0),montallantas (F),pinchazo (D),ponchera (D), talachera (F), vulcanizacion (D), vulcanizadora (F).

DRAE definitions: gomeria, "Arg., Bol., Par. y Ur. Lugar de venta 0 reparacion deneumaticos"; llantercr, "Ecuad. Fabrica de llantas (II neumaticos). 2. Hond. Establecimiento que sededica a arreglarpinchazos de las llantas (II neumaticos)"; reencauchadora, "A. Andes [area de losAndes], EI Salv., Guat. y Hond. Instalacion industrial para recauchutar llantas 0 cubiertas deautomoviles, camiones, etc."; vulcanizar, "2. tr. Cuba yNic. Reparar neumaticos."

Comment: The DRAE is almost entirely in the dark on usage as it relates to tire repair shops.Is this because the phenomenon is not common in Spain?

APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

The following is a small selection ofmiscellaneous Spanish lexical dialectology topics relating tocarpentry, masonry, plumbing, heating, electrical, auto mechanics, and other trades in which tools,construction, repairs and maintenance playa role. The issues have not been thoroughly examinedin this study (either through field research or by reviewing existing literature), and are presentedmerely to call attention to their existence as possible dialectal and/or lexicographical topics thatawait in-depth investigation.

Note: A country followed by a question mark means that in this study only one or two respondentsfrom that country gave a particular response.

auto body shop / body shop. 'What are the names in Spanish for shops (garages) that fix the bodyof a vehicle, especially after it has been in an accident? They often do car painting anddetailing as well. Only a handful of respondents were queried on this topic, but theirresponses varied: lateria and hojalateria (Mexico), latoneria (Venezuela), taller de

396

carroceria and chaperia (Argentina), taller de chapa y pintura (Uruguay), taller deenderezado y pintura (Costa Rica), taller de latoneria y pintura (Colombia). The DHAVconfirms the use of latoneria in Venezuela, defining it as "2 Taller donde se repara lacarroceria de los vehiculos automotores."

balance I balancing. The NDCR (Costa Rica) defines balancear as "tr. [Aut.] Ajustar las ruedas deun vehiculo para que giren correctamente" whereas the DRAE provides only a generaldefinition ofbalancear: "tr. 19ualar 0 poner en equilibrio, contrapesar." A cursory survey ofSpanish Americans suggests that balanceo is widely used in Spanish America in the senseofbalancing in phrases such as alineacion y balanceo ('balancing and alignment'), whereasa Spaniard indicated that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent would be alineacion yequilibrado. However, the question remains as to who says balanceo, who says equilibrado,and who uses other phrases. Other issues include whether or not some Spanish Americanssay alineamiento instead of alineacion for alignment and whether some say balanceo yalineacion instead ofalineacion y balanceo.

bars. What terms are used in Spanish for a "flat bar" (sometimes called a "wonder bar") and a "nailpuller" (often called a "cat's paw")? A flat bar is a type ofwrecking bar with a claw used forprying and pulling nails that has a flat shaft. The advantage a flat bar has over a crowbar orregular wrecking bar, which has a round or hexagonal shaft, is that the former does lessdamage to the wood or other surface in which the nail is lodged when extracting the nailfrom it; the flatbar's disadvantage is that it is not as strong as a crowbar. A ''nail puller" or"cat's paw" is a bar in which the claw is tapered and at a right angle to the shaft. One usesit with a hammer to extract imbedded nails and it damages the wood. For information oncrowbars/wrecking bars, see section Al 0 above.

blocks (for building). The DEUMex defines tabique as "Cualquier pieza de caras rectangulareshecha de arcilla cocida que se usa como material de construccion: una pared de tabiques."Tabique is one ofthe most popular building materials used in Mexico among those who arenot affluent. What are all the regional names in Spanish for all of the different types ofcement or clay building blocks in all of the different regions?

bolt. The DEArg defines bulon as "Tornillo grande, con tuerca fuerte yresistente" and indicates thatthe Peninsular Spanish equivalent is perno. What other terms are used for ''bolt'' other thantornillo and perno, and what are their distributions?

brakes, shocks, mufflers (and various other regional Anglicisms that refer to car parts). The DS (EISalvador) defines chocausol, chocacsol and chocansol as "(lex. mec. [lexico de mecamcos])Amortiguador. Del ingles shock absorber." What other regional Anglicisms, such as lasbrecas and los breques (los frenos), and el mofle or la mufla, etc. (el silenciador), are usedand where?

break down. The DRAE defines encangrejar as "pm!. coloq. Cuba. Dicho de un mecanismo, de unmotor, etc.: Dejar de funcionar" and this is confirmed by the DECu, which defines the verbas "coloq Dejar de funcionar un vehiculo automotor: un vehiculo automotor se encangreja.12 coloq Presentar deficiencias en su funcionamiento un sistema, un mecanismo 0 un motor:algo se encangreja." The DECu indicates that cancanear and encasquillarse are also usedcolloquially in Cuba in sense two (algo cancanea, algo se encasquilla).

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ceiling. Are cielo raso (or cielorraso) and the less technical and more ambiguous techo useduniversally in the sense ofceiling? In Ecuador, the term tumbado is used in this sense. Whereelse is tumbado used, and what other regional terms exist? Techo raso, plafond orpIa/on?What else and where?

cement or concrete. The DRAE defines concreto2 as "(Del ingl. concrete.) Am. bormig6n (II mezclade piedras, cemento y arena)," which suggests that concreto is not commonly used with thismeaning in Peninsular Spanish. The sense "Am. bormig6n (II mezcla de piedras, cemento yarena)" should probably also be added to the definition ofcemento, which in many varietiesof Latin American Spanish can, like cement in English, refer to the powder used to makeconcrete, the powder plus the water and sand, etc. that is the concrete or mortar used inmasonry, and this mixture once it has hardened. The DRAE also defines mazacote with noregional specification as "bormig6n (II mezcla compuesta de piedras, cemento yarena)."Where is this term commonly used? The DUEN (Nicaragua) defines caliche as "Pasta decemento con que se juntan los ladrillos de un piso 0 pared." Is this term used elsewhere inthis sense? It would be interesting to determine, throughout the Spanish-speaking world, therelative frequencies ofconcreto, hormigon, cemento and mazacote in the sense ofconcrete,and mezcla, mortero and argamasa in the sense ofmortar. In English, ''mortar'' often refersto "concrete" to which lime or a latex-based substance has been added so that it will havegreater bonding properties. Mortar is used for patching, pointing and binding bricks, blocks,stones, etc.; concrete (usually "reinforced concrete" = hormigon armado or concretoarmado) is for pouring forms.

cement/plaster (verbs). The DRAE defines the following verbs that could mean to cement orplaster,some with regional specifications, some without: enlucir (with no regional specification), "tr.Poner una capa de yeso 0 mezcla a las paredes, techos 0 fachadas de los edificios"; enrasar,"2. tr. Arq. Hacer que quede plana y lisa la superficie de una obra. Enrasar una pared. unpiso. un techo";fratasar, "(De or. inc.). tr. Igualar con el fratas la superficie de un muroenfoscado 0 jaharrado, a fin de dejarlo liso, sin hoyos ni asperezas";fratachar andfletachar,"tr. Ur. fratasar";jrisar, "(Del Iat. *frictiire, frotar). 2. tr. Ven. En albaiiileria, dar a unapared friso (II capa de mezcla con cemento)"; tarrajear, "PerU. Enlucir con cemento." Whatother regional verbs are out there, and what do they mean? Which are (regional) synonyms?

cement mixer. The DECu (Cuba) defines concretera as "Mciquina para hacer concreto" andindicates that hormigonera is used in this sense in Spain and Cuba. In this study, thefollowing terms were offered by persons from the following countries: batidora (decemento/de concreto) (Costa Rica, Panama), concretera (El Salvador, Panama?, Cuba,Ecuador), hormigonera (Spain, Uruguay, Argentina), ligadora (de cemento/de concreto)(Dominican Republic), mezcladora (de cemento, de concreto, and/or de hormigon) (all ofSpanish America), mixiadora (Honduras), revolvedora (de cemento/de concreto) (Mexico),tolvo de mezclado (Colombia?), trompo, trompo mezclador and/or trompo de concreto(Cuba, Venezuela, Colombia, Chile). What are the frequencies ofeach term in each country?

cement mixing truck or ready mix truck. In this study, many of the same terms found to be usedin the sense of cement mixer were also offered for a cement mixing truck. The followingwere given for a cement mixing truck by respondents from the following countries (some arepopular terms, some are more "official-sounding" technical"terms), but research needs to be

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done to determine what all the terms are and which are most common in each country:camion de cementolcamion de concreto (Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico,Venezuela, Colombia), camion concretera (Cuba?), camion concretero (Colombia, Peru,Chile), camion de hormigon (Spain), camion hormigonera (Spain, Bolivia, Chile), camionhormigonero (Argentina, Chile), camion mezclador (de cemento, de concreto, de hormigon)(panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, Chile), camion mezcladora (de cemento, deconcreto, de hormigon) (puerto Rico, Ecuador, Peru), camion trompo (Chile), cementera(Venezuela?), concretera (El Salvador, Panama, Cuba, Puerto Rico), concretero (peru),chimbo (Honduras, popular), chompipa (Costa Rica, popular), hormigonera (Spain, Bolivia,Uruguay, Argentina), ligadora (de cemento) (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico),mezclador(a) (de cemento, de concreto, de hormigon) (Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia,Ecuador), mixer (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru), revolvedora (de cemento, de concreto)(Mexico), troc de cementa or truck de cementa (Puerto Rico), troca de cemento (Mexico?),troque de cementa (Mexico?).

chisel (for cutting metal). The DRAE defines cortafrio as "Cincel fuerte para cortar hierro frio agolpes de martillo" and defines cortafierro as "Arg., Par. y Ur. cortafrio."

drafting table. The DRAE defines restirador as "Mh:. Mesa 0 tablero para estirar el papel en quese dibuja" and the DEUMex defines it as "Mesa alta, de superficie amplia y generalmenteinclinada, 0 capaz de inclinarse en diversos angulos, que utilizan los dibujantes yarquitectospara colocar el papel sobre el que trabajan." What other terms do Spanish speakers other thanMexicans use to refer to a drafting table? Mesa de dibujo? The DRAE defines tab/ero as "8.Mesa grande de trabajo, como la del delineante 0 el sastre."

extension cord. The DECu (Cuba) defines extension as "Cable que se conecta al cable de un aparatoelectrico para cubrir la distancia hasta el enchufe" and indicates that alargador is thePeninsular Spanish equivalent. The DRAE defines extension as "8. Cuba y Mh:. alargador(II pieza que sirve para alargar)." Several Argentines indicated that in Argentinaprolongadoris used in this sense. Which terms are generally applied to an extension cord in whichcountries?

fire extinguisher. The DECu defines extinguidor and extinguidor de incendios as "Aparato deforma cilindrica, que contiene en su interior una sustancia que evita la combustion y que seemplea para combatir incendios" and indicates that extintor (de incendios) is the PeninsularSpanish equivalent and is also considered the "official term" in Cuba as well. The DEArgdefines extinguidor (de incendios) and matafuego in identical terms.

float (ofa tank, e.g. ofthe toilet). The DECu defines jlotante as "Dispositivo que sirve para detenerla entrada de un liquido en un deposito cuando este alcanza su altura maxima" and indicatesthatjlotador is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. This information is also confinned in theDRAE's definitions ofjlotador andjlotante. But looking at the question globally, who saysjlotante, who saysjlotador, and who says something else?

furnace I heater I boiler (heating systems ofa house or building). The DRAE defines caldera as "2.Recipiente metaIico dotado de una fuente de calor, donde se calienta el agua que circula porlos tubos y radiadores de la calefaccion de un edificio." Calentador appears to be a GeneralSpanish term that could refer to a heater or a furnace, but many Mexicans in the UnitedStates use the word calenton in this sense (a taboo word in some countries). Is this term also

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used in Mexico in this sense? The DEUMex defines only cafentador in a way that could referto furnace, heater or radiator: "3 Aparato domestico, fijo 0 portatil, que calienta latemperatura ambiental; generalmente funciona por electricidad 0 gas; radiadoro"

gearo The DRAE defines engrane as "Mexo En una maquina, rueda dentada" and the DEUMexdefines it as "Rueda dentada que sirve para transmitir un movimiento de rotaci6n a otra ruedasemejante con la que se ajusta, como en el mecanismo de los relojeso" It seems the engranein Mexico is part of the engranaje.

hardware store (or type ofhardware store). The DEUMex defines tfapaferia as "Tienda en la quese venden utensilios para electricidad, albaiiileria, plomeria, carpinteria y para otros oficiossemejantes; ferreteria: 'Compre la pintura en la tlapa/eria de la esquina', 'Mi hermanotrabaja en una tlapaferia'." The DRAE defines tfapaferia as "(Del nahua tfapalli, liquido defuego, y -eria). Mex. Tienda de pintura, donde tambien se venden materiales electricos yherramientas." Research needs to be done to determine how, if at all, Mexican usagedistinguishes between the termsferreteria and tfapaferia. What other countries have anotherway of saying hardware store?

hinge. The DRAE defines bisagra as "(De or. inc.). Herraje de dos piezas unidas 0 combinadas que,con un eje comUn y sujetas una a un sosten fijo y otra a la puerta 0 tapa, permiten el giro deestas" and defines gozne as "(De gonce). Herraje articulado con que se fijan las hojas de laspuertas y ventanas al quicial para que, al abrirlas 0 cerrarlas, giren sobre aquel. II 2. Bisagrametalica 0 pernio." Although both bisagra and gozne are listed as General Spanish terms inthe DRAE, albeit with slightly different definitions, the issue is whether, in everydaylanguage, both terms are used everywhere with more or less equal frequency in the sense ofhinge, or whether there are semantic distinctions or regional preferences between them.

hot water heater. The DEArg defines termotanque as "Artefacto de gas, con un termostato, quepermite calentar varios litros de agua y mantenerla a una determinada temperatura para,mediante canerias, distribuirla en una vivienda" and indicates that the Peninsular Spanishequivalent is cafentador. The DEArg also defines cafefon as "Aparato de gas 0 electricidad,que sirve para calentar el agua que se distribuye por canerias a la cocina 0 al bano de unacasa" and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalents are cafentador and termo. TheDRAE defines cafefon as "Argo, Bol., Par. y Ur. Aparato a traves de cuyo serpentin circulael agua que se calienta para uso generalmente domestico."

hub (of a whe.el). The DEArg (Argentina) and the NDU (Uruguay) define maza as "Centro de larueda de un vehiculo" and indicate that cubo is used in this sense in Spain as well as inArgentina and Uruguay.

intercom. The DEArg defines conmutador as "Aparato que, en oficinas, hoteles, etc., sirve paraponer en comunicaci6n las distintas dependencias entre SI 0 con la red general" and indicatesthat centralita is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. The DECu indicates that centralilla andpizarra are the Cuban Spanish equivalents and defines them in very similar terms.

jackhammer. The AHD (United States) defines jackhammer as "A hand-held machine for drillingrock and breaking up pavement or concrete, operated by compressed air." In this study, anumber of terms were offered by large numbers of Spanish speakers from countries thatpertain to at least two noncontiguous geographic regions (such as the Antilles, the Andes,Mexico, Spain, etc.). Given their fairly broad distribution and the fact that they sound fairly

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"official" and "technical" rather than "quaint" or "regional," there is reason to believe thefollowing terms/usages maybe part ofGeneral Spanish: martilladorde aire, martillo de aire,martillo de aire comprimido, martillo hidraulico, martillo neuma!ico, martillo perforador,perforadora, perforadora neumatica, taladro hidraulico, taladro mecanico, taladroneumatico. Some respondents, a minority, believe the term neumatico (as in martilloneumatico, taladro neumatico, etc.) should be spelled with an initialp,pneumatico, but themajority indicated neumatico. In contrast to the first group ofterms for jackhammer listedabove, some of the following may be regional and/or popular terms, as they were offered bya much smaller number of Spanish speakers who came from far fewer countries: chicharra(Nicaragua, Costa Rica), chipijama / chipihamer / chipihamel (Cuba, Puerto Rico; fromEnglish chipping hammer), demoledor de piso hidraulico (puerto Rico), guagua (Chile),marrillo de calle (Chile), martillo demoledor (Spain), martillo de taladrar (Cuba), marrillopi/on (Spain), martillo rompepavimentos (Spain), muleta (Honduras),perforador (paraguay),perforador neumatico (EI Salvador), rompepavimentos (peru), rotohammer ([rotojamer] EISalvador), taladradora (Spain), taladro de aire (Spain), taladro de demolicion (Panama),yakama (panama, from English}ackhammer). None of the above terms, neither the moregeneral nor the more regional ones, is listed in the DRAE with the meaning in question. Doesthe fact that the jackhammer is not defined in the DRAE under any ofthe terms listed aboveconstitute an unacceptable lexicographical lacuna, or is this absencejustified since the termsare compounds whose meaning is more or less the sum of their constituent parts? Theargument that some ofthese terms are deducible and therefore superfluous may not hold upto scrutiny since to say that a marrillo neumatico is simply a special type of manillo (acompressed-air martillo) is not that much more persuasive than saying a ''jackhammer'' isa special type of"hammer." Neither a martillo neumatico nor a ''jackhammer" is really a typeof hammer at all, and therefore, one can not assume that the dictionary user will be able todeduce the meaning of the compound terms from their component parts.

lot. The NDCol defines lote as "Cada una de las partes en que se divide un terreno destinado a laedificaci6n" and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalents areparcela and solar andthat the latter term is also used in the Atlantic Coast region of Colombia. However, theDRAE defines lote in this sense without any regional designation. How frequent is the useof lote, parcela and solar in the different varieties of Spanish, and how do their meaningsvary?

machete. Regional names for (different kinds of) machetes include catana (Northeast Argentina,according to the DEArg), and colin, cuma and pai/a (Nicaragua, according to the DUEN).There are undoubtedly dozens ofregional Spanish names for different kinds ofmachete, butwhat are they, what types of machetes do they refer to, and where are they used?

meter (gas meter, electric power meter, etc.). The DRAE defines medidor as "3. Am. Contador deagua, gas 0 energia electrica" and the DEArg defines medidor as "Dispositivo que sirve paramedir el consumO de gas, luz 0 agua en una vivienda" and indicates that the PeninsularSpanish equivalent is contador. The DECu indicates that contador and metro contador areused in this sense in Cuba as well as relo} in the case of the electric meter.

nipple. The NDCR (Costa Rica) defines niple as "Tubo que sirve para unir dos tubos" and the AHD(United States) defines "nipple" as "3b. A pipe coupling threaded on both ends." Where else

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is niple (and variants such as niplo, neplo, etc.) used, and where are more "castizo" tennsused such as tubo de conexion or boquilla de conexion, etc.

(electrical) outlet. The DRAE defines tomacorriente as "Am. En instalaciones electricas, dispositivodonde se inserta la clavija" and toma as "6. Lugar por donde se deriva una corriente de fluidoo electricidad." It seems many Spanish Americans use tomacorrientes (with an s at the end)in this sense and it appears that Spanish speakers on both sides of the Atlantic use enchufeto refer to both the plug and the outlet.

(electrical) plug. The DRAE defines enchufe as "5. Electr. Dispositivo fonnado por dos piezas quese encajan una en otra cuando se quiere establecer una conexi6n electrica." The DECudefmes enchufle as "Dispositivo que conecta un aparato electrico a una red electrica" andindictes that enchufe is used in Spain and Cuba in this same sense. Where else is enchuflecommonly used in the sense of plug, and how is its use socially stratified in differentregions?

particle board panels. What are the different names for "particle board panel" (often called"particle board'')? This is a construction material made of ground up wood that is not asstrong or as expensive as plywood (see section Bl above). The terms madera prensada,madera triturada, madera aglomerada, aglomerado and conglomerado were all offered bySpanish speakers from diverse regions and maybe General Spanish usages. Some Argentinesindicated that madera enchapada refers to a particle board that has a high-quality woodveneer surface; others said this is madera terciada (see section Bl above). Chileans offeredcholguan in the sense ofparticle board, which is defined in the DECHas "Madera prensadade pino insigne que se fabrica en fonna de planchas, moliendola en maquinas especiales ymezc1andola con resinas... Procede del top6nimo Cholguan, localidad del depto. de Yungayen Nuble, que es donde principalmente se fabrica." The DRAE defines cholguan as "Chile.Madera prensada de pino, en fonna de planchas." One Argentine, a building engineer, statedthat in Argentinafibrofacil, also called guillermina, refers to a type ofpanel made with sawdust, whereas aglomerado refers to a particle board panel made ofvirutas (wood shavingsor chips). What semantic differences exist between the above terms, and which are mostcommon in which countries?

panels (other types). What are the names ofother types ofpanels used in construction? The DEArg(Argentina) defines machimbre as "Pieza de madera alargada y de poco grosor, con unaranura a 10 largo de uno de sus lados y una lengiieta a 10 largo del otro, para ser ensambladacon piezas similares." Respondents from several other Spanish American countries alsodescribed machimbre in the sense of tongue-and-groove boards or panels. One Argentinestated that durlock refers to sheetrock.

pliers. What terms are used in Spanish for "groove joint pliers" or "tongue and groove pliers" (alsocalled "Channellock pliers," "pump pliers" or "water pump pliers), and where? These areadjustable, noncutting pliers in which the grippers are curved and offset to one side. Theygenerally have more adjustment than regular 'joint pliers" or "slip-joint pliers," but can beused for many ofthe same types oftasks (see Figures A6 and A6' in lllustrations and sectionA6 above). This topic was not researched extensively but a few respondents offeredpico (de)lora, alicate(s) pico (de) loro andpinza(s) pico (de) loro in this sense. What are "linesmanpliers" called in Spanish? These are nonadjustable, cutting pliers (see Figure A6" in

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illustrations). A website that shows images and indicates technical names in Spanish for aselection ofdifferent types ofpliers is www.jvm.es/jv-ali-cates. Among the pliers and relatedtools shown are different types of"needlenose type pliers" (such as alicates punta redonda,alicates boca plana, alicates cigileiia recto, alicates cigileiia curvo), "cutting pliers" (suchas alicates corte lateral, alicates corte frontal, alicates corte sueco), wire-strippers(pelacables), "locking pliers" (mordazas de presion}-in United States English generallycalled by the most popular brand name ''vise-grips''-and "bolt-cutters" (cizallas; these arenot pliers at all but are used to cut padlocks and other metal bars). However, given that thiswebsite is from Spain, one must wonder to what extent these terms are universal and to whatdegree they primarily represent Peninsular Spanish usage. For information on "needlenosepliers," see section A 7 above.

power plant (and other types of industrial plants). The DECu defines planta electrica as"Establecimiento industrial destinado a la producci6n de energia electrica mediante latransformaci6n de otros tipos de energia" and indicates that central eIectrica is used in thissame sense in both Spain and Cuba The DEArg indicates that usina eIectrica is theArgentine equivalent; its definition is identical to theDECu's definition ofplanta electrica.The DRAE defines usina as "(Del fro usine). Arg., Eol., Chile, Col., Par. y Ur. Instalaci6nindustrial importante, en especialla destinada a producci6n de gas, energia electrica, aguapotable, etc." The DEUMex defines planta as "IV Instalaci6n en la que se produce energiao se fabrican ciertos productos: una planta de luz, planta textil, planta petroquimica."However, perhaps planta eIectrica is not as regional as the DECu seems to suggest, giventhat the DRAE defines planta as "10. Fabrica central de energia, instalaci6n industrial." Inany case, the question remains as to which terms are most commonly used for power plants(and other types of industrial plants) in which countries.

retread (verb). With regard to the retreading of tires, the NDCol (Colombia) defines reencaucharas "Recubrir con una soluci6n de caucho las llantas de un vehiculo para evitar su desgaste"and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is recauchutar, and that vulcanizar isused in both Spain and Colombia in this sense. The DECu (Cuba), however, definesvulcanizar and recapar as "Cubrir con caucho la parte exterior de un neumatico" andindicates the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is recauchutar. And the DUEN (Nicaragua)defines vulcanizar as "tr. Reparar neumaticos." This is confirmed by the DRAE, whichdefines vulcanizar as "tr. Combinar azufre con goma elastica para que esta conserve suelasticidad en frio yen caliente" and "2. tr. Cuba y Nic. Repararneumaticos." In other words,the DRAE indicates that in General Spanish vulcanizar r~fers to the rubber manufacturingprocess but not to repairing or retreading oftires. The DRAE also states that reencauchar isused in Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Peru and Venezuela in the sense ofrecauchutar, which it defines with no regional specification as "Volver a cubrir de cauchouna llanta 0 cubierta desgastada." The DRAE also lists recauchar in this sense with noregional specification. The DUEN (Nicaragua) defines rencauchar as "recubrir de cauchola llanta gastada." No doubt this "alternate" way of spelling reencauchar is not uncommongiven that reencauchar and rencauchar sound identical in rapid, and perhaps even in normalspeech (i.e. not "spelling bee speech"). We note that the DRAE no longer places an accentmark on demonstrative pronouns (like esta in the definition ofvulcanizar above, "para que

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esta conserve su elasticidad") unless there is a risk of amphibology, that is, ambiguity.However, many educated Spanish speakers disapprove (or are unaware) of this reform,continue to use accent marks on demonstrative pronouns such as esta and este, and correctand/or criticize those who do not.

saw. For information on hacksaws, see section A5 above. In this study, numerous respondents fromall twenty Spanish-speaking countries indicated that serrucho refers to the standard manualwood saw, consisting of a broad, usually tapered blade, no frame, and a handle at one end.However, finer distinctions such as a "cross-cut saw" (used to cut against the grain of thewood) or a "rip saw" (for cutting parallel to the grain) were not researched, nor were othertypes ofmanual wood saws such as a "backsaw" ("A saw that is reinforced by a metal bandalong its back edge" AHD; it is often used with a miter box for making precise cuts), a"coping saw" ("A light handsaw with a slender blade stretched across a U-shaped frame,used for cutting designs in wood" AHD), a ''buck saw" (handsaw with a blade stretchedacross a frame for cutting branches or logs), or a ''two-man saw" (large handsaw with ahandle at each end for cutting logs). Would a backsaw be a sierra de lomo or a serrucho delomo, or some other term? The DRAB defines a serrim as "Sierra larga con un mango 0

manija en cada extremo" (two-man saw). Research also needs to be done to determine theregional distributions and different meanings of the verbs aserrar, aserruchar, serrar andserruchar. Serruchar also has an important regional meaning, which the DRAE defines as"2. Ecuad., El Salv., Hond., Pan., PerU, P. Rico. y Ur. Trabajar secretamente en contra delprestigio 0 posicion de alguien." I know this usage to be very common in Ecuador, havinglived there, but could it be common in Uruguay and not in Argentina (it has been confirmedto me by Argentines), in Puerto Rico and not the Dominican Republic, in El Salvador,Honduras and Panama, but in none ofthe other Central American countries? Cuesta creerIo.

sawdust. Is aserrin the predominant term in most ifnot all ofSpanish America andserrin the mostcommon one in Spain, or is the situation more complicated than that? The Hispanic Antillesmay be an exception to this rule for in the Lexico del habla culta de San Juan de Puerto Rico(L6pez Morales: 158), serrin and aserrin were each given by five out oftwelve respondents.

septic tank and cesspool. The DRAE defines pozo negro as "EI que para deposito de aguasinmundas se hace junto a las casas, cuando no hay alcantarillas" and defines pozo ciego as"Arg. pozo negro." The NDU indicates that pozo ciego is used in this sense in Uruguay aswell. Which terms are most common in each country? See wastewater below.

shovel (or type of shovel). The NDCol defines garlancha as "Cund[inamarca], Huila, Tol[ima]Variedad de pala pequefia, usada especialm. en albanileria."

shower hose, shower head and shower. The DEArg defines duchador as "Dispositivo de metal 0

de plastico, de forma alargada, que tiene en un extremo una flor l y que, mediante unamanguera 0 tubo flexible, se conecta con una canilla 0 caneria y sirve para ducharsedirigiendo manualmente la salida de agua" and indicates that the Peninsular Spanishequivalent is ducha de telefono. Since we are discussing showers, shower heads and showerhoses, we also note that the DEUMex defines regadera as "I Utensilio provisto de multitudde perforaciones que se coloca en la punta de un tubo de agua corriente para que esta salgaa presion y en varios chorros, particularmente el que se pone a cierta altura en un bano y sirvepara banarse: darse un banD de regadera, ponerle una regadera alfregadero" and "2 Lugar

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del baiio, generalmente aislado por una cortina, donde se coloca este utensilio y donde unose baiia: meterse a fa regadera, 'Sufrio un accidente en la regadera'." Is regadera used inpreference to ducha in the sense ofshower elsewhere in the Spanish-speaking world, besidesMexico?

skylight. The DRA.E defines claraboya as "(Del fro claire-voie, y este del lat. clara via). Ventanaabierta en el techo 0 en la parte alta de las paredes" and tragafuz as "Ventana abierta en untecho 0 en la parte superior de una pared, generalmente con derrame hacia adentro." Neithertenn is listed with any regional specification or cross-referencing, and yet the two definitionsare tantalizingly close; claraboyas obviously also have den-ame hacia adentro. Whatsemantic distinctions do Spanish speakers make between them-we note Antonio BueroVallejo's playwas called Ef tragaluz, not La claraboya-and are the tenns used more in someregions than in others?

spare parts, spare tires, etc. The DEUMex defines refaccion as "Pieza que sirve para sustituir a otrasemejante en unamaquina; pieza de repuesto: refacciones automotrices,falta de refacciones,llanta de refaccion"; the DRAE indicates that refaccion is also used in Honduras in this samesense ofrecambio or repuesto. Is refaccion used elsewhere in this sense? The DEArg definesrefaccion as "Accion de arreglar 0 componer algo viejo 0 deteriorado, especialmente unacasa 0 un edificio" and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is restauracion.However, refaccion is really a repair and is not synonymous with restauracion. The DRAEdefines refaccion, with no regional specification, as "2. Compostura 0 reparacion de 10estropeado," which leads one to believe that this usage maybe universal rather than regional.Is it general, as the DRAE seems to indicate, or is it regional, as Haensch and Werner claim?

switchman. The DECu defines cambiavia as "Empleado que se ocupa de los cambios de aguja enlas vias de ferrocarril" and indicates that guardagujas is the Peninsular Spanish tenn. TheDRAE, in turn, defines cambiavia as "(De cambiar y via). Col., Cuba y Mex. guardagujas."The DEArg defines cambista and guardahi/os as "Empleado ferroviario, que recorre losrieles y hace los cambios necesarios para que el tren pueda cambiar de via" and indicates thatcambiador, cambiavia and guardagujas are used in Spain, and that guardagujas,guardahilos and cambista are used in Argentina. Itwould be interesting to know which term,guardagujas or cambiavia, is more common in Mexico, especially since there is a wellknown short story called "El Guardagujas" by the Mexican writer Juan Jose Arreola.(Because it is not a costumbrista story, even if cambiavia were more common in Mexicothan guardagujas, it makes sense that Arreola would have opted for the General Spanishtenn.) Looking at the issue from a pan-Hispanic perspective, what are the relative frequenciesof all of the different tenns used in the sense of switchman in all of the different Spanish­speaking countries?

tape measure. To what extent are cinta metrica, metro and/or centimetro General Spanish tenns fortape measure? Which tenns refer to which type oftape measures in which countries (e.g. thekind carpenters use vs. ones used by tailors and seamstresses)? The DRAE lists giiincha as"(Voz quechua) Bol. cinta metrica." What other tenns are out there?

thread (ofa screw or bolt). Rosca is the General Spanish tenn, but hi/a is defined in the DECH as"fi~. Borde en espiral que sirve para encajar y desencajar un tornillo, perno, tuerca, cafieria,etc..."

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tool. Herramienta is the General Spanish term for ''tool,'' but the DRAEdefinesfierro as "3. C. Rica.herramienta (II instrumento de trabajo)." Yet there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that thisusage is common in other Spanish-speaking countries (besides Costa Rica) such as Ecuador,Peru and Chile. Where else is fierro used in this sense?

walls (stone walls, brick walls, masonry walls) and fences. The DRAE defines barda2 with noregional specification as "(De or. inc.) Seto, vallado 0 tapia que circunda una propiedad" butthe DEUMex defines barda as "Muro de piedra, adobe, ladrillo, etc. que sirve para separarun terreno 0 una construccion de otros y para protegerlos 0 aislarlos." Is the latter usagedistinctly Mexican, or is it found elsewhere, and if so, with what .frequency in differentregions? There is evidence to suggest that the use of barda in this sense is much morecommon in Mexico than in other countries where people would just call this type of wall amuro, a pared, or perhaps a tapia, a tapial or a verja. The lexico del habla culta studiesaddress the issue of'wall' in item 1125, and those of 'fence' and 'metal fence' in items 1427and 1126, respectively. Nonetheless, more research needs to be done to determine howdifferent Spanish speakers use and interpret terms such as cerca, cercado, cerco, enrejado,medianera, reja, tapia, tapial, valla, vallado and verja.

washers (e.g. rubber or plastic washers used in plumbing). The DRAE defines junta as "7. Pieza decarton, canamo, caucho u otra materia compresible, que se coloca en la union de dos tubosu otras partes de un aparato 0 maquina, para impedir el escape del cuerpo fluido quecontienen" and zapatilla as "4. Pieza de cuero, goma, etc., que sirve para mantenerhermeticamente adheridas dos partes diferentes que estan en comunicacion, como cafierias,depositos, etc." The DRAE also defines empaque as "3. Col., C. Rica y Hond. zapatilla (IIpieza para mantener hermeticamente adheridas dos partes diferentes)." The NDCol definesguasa as "Pequena pieza en forma de disco de metal 0 de goma, con un orificio en el medio,que se utiliza, p. ej., como zapatilla de una llave 0 grifo" and indicates that it is a synonymofwhat in Spain and Colombia is called arandela (?). The NDCol also defines empaque as"Anillo de cuero, goma u otra materia compresible que se coloca en lajuntura de dos piezas,p. ej. en los grifos y cafierias, para evitar que escapen los fluidos" and indicates that it is asynonym ofwhat in Spain is called ajunta. With regard to washers used in plumbing, initialevidence from this study suggests that empaque may be used in much of Spanish America,junta and zapatilla in Spain, zapatilla in the Antilles, and cuerito in Argentina. Forinformation on metal washers (used with screws and bolts), see section B5 above.

waste water. The DRAE defines agua residual as "La que procede de viviendas, poblaciones 0

zonas industriales y arrastra suciedad y detritos. U. m. en pI. [Usado mas en plural]" anddefines aguas negras as "aguas residuales." The DRAE also defines aguas albanales as"Cuba. aguas residuales" and aguas servidas as "Arg., PerU y Ur. aguas residuales." Itappears that the term aguas servidas is used in many more countries thanjust these three, butwhich terms are used with which frequencies in which countries? See septic tank above.

winch. The NDCol defines hiiinche and giiinche as "Maquina de varios tipos, consistentefundamentalmente en un cilindro en el cual se arrolla un cable, soga 0 cadena para elevar 0

mover pesos" and indicates that cabrestante is used in this same sense in Spain andColombia. The DRAE defines guinche (with no dieresis or umlaut on the u) as "Arg., Bol.,Cuba y Ur. griia (II maquina para levantar y trasladar cargas)." If the initial sound of the

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t'

-.

Spanish word which derives from English ''winch'' is labial like the sound ofthe w in English"weather" or labial and palatal similar to the sound of the grv in English "Gwen," then adieresis on the u seems to be necessary on the spelling with a g (gii.inche), but superfluouson the spelling with an h, since hiiinche would be pronounced the same as huinche. If theinitial sound is velar (like the g in English "gift"), then guinche is the logical spelling. Seesection B5.3, General, above for a discussion of spelling issues involving gulgii vs. hUe

wrench A - flat wrenches or rigid wrenches. Like crescent wrenches (see section A8 above), flatwrenches are used to turn nuts and bolts, but unlike crescent wrenches, flat wrenches do notadjust an~ as a result, are generally sold in an entire set. Three common types of flatwrenches are the "open-end wrench" (one having fixed open jaws), the "closed wrench,"''box wrench" or "box-end wrench" (one with enclosed heads inside ofwhich are grippingangles), and the "combination wrench" or "combo wrench" (one with a box end and an openend on opposite sides of the same wrench, with both ends usually the same size; see FigureA8' in lllustrations). Combo wrenches are actually the most common type offlat wrench. The"open-end wrench" seems to correspond to what the DRAE calls a /lave de tuerca, which itdefines as "Herramienta en forma de horquilla, que sirve para apretar 0 aflojar las tuercas enlos tomillos." In this study, the following terms were offered by respondents from thefollowing countries for "open-end wrenches": /lave abierta (Honduras?, Panama, Cuba?,Dominican Republic), /lave boca fija (Colombia, Paraguay?), /lave de boca (panama?,Colombia?, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay?, Argentina), /lave de cola (Guatemala), /lavede perno (Bolivia), /lave de punta (Chile), /lave de tuerca(s) or /lave tuerca (Costa Rica,Cuba?, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Ecuador?, Uruguay, Chile), /laveespanola (Cuba, Dominican Republic?), /laverzja (Spain, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua,Costa Rica, Panama?, Puerto Rico, Venezuela?, Colombia, Bolivia?, Paraguay?, Uruguay,Argentina), and /lavepara tuercas (Colombia). The following terms were offered for "closedwrenches": /lave (de) corona (Honduras, Costa Rica, Ecuador), /lave de estre/la(Colombia?), llave de estrias (Puerto Rico?), and /lave estriada (Argentina?). And for"combination wrenches" respondents offered /lave mixta, llave combinada and llave decombinacion; research needs to be done to determine if any of the latter three terms areregionally weighted.

wrench B - lug wrench or tire wrench. The NDCol (Colombia) defines cruceta as "Herramientaen forma de cruz, usada para ajustar las tuercas que aseguran las ruedas de los autom6viles"and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is /lave de ruedas. The DEArg defines/lave en cruz as "Herramienta de metal, en forma de cruz, que se emplea para sacar y ajustarlos tomillos de las ruedas de un autom6vil 0 vemculo de carga" The Diccionario deGuatemaltequismos (Morales Pellecer) defines /lave de chuchos as "herramienta que se usapara aflojar 0 apretar los chuchos (V.) de las llantas" and defines chucho as ''tuerca de lostomillos que sujetan las ruedas de un carro." The NDCR (Costa Rica) defines llave de ranaas "Llave en forma de cruz con abultamientos en cada extremo por donde se ajustan lastuercas de las ruedas de los autom6viles." And the DHA V (Venezuela) defines /lave de cruzas "Herramienta de metal formada por dos barras de hierro 0 acero cruzadas entre S1 con unapieza en cada uno de sus extremos especial para tuercas, que se utiliza principalmente paracambiar las ruedas de los autom6viles." In this study, /lave (de) cruz was also offered by

407

some Hondurans and Nicaraguans in this sense. What are the equivalents of tire wrench orlug wrench in the other Spanish-speaking countries?

wrench C (other types ofwrenches). The DEArg defines llave California as "Herramienta de hierroo acero, con muescas y agujeros, que se usa en el campo para estirar el alambre y ajustartornillos" and one Argentine in this study indicated that a llave cocodrilo is a V-shaped flatwrench with grippers (like those on ajar-opener) that is used on ships to adjust large nuts andlugs. Other types of wrenches that were not researched at all in this study include "allenwrenches," "chain wrenches," "locking wrenches," "ratchet wrenches," "socket wrenches"and "torque wrenches." A description of each of these can be found at www.acehard­ware.com.

NOTES

1. From Abstract. I would like to express my appreciation to Lucrecia Hug, Clary Loisel and SharleeMerner Bradley for editing earlier drafts and making valuable suggestions, as well as to VirginiaNavarro for going out of her way to put me in contact with informants/respondents for this study.I would also like to thank all those who generously gave oftheir time to answer questions on usage.In addition to the works that appear in References below, information on items in other domains orsemantic fields whose names in Spanish vary by region is found in the following works by AndreMoskowitz:

"Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: wild kingdom." Proceedings ofthe 45th Annual Conferenceofthe American Translators Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, October 13-16,2004.Marian S. Greenfield, compo American Translators Association, 2004. 169-228.

''Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: back to basics." Proceedings ofthe 44th Annual Conferenceofthe American Translators Association, Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A., November 5-8,2003.Scott Brennan, compo American Translators Association, 2003. 287-343.

"Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: la ciudad y los fueros." Proceedings ofthe 43rd AnnualConference ofthe American Translators Association, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A., November6-9,2002. Scott Brennan, compo American Translators Association, 2002.353-399.

"Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: folks." Proceedings ofthe 42nd Annual Conference oftheAmerican Translators Association, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A., October 31-November3,2001. Thomas L. West III, compo American Translators Association, 2001. 268-301.

''Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: kids' stuff." Proceedings ofthe 41st Annual Conference ofthe American Translators Association, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A., September 20-23, 2000.Thomas L. West ill, compo American Translators Association, 2000. 328-366.

"Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: food and drink." Proceedings of the 40th AnnualConference oftheAmerican Translators Association, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., November3-6, 1999. Ann G. Macfarlane, compo American Translators Association, 1999.275-308.

"Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: the home." Proceedings ofthe 39th Annual Conference ofthe American Translators Association, Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, U.S.A.,November 4-8, 1998. Ann G. Macfarlane, compo American Translators Association, 1998.221-253.

408

"Fruit and vegetable terminology in the Spanish-speaking world: regional variation." Proceedingsof the 38th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, San Francisco,California, U.S.A., November 5-9, 1997. Muriel M. Jerome-O'Keeffe, compo AmericanTranslators Association, 1997. 233-261.

"Clothing tenmnology in the Spanish-speaking world: regional variation." Proceedings ofthe 37thAnnual Conference ofthe American Translators Association, Colorado Springs, Colorado,

__ U.S.A., October 30-November 3, 1996. Muriel M. J6rome-O'Keeffe, compo AmericanTranslators Association, 1996.287-308.

"Car terminology in the Spanish-speaking world." Proceedings ofthe 36th Annual Conference oftheAmerican Translators Association, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A., November 8-12, 1995.Peter W. Krawutschke, compo American Translators Association, 1995.331-340.

"Contribuci6n al estudio del espanol ecuatoriano." Unpublished M.A. thesis. Department ofRomance Languages and Literatures, University of Florida. Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.1995.

"A box of office supplies: dialectological fun." The Georgetown Journal of Languages &Linguistics. Vol 1.3. Ed. Richard J. O'Brien, SJ. 1990.315-344.

2. From Introduction (Section 0). Spanish speakers have not been extensively surveyed in this studyregarding the names for the claw of a hammer, but preliminary information suggests that the termfor this item may also vary. Investigation needs to be done to determine who says la una del martillo,who says la oreja del martillo, who says la pata de cabra del martillo, and who uses other terms.

3. From Introduction (Section 0), The term electrical is defined in the American Heritage Dictionary(pickett), the Encarta Webster's Dictionary (Soukhanov), and the New OxfordAmerican Dictionary(McKean) with various adjectival senses relating to electricity, but in none of these sources is itdefined as a noun with the meaning of "electrical system," "wiring and other electrical work" or"electrical department." While one may certainly object to the use of electrical as a noun on thegrounds that the suffix -al is adjectival, I believe this is a gap in English-language lexicography thatneeds to be filled since electrical can be a noun as the following examples illustrate: "The inspectionwill cover all major elements of the home including the grounds, the exterior, the electrical, theplumbing, the heating and air, the structural components, the foundation and/or basement, theinterior trim, flooring, kitchen/appliances, bathrooms, and much more..." ("Safe and Sound HomeInspections, Inc."; emphasis on electrical added), and "The Ferrari management went in andcompletely gutted the assembly lines, staging and work areas. They tore it all out - the electrical, theplumbing, the works..." (Mandarano; emphasis on electrical added). Electrical in these examplesappears to be an ellipsis of"electrical system," but grammatically the word is functioning as a nounjust like plumbing, heating, air, and foundation. Similarly, if you go into a hardware store and askan employee where you can find, say, wire nuts, he or she may very well give you an answer suchas "That's over in electrical. All the way down the aisle, then make a..." In this case, electrical is anellipsis of"electrical department." The process by which adjectives get converted into nouns is quitecommon and productive in English. Consider such ubiquitous examples as e-mail ('an e-mailmessage') and voice-mail ('a voice-mail message'). Who among us can say with a straight face thathe or she has never heard phrases like, "She left me a voice-mail"? And in the future, I suspect there

409

will probably be fewer and fewer of us who can say we have never used such phrases in our ownspeech and even writing. A more recent example of this linguistic process now frequently used by"computer people" (who in the United States seem to be an increasingly large percentage of thepopulation) is the use ofthe noun work-around in the sense of"a strategy or technique used to workaround some problem or difficulty." Here, work-around is an ellipsis ofwork-aroundstrategy, work­around technique, etc.

4. From Introduction (Section 0.2), The Home Depot was a large chain home-improvement store inthe United States at the end of the second millennium A.D. and the beginning of the third offeringa broad selection ofproducts and low prices, though sometimes limited advice or guidance from itspersonnel on where to find things or what was required for the job. The Home Depot epitomizedone-stop shopping in that customers who did not have a truck could rent one at the store by the hourin order to haul away their building materials. And for those contractors or homeowners in need ofinexpensive day labor, Home Depot stores in many states had the added allure of allowing guys,immigrants, without whom the construction industry (among others) would literally grind to a halt,to hang out in their parking lot in the hopes ofbeing hired.

5. From Section AD.3, Ecuador. It is somewhat odd that theHEDE (CordovaMalo), in its definitionof bailejo, should refer to ''Norte'' as a region of Ecuador as it is more typical to speak of twoseparate zones, the "Costa Norte" and the "Sierra Norte," which geographically, culturally andphonologically have little in common. There may not be complete agreement, however, on how theregions ofEcuador are to be defined. For example, El Gran Libro de la Cocina Ecuatoriana (Rojas:4,28,92, 112, 144, 160, 176, 189) divides the country into eight regions consisting ofthe followingprovinces: Costa Norte (Esmeraldas and Manabi), Costa Sur (Guayas, los Rios and el Oro), SierraNorte (el Carchi and Imbabura), Sierra Central (pichincha, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo andBolivar), Austro (Cafiar and Azuay), Sierra Sur (Loja), Oriente (Zamora Chinchipe, MoronaSantiago, Pastaza and Napo) and the Galapagos. Lipski (1994: 247-249), however, viewing Ecuadorfrom the point ofview ofphonology, distributes the provinces into the following six regions: CoastalRegion (Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Rios, Manabi), Extreme North-Central (el Carchi), CentralHighlands (from Imbabura to Chimborazo), Cafiar and Azuay (that is, Rojas' Austro), Loja (Rojas'Sierra Sur), and the Amazonian Region (what Ecuadorans call el Oriente). Aside from omitting thecoastal province ofel Oro, which does not greatly affect the overall division, the main difference isthat Lipski '·s "Sierra Central" includes Imbabura, since the speech of this province shares somephonological traits with that ofQuito and points farther south, whereas for Rojas this province is partof the Sierra Norte. With regard to the Oriente, we also note that the Amazonian province ofNapowas recently divided into three new provinces: Napo, Orellana and Sucumbios.

6. From Section AI6.3, Venezuela. According to the list ofabbreviations on pages LXXV-LXXVI ofthe Diccionario de Venezolanismos (Tejera), "Centr" refers to the Centro or Region Central,consisting of the Distrito Federal, i.e. Caracas, and the states of Miranda, Aragua and Carabobo,"Llan" refers to the (Venezuelan) Llanos, consisting of the states ofCojedes, Portuguesa, Barinas,Apure, Guanco and the western part ofthe state ofAnzoategui, "Truj" refers to the state ofTrujillo,

410

..

and "Dec" refers to the Region Occidental, consisting of the states of Zulia, Yaracuy, Falcon andLara.

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A great variety of tools was needed throughout the construction of the city.Most were made in forges and workshops on the site. The more precise measuringinstruments and squares were brought from Rome.