2000 Geochemistry and geochronology of I-type granitoid

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Geochemistry and geochronology of I-typegranitoid rocks in the northeastern central IranplateAbolfazl SoltaniUniversity of Wollongong

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Recommended CitationSoltani, Abolfazl, Geochemistry and geochronology of I-type granitoid rocks in the northeastern central Iran plate, Doctor ofPhilosophy thesis, School of Geosciences, University of Wollongong, 2000. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1970

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http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses

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GEOCHEMISTRY AND GEOCHRONOLOGY OF I-TYPE GRANITOID ROCKS IN THE NORTHEASTERN

CENTRAL IRAN PLATE

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

from

UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG,

by

ABOLFAZL SOLTANI BSc Mashhad, MSc (Hons) Wollongong

SCHOOL OF GEOSCIENCES 2000

I dedicate this thesis to m y wife Zahra and m y children Somayeh and Farzad

This work has not been submitted for a higher degree at any other university or institution and, unless otherwise acknowledged, is the author's original research.

Abolfazl Soltani

31/03/2000

i

ABSTRACT

The Taknar and Sabzevar Zones in the northeastern Central Iran Plate (CIP) encompass a

large variety of volcanic and plutonic rocks. The plutonic rocks are mainly I-type granitoids,

ranging in age from Late Jurassic to Middle-Late Eocene. Among the plutonic rocks,

granodiorite and granite are the most abundant rock types. This dissertation summarises the

results of a detailed petrographic, geochemical and isotopic study of granitoid rocks from

three areas of northeastern CEP, comprising the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids in the

Taknar Zoiie, and the Kuh Mish intrusions in the Sabzevar Zone. The Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids are generally high in Na20, total Fe as Fe203, Mn, Ba, Zr and Sr, and

low in Ti02, P205, Rb, Nb, Cr, Ni and Sn contents. On Harker plots, they show regular

trends for most major and trace element concentrations. They are characterised by steep

negative slopes for LREE, flat to slightly negative gradients for HREE and moderate to

strongly negative anomalies for Eu, features attributed to fractional crystallisation. However,

in the Kashmar granitoid, restite separation and fractional crystallisation may be responsible

for compositional variations. Mineralogical and chemical data suggest that the Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids have formed from low temperature I-type magmas and can be assigned

to a 'simple suite' of White et al. (2000). In the Kashmar granitoid, initial 87Sr/86Sr

(0.70471-0.70569) and 6Nd (-0.70 to -1.86) values are low and exhibit a restricted range,

indicating a homogeneous lower crustal protolith. In the Bornavard granitoid, however,

initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70757-0.75008) and eNd values (-1.41 to -5.20) exhibit a large range,

suggesting that magmas were extensively contaminated with older continental crust or they

were derived from partial melting of older felsic rocks of the continental crust.

ii

The K u h Mish intrusions are compositionally diverse, ranging from gabbro to quartz

monzodiorite, but are dominated by granodiorite. They have low abundances of alkalis,

LFSE, HFSE and LREE relative to the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids. They are also the

most isotopically primitive plutonic rocks in northeastern CJP, typically having initial (at

42.8 Ma) 87Sr/86Sr of 0.70386-0.70475 and sNd values of +8.02 to +6.30 that indicate a

mantle source. In these aspects, they are similar to the tonalitic association in the American

Cordillera and, in particular, to the western Peninsular Ranges Batholith.

The granitoid rocks of the northeastern CJJP show characteristics of magmas that originated

in a subduction-related environment. The Rb/Sr ages of biotite-whole rock pairs from

granitoids of northeastern CIP are consistent with the timing of subduction of the Neo-

Tethys Oceanic crust beneath the CIP. In particular, Sr-Nd isotopic data show that in the

northeastern CIP, Middle-Late Eocene granitoids are isotopically less evolved or have

primitive features compared with Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous granitoids. It seems that

voluminous injection of basaltic and andesitic magmas derived from subduction of the

oceanic crust resulted in a complete change in the genesis of magmas in the northeastern

CIP. Using tectonic discrimination diagrams, the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids

typically plot in the 'volcanic arc and syn-collisional' granite field. However, the Kuh Mish

intrusions are strongly depleted in Rb, Nb and Y contents suggesting that they may have

emplaced in an island arc environment.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis could not have completed without the help and assistance of many people who

contributed their time, enthusiasm and support towards the intellectual and practical

understanding of granitoids.

My supervisor Dr Paul F. Carr is especially thanked for giving me the opportunity to

complete a doctoral study in one of the most scenic field sites in the world. He also provided

valuable insight and fruitful discussion through all phases and aspects of the present study.

His patience, during my field and laboratory work and his critical reading of chapter drafts,

is hereby acknowledged.

Special thanks are due to my family for their constant support during my studies, often

under difficult and trying circumstances, and for their love and faith in me.

The various Heads of the Department of Geology/School of Geosciences (A/Prof. Tony J.

Wright, A/Prof. Brian G. Jones, Prof. Allan R. Chivas and A/Prof. Ted Bryant) are thanked

for making available the facilities of the Department/School. I am indebted to A/Prof. Brian

G. Jones and Mr Aivars M. Depers for encouragement and reading of many drafts of my

thesis chapters and bringing to my attention errors and omissions, all beyond the call of

duty. Prof. Bruce W. Chappell from the Australian National University is sincerely thanked

for giving me his advice and forwarding copies of his publications. I would like to thank Mr.

David Carrie for his help in the preparation of polished thin sections. Thanks are also due to

Dr Norm Pearson from Macquarie University for his assistance with the electron microprobe

iv

analyses. I wish to express m y sincere appreciation to Dr Masoud Doroudian and M r Ali A.

Shojaei for proof reading my thesis references and linking these with the text. Mr Ali A.

Faramarziah is thanked for help in final printing of the thesis.

The field aspects of the present study occupied a large proportion of my time and numerous

people need to be thanked for their assistance, not only in active muscle work, but also

camaraderie, often during inclement weather. I am indebted to Mr Mahmoud Refabi for his

continued and enthusiastic help with all aspects of field sampling, as well as logistics. I am

grateful to the Director of the Geological Survey of Mashhad, Mr Jafar Taheri for allowing

me to use unpublished data from the Kashmar 1:100 000 Geological Sheet. He also provided

assistance and informative discussions during field trips. The Governor's Office of Kashmar

provided suitable vehicles for field trips. I am grateful to fellow postgraduate students of the

School of Geosciences, particularly Musa Arhoma, Jenny Atchison, Sue Murray, Mark

Dickson, Alex Golab, Daniel Palamara and Simon Clarke for providing amusement and

social relief as well as different academic insights into research, both relevant and irrelevant

to granitoids.

This work was supported by a scholarship from the Ministry of Culture and Higher

Education of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Without this assistance, this study would not have

been possible.

V

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii TABLE OF CONTENTS v LIST Of FIGURES x LIST OF TABLES xvi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 GENERAL GEOLOGY 2

1.3 AIMS 4

1.4 PREVIOUS WORK 4

1.5 IGNEOUS ROCK NOMENCLATURE 5

1.6 LAYOUT OF THE THESIS 5

CHAPTER 2 REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF IRANIAN GRANITOIDS

2.1 INTRODUCTION 7

2.2 CENTRAL IRAN PLATE (CIP) 8

2.3 SANANDAJ-SIRJAN MET AMORPHIC ZONE (S-SMZ) 10

2.4 URUMIEH-DOKHTAR VOLCANIC BELT (U-DVB) 12

2.5 GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF IRANIAN GRANITOIDS 12

2.5.1 REGIONAL-AUREOLE GRANITOIDS 12

2.5.1.1 Chapedony Complex 13

2.5.1.2 Doran Granite 13

2.5.2 CONTACT-AUREOLE GRANITOIDS 14

2.5.2.1 Mashhad Granite 14

2.5.2.2 Shahkuh Granite 16

2.5.2.3 Shirkuh Batholith 17

2.5.2.4 Muteh Granite 17

2.5.2.5 Hamadan Batholith 17

VI

2.5.3 SUB VOLCANIC GRANITOIDS 19

2.5.3.1 Natanz Intrusive Complex 19

2.5.3.2 Karkas and Jebal-e-Barez Intrusions 20

2.5.4 SUMMARY 20

CHAPTER 3 GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND GEOCHRONOLOGY

3.1 GEOLOGICAL SETTING 23 3.1.1 TAKNAR ZONE 23 3.1.2 SABZEVAR ZONE 24

3.2 MAJOR FAULT SYSTEMS 25 3.2.1 DORUNEH FAULT 25

3.2.2 RIVASH FAULT 26

3.3 GEOCHRONOLOGY 26

3.3.1 KASHMAR GRANITOID 26

3.3.1.1 Rb/Sr Age Dating 28

3.3.1.2 IsotopicData 28

3.3.2 BORNAVARD GRANITOID 31

3.3.2.1 IsotopicData 32

3.3.2.2 Age Discussion on the Bornavard Granitoid 35

CHAPTER 4 PETROGRAPHY AND MINERAL CHEMISTRY

4.1 PETROGRAPHY OF KASHMAR GRANITOID 38

4.1.1 TONALITE 38

4.1.2 GRANODIORITE 39

4.1.3 GRANITE 39

4.1.4 ALKALI FELDSPAR GRANITE 40

4.2 MINERAL CHEMISTRY OF KASHMAR GRANITOID 41

4.2.1 PLAGIOCLASE 41

4.2.2 AMPHD30LE 43

4.2.3 BIOTITE 47

4.2.4 Fe-Ti OXIDES 52

4.2.5 K-FELDSPAR 54

4.2.6 QUARTZ 56.

Vll

4.2.7 ACCESSORY MINERALS 57

4.2.8 ALTERATION PRODUCTS 59

3 PETROGRAPHY OF BORNAVARD GRANITOID 60

4.3.1 TONALITE 60


4.3.3 GRANITE 61

4 MINERAL CHEMISTRY OF BORNAVARD GRANITOID 62

4.4.1 PLAGIOCLASE 62

4.4.2 K-FELDSPAR 63

4.4.3 AMPHIBOLE 64

4.4.4 BIOTITE 67

4.4.5 ACCESSORY MINERALS 69

4.4.6 ALTERATION PRODUCTS 72

5 TAKNAR RHYOLTTE 73

4.5.1 PETROGRAPHY AND MINERAL CHEMISTRY 74

6 KUH MISH INTRUSIONS 76

4.6.1 GABBRO 77

4.6.1.1 Mineralogy of Gabbro 77

4.6.2 QUARTZ MONZODIORITE 78

4.6.2.1 Mineralogy of Quartz Monzodiorite 78


4.6.3.1 Mineralogy of Granodiorite 80

7 SUMMARY 83

CHAPTER 5 WHOLE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY

1 INTRODUCTION 85

2 KASHMAR GRANITOID 85

5.2.1 MAJOR ELEMENTS 85

5.2.2 SUMMARY OF MAJOR ELEMENTS 90

5.2.3 INCOMPATIBLE ELEMENTS 91

5.2.3.1 Low Field Strength Elements (LFSE) 92

5.2.3.2 High Field Strength Elements (HFSE) 95

viii

5.2.3.3 Rare Earth Elements (REE) 96

5.2.4 COMPATIBLE ELEMENTS 97

5.2.5 Sr AND Nd ISOTOPES 98

5.3 BORNAVARD GRANITOID 100



5.3.2.1 Low Field Strength Elements (LFSE) 103

5.3.2.2 High Field Strength Elements (HFSE) 105

5.3.2.3 Rare Earth Elements (REE) 106



5.4 TAKNAR RHYOLITE 110

5.4.1 MAJOR AND TRACE ELEMENTS 110


5.5 KUH MISH INTRUSIONS 113



5.5.3 RARE EARTH ELEMENTS (REE) 115



CHAPTER 6 GENETIC CLASSIFICATION AND COMPARISON WITH OTHER GRANITOIDS 6.1 INTRODUCTION 119

6.2 FIELD AND PETROGRAPHIC EVIDENCE 120

6.3 MPNERALOGICAL EVIDENCE 120

6.4 EVIDENCE FOR RESTTTE 122

6.5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS 124

6.6 ALUMINUM SATURATION INDEX (AST) 126

6.7 Sr AND Nd ISOTOPES 132

6.8 ALLOCATION OF GRANITOIDS TO SUITE 133

6.9 HIGH- AND LOW-TEMPERATURE I-TYPE GRANITES 135

6.10 COMPARISON WITH OTHER GRANITOID TYPES 137

ix

6.10.1 COMPARISON WITH S-TYPE GRANITES 137

6.10.2 COMPARISON WITH A-TYPE GRANITES 138

6.10.3 COMPARISON WITH I-TYPE GRANITES 140

CHAPTER 7 PETROGENESIS AND TECTONIC SETTING

7.1 PETROGENESIS 143

7.1.1 PRODUCTION OF I-TYPE GRANITE SOURCE ROCKS 143

7.1.2 PRODUCTION OF I-TYPE GRANITES BY PARTIAL

MELTING WITHIN THE CRUST 144

7.1.3 FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLISATION IN LOW-TEMPERATURE I-TYPE GRANITES 146

7.1.4 RESTHE FRACTIONATION 147 7.1.5 'MINIMUM-MELT COMPOSITIONS 150 7.1.6 Sr AND Nd ISOTOPES 151 7.1.7 LFSE ENRICHMENT AND HFSE DEPLETION 153 7.1.8 A MODEL FOR EVOLUTION OF MAGMAS IN NORTHEASTERN

CIP 155 7.2 TECTONIC SETTINGS 158

7.2.1 ANOROGENIC GRANITES 159 7.2.2 OROGENIC GRANITES 160

7.2.2.1 Island Arc Granites 160 7.2.2.2 Magmatic Arcs of Continental Margines 161

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS

8.1 CONCLUSIONS 164

REFERENCES 174

APPENDIX 1 240

ANALYTICAL METHODS

APPENDIX 2 246

MODAL MINERALOGY AND C.I.P.W. NORMS

APPENDIX 3 252

ELECTRON MICROPROBE ANALYSES

X

APPENDIX 4 290

WHOLE-ROCK GEOCHEMICAL DATA

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.1 Generalized tectonic map of Iran, based on the geological maps of Ruttner and

Stocklin (1967) and Alavi (1991). 200

Figure 1.2 Location of the area studied. 201

CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.1 Tectonic subdivision of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Metamorphic Zone (after Mohajjel,

1997). 202

Figure 2.2 The Hamadan Batholith, a typical contact-aureole granitoid in the Sanandaj-

Sirjan Metamorphic Zone, Iran (after Mohajjel, 1997). 203

Figure 2.3 Representative regional-aureole granites of Iran. 204

Figure 2.4 Representative contact-aureole granites of Iran. 205

Figure 2.5 Representative subvolcanic granites of Iran. 206

CHAPTER 3

Figure 3.1 Generalized geological map of east of the Taknar Zone, northeastern Central Iran

Plate (after Valipour, 1992). 207

Figure 3.2 Geological map of the Kashmar area. 208

xi

Figure 3.3 Rb/Sr whole rock isochron diagram for granodiorite, granite and alkali feldspar

granite from the Kashmar granitoid. M S W D = Mean Squares of Weighted Deviates, used as

a measure of the goodness of fit of the isochron. 209

Figure 3.4 Geological map of the Bornavard area. 210

CHAPTER 4

Figure 4.1 Modal compositions (quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase) of the Kashmar granitoid.

Fields are based on classification of igneous rocks, proposed by Streckeisen (1976) and Le

Bas and Streckeisen, 1991). 211

Figure 4.2 Plagioclase composition from the Kashmar granitoid. 211

Figure 4.3 Diagram of Ti versus total Al for magnesio hornblende from the Kashmar

granitoid, with pressure contours determined according to Johnson and Rutherford (1989a).

212

Figure 4.4 Composition of biotite crystals from the Kashmar granitoid. The boundary

between phlogopite and annite is proposed at Mg/(Mg + Fe) = 0.7 (Gribble, 1988).

212

Figure 4.5 Plot of M g O versus AI2O3 from biotite of the Kashmar granitoid. Discriminant

lines are after Abdel-Rahman (1994). A = Anorogenic, P = Peraluminous and C =

Calcalkaline orogenic. 213

Figure 4.6 Relationship between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and whole rock Si02 contents for biotite

from the Kashmar granitoid. 213

Figure 4.7 Diagram showing negative correlation between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and total Fe

(a.f.u.) from biotite of the Kashmar granitoid. 214

Figure 4.8 Diagram showing negative correlation between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and Ti (a.f.u.) in

biotite from the Kashmar granitoid. 214

xii

Figure 4.9 Comparison of Mg/(Mg + Fe) between coexisting hornblende and biotite from

the Kashmar granitoid. 215

Figure 4.10 Composition of K-feldspar crystals from the Kashmar granitoid. 215

Figure 4.11 Modal compositions (quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase) of the Bornavard

granitoid. Fields are based on classification of igneous rocks, proposed by the IUGS

Subcommission on the systematics of igneous rocks (Streckeisen, 1976; Le Bas and

Streckeisen, 1991). 216

Figure 4.12 Anorthite-Albite-Orthoclase triangle plot for plagioclase composition from the

Bornavard granitoid. 216

Figure 4.13 Anorthite-Albite-Orthoclase triangle diagram showing the composition of K-

feldspar crystals in granite from the Bornavard granitoid. 217

Figure 4.14 Diagram of Ti (a.f.u.) versus total Al (a.f,u.) for magnesio hornblende from the

Bornavard granitoid, with pressure contours determined according to Johnson and

Rutherford (1989a). 217

Figure 4.15 Composition of biotite crystals from the Bornavard granitoid. 218

Figure 4.16 Negative correlation between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and total Fe (a.f.u.) for biotite

crystals from the Bornavard granitoid. 218

Figure 4.17 Total alkali contents versus Si02 (wt%) classification (TAS) for the Taknar

Rhyolite (fields after Le Maitre, 1989 and Le Bas and Streckeisen, 1991). 218

Figure 4.18 Simplified geological map of the Kuh Mish area. 219

Figure 4.19 Modal compositions (quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase) of the Kuh Mish

intrusions. Fields are based on classification of igneous rocks, proposed by the IUGS

xiii

Subcomrnission on the systematics of igneous rocks (Streckeisen, 1976; Le Bas and

Streckeisen, 1991). 220

Figure 4.20 Composition of clinopyroxene in gabbro from the Kuh Mish intrusions.

220

Figure 4.21 Composition of plagioclase crystals in gabbro and granodiorite from the Kuh

Mish intrusions. 220

CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.1 Harker diagrams for the Kashmar granitoid (oxides, wt%). Symbols: Tonalite

(+), Granodiorite (x), Granite (*) and Alkali feldspar granite (a). 221

Figure 5.2 Multi-element patterns (spider diagrams) for the Kashmar granitoid. The

normalised values are from M c Donough et al. (1991). Symbols as Figure 5.1. 222

Figure 5.3 Harker diagrams for trace elements abundances of the Kashmar granitoid

(oxides, w t % and traces, ppm). Symbols as Figure 5.1. 223

Figure 5.4 Rare earth element patterns for granodiorite, granite and alkali feldspar granite

from the Kashmar granitoid. The normalised values are from Taylor and M c Lennan (1985).

Symbols as Figure 5.1. 224

Figure 5.5 Harker diagrams for the Bornavard granitoid (oxides, wt%). Symbols: Tonalite

(+), Granodiorite (x) and Granite (*). 224

Figure 5.6 Multi-element patterns (spider diagrams) for the Bornavard granitoid. The

normalised values are from M c Donough et al. (1991). Symbols as Figure 5.5. 225

Figure 5.7 Harker diagrams for trace elements abundances of the Bornavard granitoid

(oxides, w t % and traces, ppm). Symbols as Figure 5.5. 226

xiv

Figure 5.8 Rare earth element patterns for tonalite, granodiorite and granite from the

Bornavard granitoid. The normalised values are from Taylor and M c Lennan (1985).

Symbols as Figure 5.5. 227

Figure 5.9 Plot of initial 87Sr/86Sr versus Si02 (wt%) for igneous rocks of the northeastern

CIP. Symbols: Kashmar (+), Bornavard (x), Taknar (*) and Kuh Mish (•). 227

Figure 5.10 Multi-element patterns (spider diagrams) for the Taknar Rhyolite, northeastern

CIP. The normalised values are from M c Donough et al. (1991). 228

Figure 5.11 Rare earth element pattern for the Taknar Rhyolite, northeastern CIP. The

normalised values are from Taylor and M c Lennan (1985). 228

Figure 5.12 Harker diagrams for Gabbro (+), quartz monzodiorite (x) and granodiorite (*)

from the Kuh Mish area, northeastern CIP (oxides, w t % and traces ppm). 229

Figure 5.13 Multi-element patterns (spider diagrams) for gabbro (+), quartz monzodiorite

(x) and granodiorite (*) from the Kuh Mish area, northeastern CIP. The normalised values

are from M c Donough et al. (1991). 230

Figure 5.14 Rare earth element patterns for gabbro (+) and granodiorite (*) from the Kuh

Mish area, northeastern CIP. The normalised values are from Taylor and M c Lennan (1985).

230

CHAPTER 6 Figure 6.1 Plot of major elements against Si02 contents for plutonic rocks of the

northeastern CIP. (oxides, wt%). Symbols: Kashmar granitoid (+), Bornavard granitoid (x)

and Kuh Mish intrusions (D). 231

Figure 6.2 Plot of trace elements abundances against Si02 contents for plutonic rocks of the

northeastern CIP. (oxides wt%, traces, ppm, symbols as Figure 6.1). 231

XV

Figure 6.3 (a) Aluminum Saturation Index (AST) and (b) Si02 contents versus ASI values

for igneous rocks of the northeastern CIP. The boundary between metaluminous and

peraluminous at ASI =1.1 proposed by Chappell and White (1974) because they recognised

more generally that very felsic I-type granites may be weakly peraluminous (Chappell,

1998b). Symbols: Kashmar granitoid (+), Bornavard granitoid (x), Kuh Mish intrusions (•)

and Taknar Rhyolite (*). 232

Figure 6.4 Ternary plot of normative Q-Ab-Or for granite from the Bornavard granitoid.

The curves for water-saturated liquids in equilibrium with quartz and K-feldspar at 0.5 and

3.0 kb are from Tuttle and Bowen (1958). The position of 'minimum-melt' compositions of

Tuttle and Bowen (1958) are shown by a cross (+) on each curve. 232

Figure 6.5 Histograms of ASI frequency for igneous rocks of the northeastern CJP.

Numbers in the right side of the histograms indicate 1 = Kashmar granitoid, 2 = Bornavard

granitoid, 3 = Taknar Rhyolite and 4 = Kuh Mish intrusions. 233

CHAPTER 7

Figure 7.1 A C F diagram for plutonic rocks of the northeastern CIP. Plagioclase-(FeO +

M g O ) bine defines ASI (aluminum saturation index) = 1, which divides peraluminous and

metaluminous granitoids (Chappell and White, 1992). 233

Figure 7.2 Harker diagram for total Fe as Fe203 in the Kashmar granitoid. The diagram

represents the partial melting of the source rock (S) to produce restite (R) and a liquid as

'minimum-melt' (M) composition (Chappell et al., 1987). The magma at its source consists

of (R+M) and varying degrees of separation of R from M generated a range of magma and

rock compositions, illustrated by granodiorite (x), granite (*) and alkali feldspar granite (D).

234

Figure 7.3 Diagram showing initial 87Sr/86Sr versus eNd values for Kashmar granitoid (+),

Bornavard granitoid (x) and Kuh Mish intrusions (•). The boundary between mantle and

crust (sNd = 0) is from Rollinson (1993). 234

XVI

Figure 7.4 The Nb-Y discrimination diagram for granitoid rocks of the northeastern CIP.

The fields (Pearce et al, 1984; Forster etal, 1997) show volcanic-arc granites (VAG), syn-

collisional granites (Syn-COLG), within-plate granites ( W P G ) and ocean-ridge granites

(ORG). The broken line is the field boundary for O R G from anomalous ridges. Symbols:

Kashmar granitoid (+), Bornavard granitoid (x) and Kuh Mish intrusions (D). 235

Figure 7.5 The Rb versus (Y + Nb) discrimination diagram for granitoid rocks of the

northeastern CIP. The fields and symbols are as Figure 7.4. 235

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Isotopic age data for some Iranian granitoids and volcanic rocks. 236

Table 3.1 Rb/Sr isotopic age data for Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, northeastern CIP,

Iran. 237

Table 5.1 Sr and Nd isotopic data for Kashmar granitoid, Bornavard granitoid, Taknar

Rhyolite and Kuh Mish intrusions. 238

Table 6.1 Compilation of mean whole rock major and trace element data for I-, S- and A-

type granitoids. 239

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The concept that the chemical characteristics of many igneous rocks reflect the

composition of their source regions is widely accepted. This concept has been used in

many studies of the petrogenesis of volcanic and plutonic rocks of diverse compositions

and sources. Interpretation of the chemical variations within granitoid suites and their

relationship to petrogenesis and source-rock compositions is still controversial. For

example, two contrasted chemical types of granitoids (I- and S-type) from the Lachlan

Fold Belt (LFB) of eastern Australia imply melting of infra- and supra-crustal protoliths,

respectively and chemical variation within related granites is considered to be controlled

by processes such as fractional crystallisation and restite unmixing (White and Chappell,

1977; Chappell et al, 1987; Chappell, 1996a,b; Chappell, 1998a,b). hi contrast, Collins

(1996, 1998) and Keay et al. (1997) suggested that I- and S-type granites of the LFB are

products of large scale three-component (Ordovician turbidites, Cambrian greenstones and

depleted mantle) mixing, rather than unique products from different sources. But some

low-temperature granites show compositional, petrographic, zircon age inheritance, and

other features, which cannot be accounted for satisfactorily by the classical models of

petrogenesis. The restite model is account for these features and recognises that unmelted

but magmatically equilibrated source material (restite) may be entrained in a partial melt,

together comprising magma (Chappell et al, 2000). In the broader context, the source and

tectonic setting are intimately inter-related in the generative processes, so it is likely that

the composition of granites characterizes their tectonic environment (Pitcher, 1993).

2

Plutonic rocks of diverse compositions crop out in many parts of Iran (Berberian, 1981;

Haghipour and Aghanabati, 1989) particularly in the Central Iran Plate (CIP) and the

Sanandaj-Sirjan Metamorphic Zone (S-SMZ). m Iran (Fig. 1.1), the emplacement of

granitoid rocks occurred mainly during the Mesozoic (Jurassic and Cretaceous) and

Tertiary (Oligo-Miocene), but a few intrusions in the CIP have previously been assigned a

Precambrian age (Berberian, 1981; Emami et al, 1993). According to new isotopic data

(Section 3.3.2.1), a Precambrian age for some Iranian granitoids is unlikely. The results of

preliminary investigations of Iranian granitoids are scattered among various publications,

but no comprehensive study of any of these rocks has been undertaken previously.

1.2 GENERAL GEOLOGY

The present study is concerned with granitoid occurrences in the northeastern part of the

CIP between the cities of Kashmar, Bardaskan, Sabzevar and Neyshabur (Fig. 1.2). The

granitoids occur in two geological zones, the Taknar Zone between the Doruneh and

Rivash faults (Lindenberg and Jacobshagen, 1983), and the Sabzevar Zone (Pilger, 1971)

that occurs on the northern side of Rivash Fault. These granitoids are further subdivided

into the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids of the Taknar Zone, and the Kuh Mish

intrusions of the Sabzevar Zone.

The Kashmar granitoid is the largest of these three granitoids and occurs on the northern

side of the east-west trending Doruneh Fault, north of the city of Kashmar (Fig. 1.2). This

granitoid is approximately 50 km long and 7 km wide, and is intruded into genetically

related andesitic lava and pyroclastic rocks of Eocene age (Bernhardt, 1983). Several

plutons comprising mainly tonalite, granodiorite, granite and alkali feldspar granite have

3

been recognised in this granitoid mass (Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1976; Behroozi, 1987). Before

the present study, no isotopic or geochemical data have been reported for the Kashmar

granitoid.

The Bornavard granitoid occurs -20 km northwest of the city of Bardaskan (Fig. 1.2). The

country rocks in this region consist of metavolcanic units comprising mainly rhyolitic

lavas and tuffs known as the Taknar Rhyolite (Stocklin and Setudehnia, 1991), which is

considered to be Precambrian in age and the oldest unit in the Taknar Zone

(Razzaghmanesh, 1968). In the Bornavard area, the Taknar Rhyolite has been intruded by

two major intrusive phases comprising granite and granodiorite. Before the current study,

the granite and granodiorite of this region were considered to be representatives of

Precambrian and Tertiary granites of Iran, respectively (e.g., Forster, 1968;

Razzaghmanesh, 1968; Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1976). The current study presents new isotopic

ages for rocks of the Bornavard-granitoid (Section 3.3.2.1).

The Kuh Mish intrusions crop out around the prominent mountain of Kuh Mish in the

western part of the Sabzevar Zone (Fig. 1.2). The Kuh Mish intrusions include a large

variety of rock types, ranging from gabbro through quartz monzodiorite to granodiorite.

Granodiorite occurs in three localities including Kuh Mish, Darin and Namin. The largest

granodiorite pluton occurs in the Kuh Mish locality. This pluton intrudes volcano-

sedimentary rocks of Eocene age, and a large body of quartz monzodiorite intrudes the

granodiorite pluton. The northern part of the granodiorite pluton is cut by several parallel

dykes which are quartz monzodiorite in composition. Gabbro, the last intrusive phase,

occurs only in the central part of the quartz monzodiorite. In the Darin region, the

granodiorite intrudes volcano-sedimentary rocks of Eocene age, whereas in the Namin

4

region, the contact between granodiorite and country rocks is covered by Quaternary

deposits. Based on these stratigraphic relationships, the Kuh Mish intrusions are known to

be Middle-Late Eocene in age (Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1976; Lindenberg et al, 1983).

1.3 AIMS

The major part of this dissertation is concerned with a detailed petrographic, geochemical

and isotopic investigation of granitoids that occur in the northeastern part of the CIP.

Development of a model for the petrogenesis of these granitoids requires the following:

• isotopic age dating of appropriate granitoids;

• documentation and interpretation of the petrography, mineral chemistry and total

rock geochemistry of the granitoids;

• documentation and interpretation of the isotopic compositions of various rock types;

• recognition and classification of the granitoid types on the basis of source regions;

• determination of the relationship between the granitoids and associated igneous rocks;

• comparison of granitoids on a local and global scale; and

• determining the tectonic environment in which granitoids have been emplaced.

1.4 PREVIOUS WORK

Previous knowledge of much of the area was summarised on the first comprehensive

1:250 000 geological map of Kashmar compiled by Eftekhar-Nezhad (1976). This map

served as a valuable base map for the western parts of the study area, while the 1:100 000

geological map of Feyz-Abad compiled by Behroozi (1987) was used as a base map for

the eastern part of the area.

Previous investigations have concentrated on Cu, Fe and Zn deposits in the Taknar Zone

5

(Razzaghmanesh, 1968; Muller and Walter, 1983), together with studies of the

stratigraphy and structural evolution of the Sabzevar Zone (Lensch et al, 1980;

Lindenberg et al, 1983; Lindenberg and Jacobshagen, 1983). Publications directly related

to the granitoids are scarce, but brief descriptions of petrography have been presented by

Homam (1992), Sepahi (1992) and Valipour (1992).

1.5 IGNEOUS ROCK NOMENCLATURE

Petrographic names are based on modal data utilizing the IUGS classification

(Streckeisen, 1976; Le Bas and Streckeisen, 1991) for plutonic rocks; and the TAS

classification (total alkalis vs silica) as proposed by Le Maitre (1989) and Le Bas and

Streckeisen (1991) for volcanic rocks. The term 'granitoid' is used in the general sense for

plutonic rocks ranging in composition from tonalite to alkali feldspar granite with quartz

contents between 20 and 60% by volume of the rock.

L6 LAYOUT OF THE THESIS

This thesis has been organised into eight chapters. In Chapter 2 the classification and

regional geology of the major Iranian granitoids occurring in the CIP, S-SMZ and

Urumiyeh-Dokhtar Volcanic Belt (U-DVB) are presented. In Chapter 3 the geological

setting of the Taknar and Sabzevar Zones, in which rocks of the present study have been

emplaced, and their geochronology are discussed. Chapter 4 is devoted to petrography

and mineral chemistry of the granitoids and the Taknar Rhyolite Chapter 5 contains

whole rock geochemistry, while Chapter 6 discusses the genetic classification (e.g., I-

and S-type). It also compares the rocks studied to other granitoids on a local and global

scale, based on several criteria, including chemical and mineralogical properties,

aluminium saturation index (ASI) and Sr-Nd isotopic compositions. Using a genetic

6

classification, the rocks studied from the Taknar Zone are allocated into a 'simple suite'

while those of the Sabzevar Zone are assigned into a different suite. Chapter 7 is

concerned with petrogenesis and tectonic setting of the granitoids, whereas Chapter 8

presents the major conclusions from the present study.

7

CHAPTER 2

REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF IRANIAN GRANITOIDS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Iranian granitoids occur mainly in the CIP and the S-SMZ. Stocklin (1972) originally

divided these granitoids into five groups, but later, Stocklin and Nabavi (1973)

classified them into three groups comprising Precambrian, Mesozoic and Tertiary

granitoids. Haghipour and Aghanabati (1989) also adopted this three-fold subdivision

on the geological map of Iran, but Berberian (1981) recognised eight plutonic episodes.

The three-fold subdivision of Iranian granitoids was based on similarities in petrography

or stratigraphic relationships (Stocklin and Setudehnia, 1991). Recent geological

investigations and limited isotopic data (Tables 2.1 and 3.1) suggest that the

Precambrian ages reported for some Iranian granitoids are unlikely (Otroudi, 1987;

Sepahi, 1992; Emami etal, 1993; Noorbehesht and Sharifi, 1997).

Relationships between granitoids and the associated country rocks, in the Lachlan Fold

Belt of eastern Australia, have provided the basis for subdivision into regional-aureole,

contact-aureole and subvolcanic types (White et al, 1974) that has significant

implications for depth of emplacement and origin of these granitoids (White and

Chappell, 1988; Chappell and White, 1992; Collins, 1996). Iranian granitoids are

associated with either Precambrian and Mesozoic metamorphic rocks (Darvichzadeh,

1992), or with Tertiary volcanic rocks, especially in the CIP and its western and

southwestern limits known as the Urumiyeh-Dokhtar Volcanic Belt (U-DVB; Kazmin et

8

al, 1986b; Darvichzadeh, 1992; Moradian, 1997). Using the same approach as

adopted by White et al. (1974) for subdivision of the granitoids in the Lachlan Fold

Belt, this chapter reviews the available data from geological maps and other

publications, together with new observations to subdivide Iranian granitoids into

regional-aureole, contact-aureole and subvolcanic types. As plutonic activity in Iran is

restricted to the CIP, S-SMZ and U-DVB, a brief review of geology of these three major

geological zones is also presented.

2.2 CENTRAL IRAN PLATE (CIP)

The term Central Iran Plate or CIP is applied to an approximately triangular shaped area

limited by the active marginal basins of the East Iran Belt to the east, the Alborz Belt to

the north and the S-SMZ to the southwest (Fig. 1.1; Stocklin, 1968). During the

Precambrian and Palaeozoic, the CIP was part of the Arabian Plate and was separated

from the Eurasia Plate by the Hercynian Ocean (Berberian and King, 1981). The CIP

was a stable platform during the Palaeozoic, but tectonic activity in the Late Triassic

produced a series of horsts and grabens between major faults (Stocklin, 1968; Hamedi,

1995).

Late Palaeozoic rifting in the Arabia-Iran platform, along the present line of the Main

Zagros Thrust Line, initiated separation and northward movement of the CIP and

opened the Neo-Tethys Ocean in the south. The Neo-Tethys Ocean in this region started

to close in the southwest towards the end of the Cretaceous and the northern parts of this

ocean were almost entirely closed by the Eocene. Subduction of the Neo-Tethys Oceanic

crust beneath the southern margins of the CJP produced an Andean-type magmatic arc

during the Mesozoic and possibly Early Tertiary (Berberian, 1981).

9

Paleomagnetic data indicate that, during the Jurassic to Late Cretaceous, the CJP

moved northwards accompanied by a counterclockwise rotation of about 100° towards

the southern rim of Eurasia (Davoudzadeh et al, 1981; Schmidt and Soffel, 1983).

During the Late Cretaceous, the CJP converged with the Turan Plate. Additional

northwards movement during the Paleocene-Eocene resulted in the collision of the CIP

with the southern rim of Eurasia (Turan Plate) followed by the emplacement of large

volumes of felsic magmas into the CIP (Soffel and Forster, 1983). In the Late Eocene-

Oligocene a limited tensional episode produced long fractures in the CIP, followed by

volcanic activity (mainly andesite) and emplacement of subvolcanic granitoids along

these fractures (Dercourt et al, 1986).

An Early Cimmerian orogenic event is evident in many parts of Iran, as indicated by

changes in depositional environment from shallow continental to open marine during

the Late Triassic (Kazmin et al, 1986a; Darvichzadeh, 1992). The Late Cimmerian

orogenic event is responsible for subduction of the Neo-Tethys Oceanic crust beneath

the active continental margins of the CIP. The latter event was accompanied by complex

deformation in the S-SMZ (Mohajjel, 1997, 1998), folding, igneous activity and

metamorphism in the CIP, and the development of unconformities in the Zagros, Alborz

and Kopeh Dagh Fold Belts (Aghanabati, 1993). Granitic rocks, related to the Late

Cimmerian orogenic event, were emplaced in the CIP during the Late Jurassic to Early

Cretaceous (Aghanabati, 1993).

According to Berberian and Berberian (1981), after the Late Cretaceous orogenic

activity, very large volumes of dacitic, andesitic and basaltic lavas, with tuffaceous and

10

other clastic sediments, were formed during the Eocene in the CIP and Alborz Fold

Belt. During the Late Eocene-Oligocene, Oligo-Miocene and Pliocene epochs, these

rocks were cut by several intrusive bodies that are mainly coarse- to medium-grained

biotite granite, hornblende biotite granodiorite, monzonite and diorite. The Tertiary

plutonism in the CIP was not restricted primarily to plate margins and the bulk of the

magmatism appears to have occurred within continental margins (Berberian and

Berberian, 1981).

2.3 SANANDAJ-SIRJAN METAMORPHIC ZONE (S-SMZ)

The Zagros Orogen (Alavi, 1994) developed from continental separation and subsequent

collision between the Arabian platform and the CJP. It is part of the Tethyan orogenic

collage that developed between Eurasia and dispersed fragments of Gondwana (Sengor,

1984). The Zagros Orogen consists of the U-DVB, S-SMZ and the Zagros Fold-Thrust

Belt (Alavi, 1991, 1994; Mohajjel, 1997).

The S-SMZ is located southwest of the U-DVB and is characterized by metamorphic

and complexly deformed rocks, associated with abundant deformed and undeformed

plutons, in addition to widespread Mesozoic volcanic rocks. It has a length of 1500 km,

from the northwest to southeast Iran (Fig. 1.1), and a width up to 200 km. The S-SMZ is

considered to be the most tectonically active zone in Iran. The rocks in this zone are

mostly of Mesozoic age. Palaeozoic rocks are rarely exposed in the northwestern part of

the S-SMZ, whereas they commonly occur in the southeastern part (Berberian, 1995;

Sabzehei and Eshraghi, 1995). In the southeastern part of the S-SMZ, deformation and

metamorphism have been attributed to a number of orogenic episodes by different

authors (e.g., Sengor, 1990). The major deformation and metamorphic events that

11

affected the S-SMZ are associated with the opening and closing of the Neo-Tethys

Ocean during the Mesozoic (Alavi, 1994). Based on the structural zonation recognized

in Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rock assemblages, Mohajjel (1997) recently subdivided the

S-SMZ into several elongate sub-zones (Fig. 2.1). From southwest to the northeast these

sub-zones are: (1) radiolarite sub-zone; (2) Bistoon sub-zone; (3) ophiolite sub-zone; (4)

marginal sub-zone; and (5) complexly deformed sub-zone. Plutonic rocks of the S-SMZ

are mainly granite and all occur in the complexly deformed sub-zone.

One of the distinctive features of the S-SMZ is that it contains Mesozoic-Cenozoic

plutonic rocks that do not occur in the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt. In contrast, most

plutonic rocks in the CIP are of Cainozoic age.

The plutonic rocks of the S-SMZ are divided into two groups comprising plutons of

Late Jurassic age and plutons of Late Cretaceous-Palaeocene age. Late Jurassic plutonic

rocks are less abundant than the younger plutonic rocks. In the southeastern complexly

deformed sub-zone, plutonic rocks of Triassic age have been reported (Davoudzadeh

and Weber-Diefenbach, 1987), but more work is required to establish the true age of

these rocks. Most of the Late Cretaceous-Palaeocene plutonic rocks occur in the

northwestern complexly deformed sub-zone and range in composition from gabbro to

granite. The main granitic plutons are at Hamadan, Borujerd, Astaneh, Aligudarz, Boin-

Miandasht and Hasan-Robat (Figs 2.1 and 2.2). All these plutons have elliptical outcrop

patterns that are elongate in a northwest-southeast direction. These plutons are known as

Hamadan Batholith. Isotopic ages of the Hamadan Batholith will be discussed in detail

in Section 2.5.2.5.

12

2.4 URUMTYEH-DOKHTAR VOLCANIC BELT (U-DVB)

The U-DVB consists of a distinctive, thick sequence (up to 4 km) of volcanic and

subvolcanic rocks of Eocene-Quaternary age that extends along the entire northern

section of the S-SMZ as a 50 km wide zone (Berberian and Berberian, 1981). Plutonic

outcrops within the U-DVB comprise a wide variety of lithologies including granite,

granodiorite, diorite and gabbro, as well as widely distributed basaltic, trachybasaltic

(locally shoshonitic), andesitic, dacitic, trachytic lavas and pyroclastic units. Recently,

based on geochemical and isotopic evidence, Moradian (1997) subdivided the U-DVB

into three parts: (1) comprising: the "Urumiyeh-Nain" part in the northwest, (2) the

"Nain-Baft" part in the centre, and (3) the "Baft-Dokhtar" part in the southeast. The

southeastern part of the U-DVB is still active and is associated with the ongoing

subduction of Indian Ocean crust (White and Rose, 1979; McCall and Kidd, 1982;

McCall, 1985).

The genesis of the U-DVB has been controversial with several major tectono-magmatic

models being proposed. The most popular model, however, involves Andean-type

subduction of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic crust beneath the CIP during the Tertiary

(Berberian et al, 1982; Alavi, 1994; Moradian, 1997). In the U-DVB, the peak

magmatic activity occurred during the Eocene (Alavi, 1994).

2.5 GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF IRANIAN GRANITOIDS

2.5.1 REGIONAL-AUREOLE GRANITOIDS

Regional-aureole granitoids of Iran intrude mainly Late Precambrian rocks that were

folded, metamorphosed and uplifted during the Late Precambrian Katangan Orogeny

(Stocklin, 1968). The major representatives of this group occur in the CJP and are

13

known as the Chapedony Complex and Doran Granite (Fig. 2.3).

2.5.1.1 Chapedony Complex

The Chapedony Complex comprises the oldest of the Precambrian metamorphic rocks

of Iran (Darvichzadeh, 1992) and occurs in the eastern part of the CJP (Fig. 2.3). It

consists of ribboned gneiss, schist, migmatite, granite, granodiorite, quartz diorite,

amphibolite and marble (Stocklin and Setudehnia, 1991). The granite and granodiorite

consist mainly of deformed alkali feldspar, plagioclase, quartz and biotite, and small

amounts of clinopyroxene and hornblende (Berberian, 1981). Gradational contacts

between granite and ribboned gneiss indicate that emplacement was synchronous with

metamorphism. The Rb/Sr isochrons formed by two suites of whole rock samples from

the Chapedony Complex (Table 2.1) suggest ages of 541 and 550 Ma (Haghipour,

1978), but these dates may reflect a younger, high grade metamorphic imprint

(Berberian and Berberian, 1981).

2.5.1.2 Doran Granite

The Doran Granite (Fig. 2.3) is an equigranular to slightly porphyritic, white to pinkish

coloured alkaline granite, with high contents of K-feldspar (mainly perthitic microcline)

and quartz, but with low contents of plagioclase, muscovite, biotite, titanite, apatite,

zircon and Fe-Ti oxides (Stocklin and Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1969). The granite has a

slightly gneissic texture, intrudes regional metamorphic rocks (Kahar Phyllite) of

Precambrian age and is reportedly unconformably overlain by Late Precambrian

dolomite (Stocklin et al, 1964). It contains abundant xenoliths derived from the Kahar

Phyllite. Although cited as a typical Precambrian granite (Stocklin et al, 1964), Rb/Sr

dating of a biotite-whole rock pair (Table 2.1) gave an age of 175±5Ma (Crawford,

14

1977), which suggests that the Precambrian age is suspect.

Another exposure of regional-aureole granitoids is found in the Moghanlu area (Alavi et

aL, 1982), approximately 30 km to the west of the Doran Granite (Fig. 2.3). In the

Moghanlu area, a granitic pluton intrudes green tuffaceous slates and encircles a group

of high grade metamorphic rocks that are mainly augen gneisses, amphibolite and biotite

schist (Stocklin and Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1969; Valizadeh and Esmaeili, 1994). The

granitic pluton is enriched in biotite towards the contact with the high grade

metamorphic rocks. Although no field evidence for gradual changes between granite and

gneisses has been observed, geochemical data (Valizadeh and Esmaeili, 1994) indicate

that the granite probably derived from partial melting of the gneiss that may have

occurred at depth.

2.5.2 CONTACT-AUREOLE GRANITOIDS

In the S-SMZ, plutons have been emplaced both during and after tectonic activity.

Deformed syn-tectonic plutons are characterised by narrow contact aureoles, but post-

tectonic plutons have wide aureoles or faulted margins (Soheili et al, 1992; Mohajjel,

1997). The major contact-aureole granitoids of Iran are the Muteh Granite and Hamadan

Batholith in the S-SMZ, together with the Mashhad, Shahkuh and Shirkuh Granites in

the CJP (Fig. 2.4).

2.5.2.1 Mashhad Granite

The Mashhad Granite occurs in the northeastern part of Iran (Fig. 2.4) and it is

surrounded by a remarkable contact-aureole up to 200 m wide (Esmaeili et al, 1998b),

superimposed on regional metamorphic rocks which are of Late Permian to Early

15

Jurassic age (Aghanabati, 1986). The regional metamorphic rocks are pelitic,

psammitic, calcareous and mafic in nature, and have been affected by low- to medium-

grade metamorphism. The polymetamorphic rocks in the aureole around the Mashhad

Granite comprise almandine- and andalusite-rich pelite, garnet and biotite schist,

quartzite, calc-silicate rocks and amphibolite, whereas the regionally metamorphosed

rocks comprise almandine-, staurolite- and chloritoid-bearing pelite, andalusite-bearing

pelite, quartzite, carbonate rocks, amphibolite and serpentinite (Holzer and

Momenzadeh, 1969; Majidi and Alavi, 1972; Aghanabati, 1986; Iranmanesh and

Sethna, 1998).

The Mashhad Granite was emplaced in three major intrusive phases (Majidi and Alavi,

1972). The first phase is characterised by porphyritic granite, biotite granite,

granodiorite and hornblende-biotite tonalite, and occurs in the southern part of the

Mashhad Granite (Holzer and Momenzadeh, 1969; Majidi, 1978). In the first phase

biotite and hornblende occur in some parts of the granite and an overprinted schistosity

continues into the country rocks. The granite also contains numerous lens-shaped

xenoliths of the same composition as the country rocks. These features were used to

infer a syn-tectonic intrusion for the Mashhad Granite (Majidi and Alavi, 1972). The

second phase produced leucogranite that consists mainly of quartz, K-feldspar,

muscovite and rare biotite, together with accessory garnet, tourmaline, apatite, zircon,

rutile and Fe-Ti oxides. The leucogranite intrudes the first phase and crops out in the

central exposures of the Mashhad Granite. The third phase, represented by several

aplitic, pegmatitic and pneumatolytic veins, intrudes both the earlier phases (Majidi and

Alavi, 1971) and contains quartz, K-feldspar, muscovite and minor amounts of biotite.

Chemical analyses of different intrusive phases of the Mashhad Granite indicate

16

metaluminous I-type features for hornblende-bearing granite that is considered as the

first phase, and peraluminous S-type features for biotite/muscovite granite and

pegmatite that are referred to the second and third phases (Iranmanesh and Sethna,

1998).

The Mashhad Granite is overlain by Cretaceous conglomerate, arkose and limestone

about 40 km southeast of Mashhad. Holzer and Momenzadeh (1969), however, reported

that granite intruded Early Cretaceous rocks to the south of Mashhad city. The K-Ar

dates of 146-120 Ma for the Mashhad Granite (Alberti et al, 1973) and the stratigraphic

relationships indicate high level multiple intrusions of granitic magma from Late

Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. A K-Ar age of 146+3 Ma (Table 2.1) for quartz diorite at

Mashhad (Alberti et al, 1973) indicates that the more mafic and peripheral phases of the

Mashhad Granite were probably the earliest intrusions in the composite granitic mass

(Iranmanesh and Sethna, 1998).

2.5.2.2 Shahkuh Granite

The Shahkuh Granite (590 km2) occurs in eastern Iran (Fig. 2.4) and intrudes Early

Jurassic shale. It is overlain by Orbitolina limestone of Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous

age (Darvichzadeh, 1992). The northern part of the Shahkuh Granite produced slight

metamorphism, but the southern part is surrounded by a well-developed contact-aureole,

containing andalusite, cordierite and biotite hornfels, and occasional copper

mineralisation (Mobasher, 1992). This granite is petrographically similar to other

Middle-Late Jurassic granites (Aghanabati, 1993) occurring in the northern and

northeastern parts of the CIP, including the Airakan Granite (165±8 Ma) and Torbat-e-

Jam Granite (153±5 Ma).

17

2.5.2.3 Shirkuh Granite

The Shirkuh Granite (>1000 km2) occurs in the CIP (Fig. 2.4). It is a peraluminous S-

type calcalkaline granite, characterized by the presence of accessory cordierite, garnet,

graphite, andalusite, silhmanife, ilmenite, zircon and apatite (Arnini and Kalantari,

1997). The Shirkuh Granite has a thermal metamorphic contact with Triassic rocks

(Darvichzadeh, 1992; Arnini and Kalantari, 1997) and it is unconformably overlain by

Late Jurassic conglomerate containing pebbles from the underlying granite (Aghanabati,

1993; Kh-Tehrani and Vaziri, 1993). K/Ar dating of K-feldspar grains from Shirkuh

Granite (Table 2.1) gave ages of 186 and 159 Ma (Reyre and Mohafez, 1972). The

younger age (159 Ma) is slightly anomalous on the basis of the stratigraphic

relationships. The younger age from low temperature feldspar probably reflects loss of

radiogenic argon (e.g., Harrison and McDougall, 1981; McDougall and Harrison, 1988).

2.5.2.4 Muteh Granite

The calcalkaline Muteh Granite occurs in the S-SMZ (Fig. 2.4) and is rich in quartz and

K-feldspar, but poor in ferromagnesian minerals (Berberian, 1981). This granite was

considered to be Precambrian in age by Theileh et al. (1968), but thermal

metamorphism of Early Jurassic rocks indicates that the intrusion is Late Mesozoic or

younger in age (Valizadeh, 1992). The petrography and whole rock geochemistry of the

Muteh Granite are very similar to Cretaceous granitoids in the S-SMZ (Otroudi, 1987;

Valizadeh and Ghasemi, 1993; Noorbehesht and Sharifi, 1997).

2.5.2.5 Hamadan Batholith

The Hamadan Batholith is typical of contact-aureole granites in Iran. It intruded the

18

Jurassic Hamadan Phyllite in the S-SMZ (Amidi and Majidi, 1977) and comprises

major plutons in the Hamadan, Borujerd and Aligudarz areas (Fig. 2.2). These plutons

are surrounded by wide aureoles (up to 5 km) of hornfels and other contact metamorphic

rocks, containing cordierite, quartz and graphite, and minor andalusite, staurolite, garnet

and biotite (Mohajjel, 1992, 1997). The contact-aureoles are superimposed on various

grades of regional metamorphic rocks, including slate, phyllite, biotite schist,

amphibolite and gneiss (Darvichzadeh, 1992; Husseini-Doost, 1997). The granite to

granodiorite pluton in the Borujerd area intrudes the Hamadan Phyllite; a granite sample

from this pluton has been dated by the K/Ar method at 100 Ma (Farhadian, 1991;

Mohajjel, 1997).

Rb/Sr and K/Ar isotopic data from Hamadan Batholith (Table 2.1) gave ages of 104±3

and 82.8±3 Ma respectively for muscovite from pegmatite, 88.5 and 89.6±3 Ma

respectively for biotite from the gabbro, and 68±2 and 63.8±2.5 Ma respectively for

biotite from the granodiorite (Valizadeh and Cantagrel, 1975). These ages indicate that

the Hamadan Batholith emplace*d during the Late Cretaceous times. For gabbro and

granodiorite, there is a good agreement between the ages obtained by Rb/Sr and K/Ar

methods on biotite-whole rock and biotite, respectively. However, there is significant

difference in Rb/Sr and K/Ar ages for the pegmatite. This difference may be the result of

loss of radiogenic argon, because there is some evidence that this part of the S-SMZ has

been affected by a high thermal gradient as a result of intrusion of several plutons during

the Late Cretaceous-Palaeogene times (Section 2.3). This plutonism has been related to

closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean during the Late Mesozoic by many authors (e.g.,

Dercourt etal, 1986; Alavi, 1994).

19

2.5.3 S U B V O L C A N I C GRANITOIDS

Subvolcanic granitoids of Iran occur in the CIP and U-DVB. Geochemical data are

lacking for most of the subvolcanic granitoids of Iran, particularly for those that occur in

the northeastern CIP. Accordingly, the genesis of the intrusive rocks in this part of the

country is controversial. Representative subvolcanic granitoids (Fig. 2.5) from the U-

DVB occur in the Natanz, Karkas and Jebal-e-Barez areas (Berberian and Berberian,

1981).

2.5.3.1 Natanz Intrusive Complex

The Natanz Intrusive Complex (Fig. 2.5) comprises calcalkaline rocks, including gabbro,

diorite, quartz diorite, quartz monzonite, granite and granodiorite, that intrude folded

Eocene volcanic rocks (Berberian, 1981). The complex is surrounded by a low-grade

hornfelsic aureole up to 1.5 km wide (Amidi, 1977). Emplacement began with mafic

intrusions and ended with granite and granodiorite. The latter intrusions contain several

xenoliths of host volcanic units, as well as early mafic intrusions. Hornblende, biotite and

magnetite are the most common ferromagnesian minerals of the Natanz intrusive complex.

Rb/Sr dating of biotite-whole rock pairs (Table 2.1) gave ages of 33.5+1.2 Ma and

25.5±0.5 Ma for gabbro and granite respectively. The corresponding initial Sr/ Sr

values are 0.70524 and 0.70573 for gabbro and granite, respectively (Berberian, 1981).

These values indicate that the gabbro and granodiorite originated from a heterogeneous

mantle source (e.g., Faure, 1986) or melting of infra crustal source rocks (e.g., Brownlow,

1996). However, Emami and Khalatbari (1997) showed evidence of wall rock assimilation

for granitic rocks of the Natanz Intrusive Complex.

20

2.53.2 Karkas and Jebal-e-Barez Intrusions

The Karkas and Jebal-e-Barez intrusions (Fig. 2.5) form part of the U-DVB that is

parallel to the Zagros-Central Iranian convergent plate boundary (Berberian et al,

1982). According to Berberian (1981), the last major intrusive episode in Iran occurred

during the Oligocene to Early Miocene and is mainly developed in the Karkas and Jebal-

e-Barez areas. The medium-grained intrusions are composed mainly of gabbroic to

granitic rocks that intrude folded sedimentary and volcanic units of Eocene to Miocene

age (Berberian, 1981). The granitic rocks contain abundant magnetite grains and show

microgranophyric intergrowths. The volcanic units are mostly andesitic lavas. The

Karkas and Jebal-e-Barez intrusions have produced a thermal aureole in the surrounding

andesitic lavas. As occurs in the Natanz Intrusive Complex, felsic intrusive rocks cut the

mafic intrusions showing their relatively younger age. Whole rock Rb/Sr isochron of the

granodiorite from the Karkas intrusions gave an age of 78 Ma (Reyre and Mohafez,

1972), which is definitely not the age of intrusion since the granodiorite cuts the folded

Eocene volcanic units. Conversely, K/Ar dating of biotite gave ages of 38-33 Ma

(Table 2.1) for the Karkas Granodiorite (Reyre and Mohafez, 1972) and an age of

24+0.1 Ma for the Jebal-e-Barez Granite (Conrad et al, 1977). These ages are consistent

with the stratigraphic position of the Karkas and Jebal-e-Barez intrusions.

2.6 SUMMARY

The regional-aureole granitoids of Iran occur in the CIP and intrude high-grade

metamorphic rocks of Precambrian age. The emplacement of such granitoids from other

parts of the world is considered synchronous with metamorphism (e.g., Wickham, 1986;

Collins et al, 1991; Collins and Vernon, 1991). They may have developed by melting of

21

the older high-grade regional metamorphic rocks (White and Chappell, 1988).

The contact-aureole granites of Iran occur as large batholiths in the CJP and the S-SMZ.

Most of them are Late Mesozoic in age. According to mineralogical features, both I-type

metduminous and S-type peraluminous are present. But the S-type granites are

dominated and commonly attributed to those plutons showing wide contact-aureoles.

Such S-type granites contain peraluminous minerals and xenoliths that can be matched

with the surrounding rocks (Valizadeh, 1992; Husseini-Doost, 1997). In the S-SMZ,

deformed and undeformed plutons are mostly circular to elliptical in plan (Fig. 2.2),

with the major axes of the ellipses oriented parallel to the northwest-southeast trend of

the S-SMZ (Soheili et al, 1992), but undeformed plutons are large and surrounded by

pronounced hornfelsic aureoles (Mohajjel, 1997). Preliminary data from some S-type

granites of Iran, such as the Hamadan and Shirkuh Granites (Valizadeh, 1992; Amini

and Kalantari, 1997; Noorbehesht and Sharifi, 1997), suggest that they are post-tectonic

intrusions and a supracrustal protolith is favoured for their generation.

Tertiary granites are mostly subvolcanic intrusions and occur throughout Iran, except in

the Zagros and Kopeh Dagh Fold Belts. Contacts with the host volcanic rocks are

sometimes low-grade hornfelsic aureole, but commonly steeply deepened or faulted.

These granites are medium-grained and sometimes show granophyric intergrowths and

porphyritic textures. Their mineral assemblages indicate that they can be classified as

magnetite-series granites (I-type) that tend to occur along the continental margins (e.g.

Ishihara, 1998). They contain basaltic enclaves and have similar minerals to granites

from elsewhere that are derived from igneous source regions. Most of them occur along

major fault systems, suggesting possibly an extensional structural setting (e.g.,

22

Darvichzadeh, 1992).

23

CHAPTER 3

GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND GEOCHRONOLOGY

3.1 GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The granitoids that form the basis of the present study crop out in two distinct geological

zones comprising the Taknar Zone, with the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, and the

Sabzevar Zone that contains the Kuh Mish intrusions (Fig. 1.2).

3.1.1 TAKNAR ZONE

The Taknar Zone (Lindenberg and Jacobshagen, 1983) is a wedge-shaped region between

two major fault systems, the Rivash Fault to the north and the Doruneh Fault to the south

(Fig. 1.2). The southern part of the Taknar Zone extends to the east at least to the boundary

of Iran and Afghanistan. The basement of the Taknar Zone consists of metavolcanic rocks

(andesitic lava and tuff) of probably Precambrian age (Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1976). The

Bornavard granitoid intrudes the metavolcanic rocks (Fig. 3.1). In the Taknar Zone, Late

Palaeozoic rocks occur as thin sequences and are scattered around the most western and

southern parts of the zone (Muller and Walter, 1983). In the southern parts of the zone, Late

Palaeozoic - Early Mesozoic dolomite is unconformably overlain by Late Cretaceous

limestone (Fig. 3.1). The Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of the Taknar Zone

cannot be correlated with rocks of similar age in the Sabzevar Zone (Sepahi, 1992). The

eastern part of the Taknar Zone is widely covered by volcano-sedimentary rocks of Eocene

age (Fig. 1.2) and is intruded by the Kashmar granitoid.

24

The metavolcanic rocks of the Taknar Zone are characterised by a thick sequence (about

2000 m) of essentially andesitic lava and tuff, with intercalations of sandstone and

dolomite. The contact between the metavolcanic unit and the underlying rocks is not clear.

The metavolcanic rocks are lithologically subdivided into five groups (Muller and Walter,

1983) comprising:

(a) light coloured rhyolite containing quartz phenocrysts in a fine-grained groundmass, and

showing a distinctive flow texture;

(b) dark-grey to black coloured rhyolite containing phenocrysts of quartz and K-feldspar in

a very fine-grained groundmass;

(c) green-grey coloured rhyolite contains large phenocrysts of quartz in a fine-grained

groundmass. This rock is sometimes intercalated with metarhyodacite;

(d) fine-grained uniform tuff, grey to dark green colour and composed of quartz and

feldspar; and

(e) light-green coloured banded tuff containing various amounts of quartz grains.

3.1.2 SABZEVAR ZONE

The Sabzevar Zone occurs between the southern border of the Alborz Belt and the northern

border of the Rivash Fault. This zone is subdivided into four geological units (Lindenberg

et al, 1983) comprising:

(a) andesitic and basaltic rocks (Cretaceous in age);

(b) ophiolitic melanges (Early to Late Palaeogene in age) along the southern and northern

parts of the zone;

25

(c) volcano-sedimentary rocks (Eocene in age); and

(d) Kuh Mish intrusions (Middle-Late Eocene in age).

The andesitic and basaltic rocks are interbedded with marine sedimentary strata comprising

thin-bedded chert, radiolarite, marl and limestone. These rocks are usually rich in

Globotruncanas indicating a Late Cretaceous age. The ophiolitic melanges consist of a

large variety of ultramafic and typical flysch-like deposits, occurring in the vicinity of the

Late Cretaceous rocks. Based on their fossil contents, the age of the ophiolitic melanges

ranges from Early to Late Palaeogene (Lindenberg and Jacobshagen, 1983). The volcano-

sedimentary rocks occur in the central parts of the zone (Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1976). The

volcanic units are generally andesitic lavas and tuffs, whereas the sedimentary rocks include

conglomerate, sandstone, limestone, marl and evaporite. The marl and limestone are

Nummulites-bear'mg indicating a Late Palaeocene to Middle Eocene age (Lindenberg et al,

1983). The Kuh Mish intrusions occur around the prominent mountain of Kuh Mish where

they intrude the Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary andesitic and basaltic rocks. The intrusions

are mainly gabbro, quartz monzodiorite and granodiorite. The current study presents the

first petrographic and chemical information for the Kuh Mish intrusions.

3.2 MAJOR FAULT SYSTEMS

3.2.1 DORUNEH FAULT

The presently active Doruneh Fault is east-west trending, with a slight convexity to the

north, and merges with the Rivash Fault to the west of the Taknar Zone (Fig. 1.2;

Lindenberg et al, 1983; Lindenberg and Jacobshagen, 1983). In a broad sense, the Doruneh

26

Fault fits a model of a composite fracture zone with a general trend towards sinistral and

strike-slip movement (Jackson et al, 1995).

3.2.2 RIVASH FAULT

The Rivash Fault separates the northern border of the Taknar Zone from the southern

border of the Sabzevar Zone (Fig. 1.2). Major lateral movements have occurred along the

Rivash Fault. The Cretaceous andesitic and basaltic rocks of the Sabzevar Zone never occur

in the Taknar Zone and Tertiary facies show abrupt changes across the Rivash Fault. This

can be related to the lateral movements of the fault, in combination with a continuous uplift

of the Taknar Zone after the Middle Eocene (Davoudzadeh et al, 1981; Lindenberg and

Jacobshagen, 1983).

3.3 GEOCHRONOLOGY

3.3.1 KASHMAR GRANITOID

The Kashmar granitoid (-200 km2) occurs throughout the northern parts of the Kashmar

area (Fig. 3.2) located to the east of the Taknar Zone (Fig. 1.2). It is bordered by the

Doruneh Fault to the south and the Rivash Fault to the north. It forms the central part of the

'north Doruneh Fault magmatic belt' that runs from the northern to eastern parts of the CIP

for a length of -300 km with a width of -10 km (Emami et al, 1993). In this belt, volcanic

and plutonic rocks occur in an arc with a convexity to the north, defining the margins of the

CJP (Taheri, 1999). The Kashmar granitoid is partly overlain in the south by a Neogene

sandstone -100-150 m thick. Where observed, contact of the granitoid with the surrounding

27

rocks is either faulted or narrow homblende-hornfelsic rims have developed in the Eocene

volcanic rocks.

The Kashmar granitoid is composed of four major plutons including tonalite, granodiorite,

granite, and alkali feldspar granite. Among these, granodiorite and granite plutons

constitute approximately 90% of the granitoid exposure. They are mainly light grey to dark

brown in colour and occupy much of the northern outcrop area, although in places they are

the marginal constituents of the southern areas. Contacts between different plutons are

sharp and mostly faulted. Along the faulted contacts, particularly between granite and

granodiorite, several alteration products have been developed. These plutons have been cut

by aplitic and dacitic dykes. The alkali feldspar granite is the most homogeneous pluton and

is distinguished in the field by a light pink-cream colour. It occupies much of the southern

margin of the Kashmar granitoid. Rocks of this alkali feldspar pluton are medium-grained.

The homogeneous interlocking quartz-feldspar textures and the presence of nearly aphyritic

volcanic rocks at the same structural level indicate that these plutons were emplaced at very

high levels in the crust and solidified contemporaneously (e.g., Kistler and Swanson, 1981;

Turner et al, 1992). In general, contacts between different plutons, together with a

longitudinal shape of the igneous assemblage, are consistent with the east-west trend of the

Doruneh Fault to the south. This implies that the emplacement of these plutons is most

likely related to the activity of the Doruneh Fault.

28

3.3.1.1 Rb/Sr Age Dating

Due to the widespread occurrence of fresh biotite in the rocks studied, the Rb/Sr method on

biotite-whole rock pairs was selected for isotopic age determination. Ages are calculated

using a two point isochron method in which low concentrations of Rb in the whole rock and

very high concentrations of Rb in biotite are used as a control on the accuracy of the initial

ratio. The significance of the Rb/Sr method results from the fact that Rb and Sr have a very

close geochemical relationship to K and Ca, respectively (Geyh and Schleicher, 1990).

These elements are important in magmatic processes, as they can provide important

information, particularly for the petrology of granites. For example, Sr substitutes

predominantly in early phase minerals such as apatite and plagioclase, but Rb becomes

enriched in residual melts. This leads to a large variability in the Rb/Sr ratio during

differentiation and, therefore, provides ideal conditions for the isochron method (Faure,

1986; Geyh and Schleicher, 1990; Brownlow, 1996). The Rb/Sr data are summarised in

Table 3.1. Sample preparation and analytical methods are presented in Appendix 1. Results

presented in this thesis are the first Rb/Sr isotopic ages recorded for the Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids.

3.3.1.2 IsotopicData

On the basis of stratigraphy and comparison with subvolcanic intrusions occurring in the

CP, the Kashmar granitoid was mapped as Tertiary in age by Eftekhar-Nezhad (1976) and

Taheri (1999). The only isotopic age data for the host volcanic rocks to the north of

Kashmar city have been reported by Bernhardt (1983), giving ages of 57.2±3.7 and

29

43.7±1.7 M a for K/Ar dates on hornblende and biotite, respectively. As hornblende has the

capacity to be more retentive with respect to 40Ar than biotite (Faure, 1986; McDougall and

Harrison, 1988), the age of the hornblende is interpreted as the emplacement age of the

volcanic rocks, whereas the younger age for biotite may be the result of loss of 40Ar due to

the emplacement of a subvolcanic granitoid. This biotite age of 43.7±1.7 Ma is very similar

to the ages obtained by the Rb/Sr dating method on several biotite-whole rock pairs from

different plutons of the Kashmar granitoid (Table 3.1).

Also, Tertiary volcanic rocks occur extensively in the Gonabad and Bejestan areas, located

to the southern parts of the Kashmar granitoid. Bina et al (1986) obtained whole rock K/Ar

ages of 61±2 and 54±2Ma for andesitic rocks from the Gonabad and Bejestan areas,

respectively (Table 2.1). The age of 57.2±3.7Ma (Bernhardt, 1983) for hornblende from

volcanic rocks of the Kashmar area is within the 2o analytical uncertainty of the isotopic

ages for andesitic rocks from the Gonabad and Bejestan areas. These isotopic data indicate

Early Eocene volcanic activity in the northeastern CIP.

In the present study, eight samples from three major plutons (granodiorite, granite and

alkali feldspar granite) of the Kashmar granitoid were selected for Rb/Sr dating of biotite-

whole rock pairs. Biotite was separated from four samples including one alkali feldspar

granite, one granodiorite and two granites. The biotites from all dated rocks have been

analysed by electron microprobe (Sections 4.2.3 and 4.4.4).

30

Rb/Sr data for the whole rock and biotite separates, together with calculated ages for the

Kashmar granitoid, are presented in Table 3.1. The four isotopic ages for different plutons

of the Kashmar granitoid range from 43.5±0.4 to 42.4+0.4 Ma, indicating Middle-Late

Eocene plutonism in northeastern CIP. These ages are essentially indistinguishable with

ages differences of - 1 Ma being negligible for extensive magmatic suites (e.g., Ewart et

al, 1992; Nakajima, 1996).

The 87Rb/86Sr and 87Sr/86Sr values for whole rock (six samples) and biotite (four samples)

of the Kashmar granitoid define an isochron (Fig. 3.3), with MSWD (mean square weighted

deviate) value of 5.3. Two whole rock samples from alkali feldspar granite are not plotted

in Figure 3.3 because they produce high MSWD. The slope of the isochron is clearly

constrained by biotite samples because they are significantly higher in Rb/ Sr and

87Sr/86Sr values. This isochron yields an age of 42.8±0.2 Ma and an initial 87Sr/86Sr value of

0.70548±0.00003. The age and initial 87Sr/86Sr value given by the isochron are within the

limited range of age and initial 87Sr/86Sr values obtained only by biotite-whole rock pairs

(Table 3.1). For each pluton similarity in initial 87Sr/86Sr values indicate that the total rock

Rb/Sr system was closed simultaneously, and that the Rb/Sr system has remained a closed

system since the time of emplacement (e.g., Faure, 1986; Pollard et al, 1995).

The accuracy of the isotopic ages for biotite-whole rock pairs from the Kashmar granitoid is

dependant upon the closed system behaviour of biotite (e.g., Ganguly and Ruiz, 1986;

Milner et al, 1993). Although Late Palaeogene volcanic activity has been reported in this

area (Behroozi, 1987; Taheri, 1999), the Kashmar granitoid was not subjected to

31

disturbance by younger thermal events. The similarity in isotopic ages from biotite-whole

rock pairs clearly records a short duration for the emplacement of different plutons of the

Kashmar granitoid in a subvolcanic environment.

hi view of the field data, the ages obtained support a close genetic connection between host-

volcanic rocks and granitoid emplacement. The volcanic activity in the Kashmar area is

believed to have started approximately 57.2±3.7 Ma (Table 2.1), continued through the

Early to Middle Eocene (Bernhardt, 1983) and was followed by intrusion of the Kashmar

granitoid at 42.8+0.5 Ma, suggesting that magmatic activity occurred over an interval of

-15 million years. Such a duration for intense magmatic activity is not unusual (e.g., Milner

et al, 1993). The precise Rb/Sr ages determined for biotite-whole rock pairs (43.5-42.4 Ma)

of the Kashmar granitoid, when taken together with the few reliable published isotopic ages

for volcanic rocks (57-43 Ma), suggest that these subvolcanic plutons were emplaced after

or contemporaneous with widespread volcanic extrusions (mostly andesite) during the

Middle Eocene. The east-west distribution (-300 km) of volcanic and plutonic rocks along

the northern parts of the Doruneh Fault may be interpreted to be related to extensional

magmatism resulting from the upwelling of large volumes of magma being focused along a

structural discontinuity in the northeastern margins of the CJP.

3.3.2 BORNAVARD GRANITOID

The Bornavard granitoid (39 km2) includes the oldest intrusive rocks in the Taknar Zone

(Fig. 2.8). The granitoid occurs in the western part of the Taknar Zone (Razzaghmanesh,

1968; Muller and Walter, 1983). It comprises three distinct plutons mainly of tonalite,

32

granodiorite and granite composition. The tonalite and granodiorite are dark green in colour

and occur in the central part of the granitoid. Aplitic, dioritic and doleritic dykes intrude

tonalite and granodiorite. Hornblende and biotite are the most common ferromagnesian

minerals occurring in tonalite and granodiorite, respectively. Xenoliths rich in biotite,

plagioclase and quartz are common in granodiorite. Granite intrudes into the external

margins of the granodiorite. It is light pink in colour and shows chilled margins and narrow

thermal contacts to the metavolcanic units. Doleritic dykes intrude granite especially in the

southern part. Hydrothermal alteration has produced quartz-chlorite viens that usually cut

the granite near the major joint systems.

The age and the origin of the Bornavard granitoid have long been the subject of interest in

Iran, particularly given their association with metavolcanic units that have been compared

with the Precambrian basement rocks in other parts of the CJP (Homam, 1992; Esmaeili et

al, 1998a). Based on field observations, the Bornavard granitoid was emplaced during two

major magmatic episodes. The early episode is characterised by small plutons of mainly

dark tonalite and granodiorite, occurring in the inner parts of the granitoid. Contacts

between these plutons are faulted. The later episode is characterised by emplacement of a

larger granitic pluton in the outer parts. The present study confirms the younger age of the

granitic pluton by Rb/Sr dating on biotite-whole rock pairs.

3.3.2.1 IsotopicData

Rb/Sr isotopic data on biotite-whole rock pairs clearly distinguish at least two different

plutonic episodes for the Bornavard granitoid (Table 3.1). Two samples from the

33

granodiorite, representing the early intrusive episode, yield precise ages of 152.8±1.3

(Sample R15947) and 145.6±1.3 Ma (Sample R15946), indicating that the oldest plutonic

activity in the Bornavard area occurred during the Late Jurassic (Tithonian; Harland et al,

1990). The younger age for Sample R15946 may be due to episodic emplacement of the

granodiorite. The Rb and Sr concentrations in biotite from both samples are nearly similar

and indicate that the biotite from younger sample is not altered. Because Sample R15946

has taken close to the late intrusive episode, it is possible that the isotopic system was

disturbed by thermal effect.

The isotopic ages of the granodiorite (153.8 and 145.6 Ma) are similar to the age of some

contact-aureole granitoids of the northeastern CJP. For example, the age of 145.6±1.3 Ma is

indistinguishable from the age of 146±3 Ma from the Mashhad Granite (Table 2.1). hi

particular, the age of 145.6 Ma, which corresponds to the boundary of the Jurassic-

Cretaceous (Harland et al, 1990), confirms granite magmatism is related to the Mid-

Cimmerian Orogeny, recognised in the CIP by Alavi-Naini (1992) and Aghanabati (1993).

This orogeny is recognised in Iran by a lack of sedimentary deposits during the Early

Cretaceous (Neocomian) in the Alborz Belt and an angular unconformity between Jurassic

and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks in the CJP (Darvichzadeh, 1992).

Rb/Sr data for two pairs of biotite-whole rock from the granitic pluton (later episode)

yielded ages of 123.8+1 (Sample R15938) and 111.8±1.1 Ma (Sample R15941), indicating

that plutonic activity in the Bornavard area continued episodically until the Early to Late

Aptian (Harland et al, 1990). There is significant difference in Rb/Sr ages of granite

34

samples. Both samples have similar whole rock Sr contents (39 ppm). Several biotite grains

from each sample were analysed by electron microprobe and they are very similar in

composition (Section 4.4.4). The Rb content of younger sample (R15941, Rb = 128 ppm) is

higher than Rb content of older sample (R15938, Rb = 95 ppm) and there is no indication

for hydrothermal alteration. Therefore, younger isotopic age of sample R15941 may be

related to episodic emplacement of the late intrusive episode.

Assuming that the age of 123.8 Ma is the age of emplacement of the granite pluton, a time

interval of -22 million years between two major magmatic episodes for the Bornavard

granitoid is suggested. This time interval is significant, but it seems to be common for

emplacement of granites along continental margins. Nakajima et al. (1990) and Nakajima

(1994, 1996) examined the Rb-Sr biotite-whole rock isochron ages of the Cretaceous I-type

granites of southwest Japan and showed episodic emplacement from 100 Ma to 70 Ma, with

periods of 5-10 million years between emplacement and cooling. They suggested different

magma sources and showed an increase in initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios towards younger magmatic

events. Similarly, in the Bornavard granitoid, a -22 million years age difference between

emplacement of the granodiorite and granite plutons resulted in a complete change in the

source of magma generation. This is evident from the extremely high initial Sr/ Sr values

(0.73978-0.75008) and the very felsic composition of granite (Si02 = 74.84-76.04 wt%),

compared with the granodiorite.

35

3.3.2.2 Age Discussion on the Bornavard Granitoid

On the geological map of the Kashmar area (1:250 000; Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1976), the central

part of the Bornavard granitoid, which is characterised by tonalitic and granodioritic rocks,

has been labeled as Tertiary in age. It appears that this age was based on a petrographic

comparison with other Tertiary granites in the Taknar Zone. The present level of exposure

of the Bornavard granitoid precludes determination of any stratigraphic relationship to

Tertiary rocks. Also, Tertiary granites do not crop out in this part of the Taknar Zone. The

isotopic ages on biotite-whole rock pairs in the present study indicate that the central part of

the Bornavard granitoid formed in the Late Jurassic (152.8-145.6 Ma).

The above mentioned map also indicates a Doran-type (Precambrian) granite occurring in

the external parts of the Bornavard granitoid and intruding the metavolcanic rocks. The

granite and metavolcanic rocks were compared with regional-aureole granites of the CIP

(e.g., Doran and Muteh granites; Razzaghmanesh, 1968). This comparison was based on

petrography and minor stratigraphic relationships (Huckriede et al, 1962; Stocklin and

Setudehnia, 1991) and it has now been shown to be incorrect. A Precambrian age for the

Doran Granite itself is suspect because using the Rb/Sr method on a biotite-whole rock pair

from the granite yielded an age of 175+5 Ma (Crawford, 1977). The recent magmatic map

of Iran, compiled by Emami et al. (1993), correctly assigned the bulk of the Bornavard

granitoid as Mesozoic calcalkaline plutonic rocks, but without isotopic evidence.

Granites related to Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous plutonism, particularly in the north

and northeastern CIP, have been recognised (e.g., Darvichzadeh, 1992; Aghanabati, 1993).

36

For example, the Airakan Granite occurs in the southwestern limit of the Bornavard

granitoid. Rb/Sr dating on whole rock samples from the Airakan Granite yielded an age of

165±8Ma (Table 2.1) that is close to the oldest age of the Bornavard granitoid.

Furthermore, Aghanabati (1993) reported an age of 153±5 Ma for the Torbat-e-Jam Granite

that occurs in the easternmost part of the Taknar Zone. This age is similar to the older age

of granodiorite (152.8 Ma) from the Bornavard granitoid (Table 3.1). Additionally, the

K/Ar ages of 146±3 and 120±3 Ma (Table 2.1) for biotites from the Mashhad Granite that

occurs in the northeast of the CIP supports the Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous plutonism in

this part of Iran. The K/Ar ages of biotite from the Mashhad Granite are very similar to the

Rb/Sr biotite-whole rock ages of the granodiorite (145.6 Ma) and granite (123.8 Ma) from

the Bornavard granitoid.

In addition, Crawford (1977) reported a low-grade metamorphic event that occurred

between 250 and 190 Ma for the Taknar Rhyolite, based on Rb/Sr dating of whole rock

samples. Muller and Walter (1983) confirmed that metamorphism of some pelitic rocks of

the Taknar Zone occurred during this interval. These authors clearly reject the Precambrian

age for metamorphism in the Taknar Zone. Assuming that plutons of the Bornavard

granitoid were emplaced before metamorphism of the Taknar Zone, they would have been

isotopically homogenised and similar in ages. But isotopic data from the Bornavard

granitoid (Table 3.1) distinguish a series of age ranging from Late Jurassic to Early

Cretaceous, all are significantly younger than the age of metamorphism of the Taknar Zone.

Microscopic examinations of the rocks from the Bornavard granitoid do not show any

evidence of metamorphism. Also, the Bornavard granitoid shows a thermal contact to the

37

metavolcanic rocks. These features indicate that comparison of the Bornavard granitoid

with the Precambrian regional-aureole granitoids of the CIP is meaningless. The Rb/Sr

isotopic ages of Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, respectively for the early and late

episodic rocks of the Bornavard granitoid are considered to be the best estimate of the

timing of the most intense plutonic activity in the Middle East (Laws and Wilson, 1997).

This plutonic activity is related to the Middle to Late Cimmerian Orogeny, recognised in

Iran by intrusion of several granitoid bodies in the CIP and the S-SMZ (Alavi-Naini, 1992;

Darvichzadeh, 1992; Emami etal, 1993).

38

CHAPTER 4

PETROGRAPHY AND MINERAL CHEMISTRY

4.1 PETROGRAPHY OF KASHMAR GRANITOID

Analytical methods and modal mineralogy for representative samples of four plutons

from the Kashmar granitoid are listed in Appendices 1 and 2 respectively. Modal data

for the Kashmar granitoid indicate that tonalite, granodiorite, granite and alkali feldspar

granite are the only plutonic rocks that occur in the granitoid mass (Fig. 4.1).

Representative petrographic features for each pluton are outlined in the following

sections.

4.1.1 TONALITE

Tonalite comprises the smallest pluton occurring in the north of the Kashmar granitoid.

It is green to grey in colour, and intrudes into andesitic lavas of Eocene age. Also, it has

sharp contacts with granodiorite and granite plutons. The tonalite is a medium-grained

rock and contains a lower modal content of quartz compared with granite and alkali

feldspar granite (Appendix 2.1). Microgranular enclaves are common in tonalite. Most

of them range between 3 and 4 cm in size that could be related to the rheological

properties of the magma; that is, enclaves greater than the size distribution observed

would have mostly been left behind and separated during upward movement of the host

magma. The modal content of total ferromagnesian minerals in the tonalite is up to

37.4% (Sample R15911), which is higher than in other plutons of the Kashmar

granitoid. Plagioclase (44.2-58% modal), quartz (12.8-18% modal), amphibole (8.2-

20.4% modal) and biotite (up to 17.8% modal) are major mineral components of the

39

tonalite (Appendix 2.1). Plagioclase crystals are commonly euhedral with normal zoning

and the rock has a hypidiomorphic granular texture, although some marginal samples

are slightly glomeroporphyritic. Amphibole grains occur either as prismatic crystals or

as irregular grains. They have been variably converted to biotite. Sometimes, amphibole

grains form clusters together with magnetite and biotite (e.g., Sample R15912).

4.1.2 GRANODIORITE

The granodiorite is grey to black in colour and essentially medium-grained (2-3 mm),

with a few plagioclase crystals up to 5 mm long. Plagioclase, quartz, amphibole, biotite

and K-feldspar are the major mineral components of the granodiorite. Plagioclase

constitutes an average of 45% by volume of the rock, ranging from 36.8% to 60.4%

(Appendix 2.1). Quartz and K-feldspar are interstitial, or occur as interlocking anhedral

grains. Hypidiomorphic granular textures are the most commonly observed textures in

thin sections, although some samples show allotriomorphic granular and micrographic

textures. Dark microgranular enclaves up to 30 cm across, with igneous textures, occur

in the granodiorite. Most enclaves are spherical in shape and 3-4 cm in size. They are

rich in amphibole, plagioclase and apatite and seem to be mineralogically related to the

host granodiorite. They show some characteristics of common inclusions found in I-type

granites and they may be restite. The enclaves taken from marginal outcrops display

porphyritic textures and a similar mineralogy to the host-volcanic rocks. Such enclaves

are interpreted as accidental inclusions of wall-rock.

4.1.3 GRANITE

Granite is the most abundant rock-type in the Kashmar granitoid. The granite is

medium-grained (3-4 mm) and equigranular, with fresh exposures being light grey to

40

white in colour. It consists of plagioclase, K-feldspar, quartz, amphibole, and biotite as

major minerals. Modal data show that the content of a particular mineral is more

variable in the granite, compared with other plutons of the Kashmar granitoid. For

example, plagioclase ranges from 19.8 to 39.6% by volume of the rock. When biotite

and amphibole coexist, the latter mineral always occurs in low amounts (Appendix 2.1),

but some samples from the granite are completely lacking in biotite or amphibole. Such

variation in mineral content may be a result of fractional crystallisation in the granitic

pluton. K-feldspar is sometimes microperthitic, although commonly it occurs in

microgranophyric intergrowths particularly when hornblende and biotite are absent. A

noteworthy characteristic of the granite is the magmatic reaction in which amphibole is

converted to biotite. Rare clinopyroxene cores are found in the hornblende crystals of

the granite (Sample R15903).

4.1.4 ALKALI FELDSPAR GRANITE

This is a medium-grained rock (minerals 2-3 mm in size) which, in hand specimen, is

characterised by a light cream to pinkish colour. A low content of mafic silicates and

lack of amphibole differentiate the alkali feldspar granite from other plutons of the

Kashmar granitoid. The essential modal constituents are microperthite (53-63%), quartz

(28-37%) and sporadic crystals of biotite (up to 4.6%; Appendix 2.1). Biotite is fresh,

blue-green in colour and medium-grained. Accessory apatite occurs as tiny slender

prisms within biotite that may represent a 'primary restite phase' that was incorporated

into the biotite crystals when pyroxene reacted with the magma (Chappell et al, 1987).

Magnetite, minor ilmenite, zircon, titanite and allanite commonly accompany the biotite.

Such accessory minerals commonly occur in I-type granites. In particular, allanite may

41

contain appreciable ferric iron (Hine et al, 1978) and indicates high f02 that is

characteristic of many I-type granites.

4.2 MINERAL CHEMISTRY OF KASHMAR GRANITOID

4.2.1 PLAGIOCLASE

Plagioclase is usually the most abundant mineral that occurs in the tonalite, granodiorite

and granite, where it commonly occurs as subhedral to euhedral crystals. Plagioclase

crystals mostly range between 3 and 5 mm in size, with decreasing size and abundance

towards more felsic variants. They sometimes contain inclusions of hornblende, Fe-Ti

oxide and long needles, but commonly prismatic crystals of apatite (e.g., R15912,

R15958). In some samples of tonalite, plagioclase occurs as larger euhedral grains that

are surrounded by fine-grained, lath-shaped crystals of the same mineral. The lath-

shaped plagioclase crystals have strongly resorbed boundaries (e.g., Sample R15912).

Polysynthetic twinning is the most common feature of plagioclase grains and they are

often twinned after the albite and pericline laws. Plagioclase crystals from the

granodiorite and granite typically show normal zoning, which is attributed to normal

magmatic fractionation.

Electron microprobe analyses of plagioclase crystals from the Kashmar granitoid are

shown in Appendix 3.1. The composition of plagioclase ranges from A1148-18 in the

granodiorite, An50-i5 in the granite and An25-i6 in the alkali feldspar granite. The most

calcic plagioclase core is An5o that occurs in the granite (R15910). All the compositional

data obtained for the plagioclase cores and rims are plotted in Figure 4.2. Chemical data

show that most of plagioclase cores and rims are Anso-30 and AH30-18, respectively. The

higher anorthite content of crystal cores is consistent with normal zoning that is

42

observed in thin sections. In normally-zoned grains, the maximum difference between

the composition of core and rim is 26 mole% anorthite (Appendix 3.1). There is a good

similarity in anorthite content of plagioclase from the granodiorite and granite. Most

plagioclase grains from the alkali feldspar, granite (Samples R15914 and R15900) are

typically homogeneous and low in anorthite content (<An2s).

Sometimes plagioclase cores have embayed margins, or are rounded (Sample R15908),

indicating partial resorption. The compositional range of such cores is low (e.g., An34_

39). During fractional crystallisation, if plagioclase precipitates from a granitic melt, it is

not uniform in composition (Chappell et al, 1987; Hall, 1987) because plagioclase is a

very difficult mineral to re-equilibrate with the melt, especially at temperatures less than

~1000°C (Johannes, 1978; Chappell, 1996b). The uniform calcic plagioclase cores are

interpreted as representing restite by some workers (White and Chappell, 1977;

Chappell etal, 1987, 1988,1999; Champion, 1991; Chappell, 1996b).

If the plagioclase system were in perfect equilibrium, crystals would react continuously

with the melt to produce unzoned plagioclase. The fact that normally zoned crystals are

common shows that the kinetics for plagioclase equilibration are slow and virtually all

igneous plagioclases are zoned (Shelley, 1993). Also, several possibilities can prevent

equilibrium crystallisation. For example, intracrystalline diffusion in plagioclase is

essentially slow because of the incorporation of high charge elements with large ionic

radius (Hess, 1989; Deer et al, 1992; Shelley, 1993). Some authors believe that crustal

contamination (Wilson, 1989; Mason, 1996), high viscosity of magma (Ragland, 1989)

or change in water pressure and temperature (Loomis, 1982; Mason, 1985; Holtz et al,

1995; Singer, 1995) lead to the development of zoned crystals. Because the Kashmar

43

granitoid emplaced in a subvolcanic environment it is highly probable that temperatures

dropped too fast to exchange reactions to produce unzoned plagioclase grains.

In general, plagioclase grains are low in Ti02 (<0.06 wt%) and total Fe as FeO

(<0.33wt%) but high in Si02 (up to 64.8 wt%) and A1203 (up to 29.4 wt%;

Appendix 3.1). Fe is always less than 0.1 a.f.u. in the structural formula of each

plagioclase grain. Because Fe3+ replaces Al3+ and Fe2+ replaces Ca2+ (e.g., Deer et al,

1992), high AI2O3 contents of plagioclase grains from the Kashmar granitoid may be

related to lower activity of iron during plagioclase crystallisation or low iron content in

the source. The plagioclase crystals normally contain some orthoclase (KAlSisOg) in

solid solution, varying up to Ors.s from andesine to oligoclase and tending to increase

towards the more Na-rich plagioclase rims (e.g., Sample R15958, Ab78.s). This is

expected from normal magmatic reactions that observed in most granite and

granodiorite samples.

4.2.2 AMPHIBOLE

Amphibole is the major mafic mineral in the tonalite ranging from 8.2% to 20.4% by

volume of the rock (Appendix 2.1). It forms rarely euhedral but commonly subhedral

crystals with a pleochroic scheme (X and Y = pale green to green, Z = straw-yellow),

and a maximum average grain size of 1.4 mm. It is associated with biotite, titanite and

Fe-Ti oxide. Both amphibole and biotite decrease in abundance towards the more silica-

rich variants. Naney (1983) and Hogan and Gilbert (1995) showed that for magmas

crystallising even at low H20 contents and low confining pressures (<3.5 wt% at 200

MPa), amphibole reacts with the melt to form biotite. Such a reaction is evidenced by

the fresh fine-grained biotite that replaces amphibole around rims and along the

44

cleavages (e.g., Sample R15904). In the reaction area magnetite and titanite are usually

common, suggesting oxidising conditions (Mason, 1985; Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986).

As indicated in several publications (e.g., Elliott et al, 1998), it is possible that

amphibole replaces pyroxene with increasing H20 content in the magma; a natural

consequence of crystallisation of early anhydrous phases. In the Kashmar granitoid,

small clinopyroxene relicts within amphibole occur only in one sample of granite

(R15903). It seems that the H20 content of magmas was high enough to change

pyroxene completely to amphibole (Bateman and Chappell, 1979; Wilson, 1989).

Therefore, most amphibole grains in the Kashmar granitoid can be presumed to result

from normal magmatic reactions. Then, at higher H20 pressures amphibole reacted with

the melt to produce biotite. This explains the occurrence of amphibole cores within

biotite.

Microprobe analyses along with structural formulae for amphibole are listed in

Appendix 3.2. To determine the structural formulae of amphibole, maximum Fe3+ was

estimated using the methodology of Robinson et al. (1982, pp. 6-10). Mw was

calculated as the difference between 8.0 cations (full tetrahedral occupancy) and the

number of Si cations. Following the recommendations of Leake (1978) and Deer et al

(1997) all the Kashmar amphiboles are calcic amphiboles [Ca(M4) + Na(M4) >1.34;

Na(M4) <0.67]. Their (Na+K)A and Ti are both always less than 0.50, indicating

magnesio-hornblende which is typical of I-type granites (Czamanske et al, 1981). The

hornblende grains encountered in the present study are chemically homogeneous.

Hornblende crystals from different samples of granodiorite are similar in composition,

whereas those from the granite are more varied in composition. This is consistent with

45

the observation that the granodiorite pluton is more homogeneous than the granite

pluton.

The chemistry of a crystallising hornblende is sensitive to pressure, temperature,/02 and

FH20 (Rutherford et al, 1985; Johnson and Rutherford, 1989a,b; Blundy and Holland,

1990; Schmidt, 1992). Hornblendes from the Kashmar granitoid are characteristically

low in A1203 (1.74 to 8.41 wt%, total Al <1.5 a.f.u.) and Ti02 (0.13 to 2.37 wt%, Ti

<0.27 a.f.u.) which is indicative of low-temperature, high f02 crystallisation (Mason,

1978; Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986; Hollister et al, 1987).

Octahedral Al (A1VI) is less than 0.1 a.f.u., and Fe3+ is much higher (up to 0.93 a.f.u.)

than Al^ in the Kashmar hornblende. These features are typical of low-pressure calcic

amphiboles (Leake, 1971; Mason, 1985; Green, 1992) from shallow-level intrusions

(e.g., Wyborn, 1983; Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986). According to the geobarometer of

Johnson and Rutherford (1989a), the total Al content of hornblende (mostly <1.3 a.f.u.)

from Kashmar implies variable pressures up to a maximum of 3 kbar (Fig. 4.3). The

range of indicated pressures record polybaric crystallisation during ascent through the

crust before emplacement near the surface.

The contents of FeO (13 to 18.93 wt%) and MgO (10.45 to 15.71 wt%) are relatively

high in the analysed hornblendes, whereas the MgO/FeO is low (1.20 to 0.54), mostly

<1, indicating hornblende crystallised from a felsic melt (Gribble, 1988). Variation

between FeO and MgO contents in amphibole depends on f02 which can be assessed by

Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) or FeO/(FeO + MgO) (Czamanske et al, 1981). In the Kashmar

granitoid, the Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) for all analysed hornblendes, is high and ranging from

46

0.60 to 0.77 (Appendix 3.2), again suggesting low pressure, bigh/02 for crystallisation

(e.g., Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986; Anderson and Smith, 1995).

Hornblende from the granite (e.g., Sample R15910) shows the highest Mg/(Mg + Fe2+)

(0.77) and the lowest FeO content (13.35 wt%) among all analyses listed in

Appendix 3.2. Modal content of Fe-Ti oxide from this sample (3.2 vol %) is the highest

for all granite samples from the granitoid. The above features may support higher /02

for hornblende crystallisation in granite. Because at higher /02 magnetite precipitates

and lowers the activity of FeO in the melt, consequently hornblende crystallises with a

low FeO/MgO contents but high Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) values (Mason, 1978; Brownlow,

1996).

Fractionation factors between amphibole and magma composition for MgO, FeO and

Ti02 were determined by dividing each of the oxide concentrations in the mineral by

that in the whole rock. The MgO fractionation factor for amphibole grains in igneous

rocks ranges from approximately 2 for high temperature magmas (~1000°C) to 10 at

lower temperatures (~800°C; Cawthorn, 1976). Except for Sample R15909 (granite), the

calculated MgO fractionation factor for all magnesio-hornblendes from the Kashmar

granitoid ranges from 5.79 to 7.05, indicating that crystallisation occurred at moderate to

low temperatures. Cawthorn (1976) determined a similar temperature dependence for

FeO as for MgO with values ranging from 2 to 6. The FeO fractionation factor for

magnesio-hornblendes from the Kashmar granitoid ranges from 2.75 to 8.21, but most

ratios are >3 being consistent with low temperature crystallisation. The Ti02

fractionation parameter is pressure-sensitive, decreasing from a value of 5-10 for

extrusive rocks, to 1-5 for rocks crystallised at crustal pressures (Cawthorn, 1976). The

47

Ti0 2 fractionation factor for Kashmar hornblende mostly ranges from 1 to 4.65,

indicating the hornblende grains crystallised at crustal pressures.

Hornblende grains from the Kashmar granitoid are high in MnO contents (0.36-

0.69 wt%, 2-20 times greater than the whole rock values). The MnO contents of

hornblende show inverse relationship to whole rock MnO contents. Similar MnO

behaviour has been reported from subduction-related I-type granites in north

Queensland, Australia (Champion, 1991). Collectively, all amphibole grains from the

Kashmar granitoid show evidence of low temperature but high y02 and PH20

conditions. Magnesio-hornblendes from the Kashmar granitoid are compositionally

similar to hornblende grains from the shallow-level calcalkaline plutons of eastern

Peninsular Ranges Batholith (Clinkenbeard and Walawender, 1989) and from Pioneer

Batholith, western North America (Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986; Johnson and

Rutherford, 1989a).

4.2.3 BIOTITE

Biotite occurs both as a reaction product after hornblende and as euhedral to subhedral

grains up to 3 mm long, that could have entirely replaced hornblende. Biotite is

commonly grouped into aggregates composed of several biotite grains (e.g., R15908) as

well as other minerals (e.g., titanite, Fe-Ti oxide, apatite and zircon). These aggregates

commonly occur along the margins of larger grains of hornblende, feldspar and quartz.

Biotites from granite (e.g., R15914) and alkali feldspar granite (e.g., R15900) contain

zircon inclusions. The inclusions commonly show pleochroic haloes. Biotite exhibits the

distinctive pleochroic scheme from X = Y = light brown-chocolate, to Z = straw-

coloured, which is typical of oxidised I-type granites (Chappell and White, 1992).

48

Biotite is a common mafic mineral in the Kashmar granitoid (<0.2-17.8% modal) and

notably decreases in abundance as the rocks become more felsic. For example, the

modal content of biotite from the alkali feldspar granite (Si02 >74 wt%) never exceeds

4.6% by volume of the rock. The absence of significant alteration is supported by the

relatively high K20 contents (up to 10 wt%) in the biotite. SHghtly chloritised biotite is

localised along obvious zones of fluid alteration defined by fractures whereas light green

chlorite is less common in the alkali feldspar granite.

Over 150 analyses of fresh biotite were carried out with the electron microprobe.

Typical examples are listed in Appendix 3.3. Al™ is calculated as the difference

between 8 (total tetrahedral occupancies) and the number of Si cations. Because Fe203

cannot be determined on the electron microprobe, all Fe has been assumed to be FeO in

the calculation; and the amount of Fe3+ is considered to be negligible. Biotite grains

from all samples except R15900 are homogeneous on the scale of a single thin section.

In Figure 4.4 Mg/(Mg + Fe) is plotted versus Mw (a.f.u.) content of biotite. Only three

analyses from the alkali feldspar granite (Sample R15900) show a phlogopite

composition with Mg/(Mg + Fe) = 0.73-0.77, while the rest of analyses have Mg/(Mg +

Fe) values between 0.45 and 0.63. Biotite grains from the granodiorite and granite are

relatively titaniferous (Ti02 up to 5 wt%) and high in total Fe as FeO (mostly between

16 to 22 wt%). Some biotite analyses from the alkali feldspar granite (R15900) are

lower in total Fe as FeO content (10-15 wt%) but higher in MgO content (up to

18.5 wt%). Such analyses are lower in Ti02 content (1-2 wt%), consistent with the

lower Ti02 content of whole rock analyses from the alkali feldspar granite. This

49

difference is supported by microscopic evidence that pale red to green biotite (low Ti02)

occurs in the alkali feldspar granite, whereas brown biotite (high Ti02) occurs in the

granodiorite and granite. Also, thin sections show titanite and exolution lamellae of

ilmenite in magnetite (confirmed by microprobe) in the alkali feldspar granite. Because

the Ti content of the melt is buffered by the coexisting titanite or ilmenite (Wyborn,

1983; Harrison, 1990), a lower Ti02 content of biotite from the alkali feldspar granite

may be related to fractionation of Ti-rich phases (titanite and ilmenite).

Using biotite analyse from numerous localities around the world, Abdel-Rahman (1994;

1996) has shown that igneous biotites crystallising from alkaline (A), peraluminous (P)

and calcalkaline (C) orogenic magmas are chemically distinct from one another.

Because biotites from the Kashmar granitoid are moderately enriched in MgO content

(average Mg/Mg + Fe = 0.57), all plot within the calcalkaline orogenic field (field C) on

the AI2O3 versus MgO diagram (Fig. 4.5). In addition they are characterised by a low

A1203 content (11.64-14.96 wt%) which is consistent with the absence of Al-rich

minerals such as cordierite, garnet and sillimanite in the host-rocks (e.g., Wones, 1980).

Al™ is always <2.5 a.f.u. and AT71 is negligible (mostly <0.1 a.f.u., or absent) in the

Kashmar biotite. Chappell and White (1992) noted that biotite in granite always

contains close to 2.5 atoms of Al™ per 24 (O, OH, F), and that biotite coexisting with

hornblende contains negligible amounts of A1VI. In contrast, biotite that coexists with

muscovite and/or other Al-rich minerals such as garnet and cordierite, contains

appreciable amount of Al^ (-0.6 a.f.u), features attributed to an S-type source (Whalen

and Chappell, 1988). According to this scenario, low levels of A1VI in the Kashmar

biotite reflect the I-type source composition (Liu et al, 1989; Chappell and White,

50

1992). The overall low levels of Al in the Kashmar biotite are similar to those of the I-

type granites reported from the Lucerne pluton, New Brunswick (Wones, 1980), Natanz

complex, Iran (Berberian, 1981) and Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia (Wyborn, 1983;

Whalen and Chappell, 1988; Turner et al, 1992).

The most significant aspect of biotite chemistry is the relationship between Mg/(Mg +

Fe) of biotite and the Si02 content of the host-rock (e.g., Czamanske et al, 1981;

Whallen and Chappell, 1988; Bacon, 1992). In Figure 4.6, Si02 content in the host-

rocks of biotite increases from 62.30 to 76.97 wt% and Mg/(Mg + Fe) ranges from 0.45

to 0.77. Typical positive correlation is observed when analyses of biotite from a single

pluton are compared. For example Sample R15908 from granodiorite is low in whole

rock Si02 (62.3 wt%) and its biotite grains are low in Mg/(MgO + FeO) (0.47-0.53).

Sample R15915 from the same rock is higher in whole rock Si02 (66.4 wt%) and its

biotite grains are higher in Mg/(Mg + Fe) (0.54-0.60). This trend is interpreted as

indicating melt evolution to more f02, and is supported by presence of euhedral

magnetite grains which accompany the biotite (e.g., Mason, 1978) or magnetite

inclusions that occur in the biotite (e.g., Whallen and Chappell, 1988). During biotite

crystallisation, iff02 is low, iron is preferentially incorporated into biotite (Elliott et al,

1998) but for the Kashmar granitoid iron incorporated into co-existing Fe-Ti oxides,

therefore a high/02 was dominant during biotite crystallisation.

There is, however, an excellent negative correlation between Fe (a.f.u.) and Mg/(Mg +

Fe) values of biotite from the Kashmar granitoid (Fig. 4.7). Three biotite analyses from

the alkali feldspar granite plot at the uppermost portion of the trend with Mg/(Mg + Fe)

>0.70. These three analyses have a significantly lower content of Ti02, consistent with

51

their lower Al (Appendix 3.3). Such positive correlation between Ti and Al has been

related to Al-Tschermak substitution (Deer et al, 1992, 1997; Harrison, 1990;

Schneiderman, 1991). Biotites from the granodiorite and granite are more titaniferous

than biotites from the alkali feldspar granite. This may be related to octahedral vacancy

in which Ti can easily be accommodated in biotite (Schneiderman, 1991). An apparent

negative correlation between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and Ti (Fig. 4.8) may confirm the coupling

of Ti substitutions with an octahedral vacancy (e.g., Schneiderman, 1991).

Based on the data listed in Appendices 3.2 and 3.3, the Mg(Mg + Fe) for hornblende

ranges from 0.60 to 0.77 with an average of 0.65. Also, the Mg/(Mg + Fe) for co

existing biotite ranges from 0.45 to 0.57 with an average of 0.51. The higher average

Mg/(Mg + Fe) for hornblende (Fig. 4.9) is consistent with the high compositional

potential of hornblende for generation of biotite under normal magmatic reactions. Also,

a lower Mg/(Mg + Fe) in biotite is in agreement with an increase in/02 after hornblende

crystallisation (e.g., Clinkenbeard and Walawender, 1989). The average contents of total

Fe as FeO and MgO are -16 and 12.81 wt% for hornblende, respectively and 18 and

14.17 wt% for biotite, respectively. The presence of Fe-rich hornblende and Mg-rich

biotite in the Kashmar granitoid may reflect the availability of oxygen. Since granitic

melts are undersaturated in H20 and the PH20 determines f02 during hornblende

crystallisation, due to the diffusive escape of H2 formed by the dissociation of H20, the

remaining oxygen would increase f02 (Burkhard, 1991), leading to early crystallisation

of Fe-rich hornblende and magnetite (Section 3.2.1.4). This in turn precludes the build

up of Fe in the granitic melts and hence, Mg-rich biotite crystallises (Abdel-Rahman,

1994).

52

4.2.4 Fe-Ti O X I D E S

Fe-Ti oxide is ubiquitous in samples from the Kashmar granitoid and mostly occurs as

fine- to medium-grained, subhedral to anhedral granular aggregates. Sometimes Fe-Ti

oxide grains contain minor zircon inclusions. Small Fe-Ti oxide inclusions occurring in

quartz and plagioclase rims may suggest alteration or later generation of Fe-Ti oxide

than that contained in the biotite and hornblende. Fe-Ti oxide commonly replaces

hornblende or biotite crystals. Fe-Ti oxide is modally significant, and represents an

extensive range from 0.4 to 9.6% by volume of the rock (Appendix 2.1) with increasing

abundance when the modal contents of hornblende and biotite increase. Most samples of

the Kashmar granitoid contain >1% modal Fe-Ti oxides; this is a fundamental

characteristic for distinction of I-type granites (Whalen, 1985; Whalen and Chappell,

1988). The greater opaque mineral abundance in I-type granites is a feature mainly

attributable to the higher state of oxidation, particularly for those emplaced at shallow

levels of the crust (Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980; London, 1990; Turner et al, 1992;

Candela and Blevin, 1995).

Microprobe analyses of Fe-Ti oxides are presented in Appendix 3.4. Magnetite,

titanomagnetite and ilmenite are present. Among the aforementioned Fe-Ti oxides,

magnetite is the predominant opaque mineral occurring through samples of the Kashmar

granitoid. Magnetite grains are commonly surrounded by biotite; this is characteristic of

I-type granites (Whalen and Chappell, 1988). Ilmenite and titanomagnetite grains are

accompanied by magnetite, while magnetite grains can occur independently (e.g.,

Samples R15908 and R15915). Some magnetite grains are homogeneous (e.g., Samples

R15908, R15914). In heterogeneous grains, titanomagnetite is commonly encountered in

53

magnetite cores (e.g., Samples R15918 and R15958). Magnetite grains are generally

very low in Ti02 (usually <1 wt%) and have probably re-equilibrated at low

temperatures but high,/02. The assemblage magnetite + titanite included in hornblende

or biotite indicates they formed above the QFM buffer, a feature for oxidised I-type

granites which is thought to be inherited from the source (Wones, 1989; Chappell and

White, 1992).

Ilmenite grains mostly occur as a 'later phase', forming narrow exolution lamellae (up to

50 microns wide) within magnetite. Ilmenite grains were detected only by electron

microprobe. Alteration to rutile + hematite did not take place as Fe and Mn are not

depleted. MnO is strongly enriched in ilmenite (4.53-5.27 wt%) relative to coexisting

magnetite (MnO = 0.02-0.09 wt%), representing manganon-ilmenite. The Mn

enrichment in the ilmenite and its coexistence with virtually homogeneous magnetite

suggests low-temperature, high/02 re-equilibration of these phases, possibly with a late

fluid phase (e.g., Harrison, 1988). Manganon-ilmenite from the granodiorite (Si02=

62.30 wt%) and alkali feldspar granite (Si02= 76.75 wt%) are compositionally different.

Analysis of manganon-ilmenite from the former rock contains appreciable CaO

(3.8 wt%) and is lower in FeO content (40 wt%), while manganon-ilmenite from the

latter rock contains negligible CaO but higher FeO content (up to 47 wt%). MnO shows

the highest concentration in manganon-ilmenite from the alkali feldspar granite (up to

5.23 wt%). These features support a distinct source for the alkali feldspar granite.

Overall, ilmenite is not widespread through samples from the Kashmar granitoid. The

occurrence of ilmenite in R15900 and R15908 is in accord with their lowest opaque

mineral contents (0.8 and 1.0% modal, respectively), indicating a relatively lower y02

54

(e.g., Turner et al, 1992). Like elsewhere, ilmenite from I-type magnetite-granites (e.g.,

Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia; eastern Peninsular Ranges Batholith; coastal areas of

Japanese Islands), ilmenites of the Kashmar granitoid have high MnO and FeO contents.

These features, together with a dominance of magnetite grains (Appendix 3.4) rather

than ilmenite in the Kashmar granitoid, indicate oxidised magnetite-series or I-type

granite. According to Ishihara (1981, 1998) oxidised I-type granites typically occur in

the back-arc extensional zone of subduction-related continental margins. Due to lower

pressure along these extensional zones, oxidised magmas ascend through the crust

without significant amount of crustal contamination (Ishihara, 1998).

4.2.5 K-FELDSPAR

In the Kashmar granitoid, K-feldspar is essentially identical in samples containing Si02

>70 wt%. In the granite and alkali feldspar granite, K-feldspar grains occur as prominent

coarse-grained, subhedral to anhedral crystals with a pale pink colour in hand specimen.

This colour is a field criterion that reflects the higher oxidation states for I-type granites

when compared with S-type granites (Chappell and White, 1992). K-feldspar and albite

coexist in the granodiorite, granite and alkali feldspar granite. Some K-feldspar grains

show alteration to clay minerals, but the majority of grains look light brown or dusty in

transmitted light. K-feldspar usually occurs as microperthitic intergrowths.

Microperthite commonly shows strings, veins and braided varieties. Microcline is

recognised by typical development of cross-hatched twinning characteristic of combined

albite and pericline twins, indicating low temperature feldspar. In the alkali feldspar

granite K-feldspar typically displays Carlsbad twinning (e.g., Sample R15900 and

R15919). These textures indicate slowly changing conditions in the plutonic

55

environment (Shelley, 1993). Variations in exolution are governed by magmatic water,

which is the prime catalyst in aiding perthite coarsening (Parsons, 1978; Mason, 1985).

Microprobe analyses of K-feldspar, and calculated end-member compositions, are given

in Appendix 3.5 and plotted on Figure 4.10. In general, K-feldspar grains from the

Kashmar granitoid have a composition of 0^4-94. Based on the feldspar nomenclature of

Deer et al. (1992), the compositions of K-feldspar from different plutons of the

Kashmar granitoid plot in the fields of perthite and perthitic orthoclase or microcline,

indicating a hypersolvus condition of differentiation (Fig. 4.10). The composition of K-

feldspar ranges from 0^3.9.92.6, 0^3.9-94.4 and Or<s4.6-9o.5 for the granodiorite, granite and

alkali feldspar granite, respectively. For each rock type, the range in composition of K-

feldspar is relatively wide and is consistent with the microperthitic structure observed in

the K-feldspar grains. There is a compositional overlap for K-feldspars from different

plutons of the Kashmar granitoid. This behaviour may suggest a close genetic

relationship between these plutons.

The content of CaO is low in K-feldspar from the Kashmar granitoid (mostly An <1

mole% in solid solution). There is an inverse correlation between Na20 (4-0.7 wt%) and

K20 (11-16 wt%) contents but the total content of alkalis (Na20 + K20) in the K-

feldspar from different plutons is essentially constant (15 to ~16wt%). This may

support a similarity in chemical composition of these plutons. The amount of Ti02

(<0.1 wt%) and FeO (<0.4 wt%) are low in all analysed K-feldspar grains. The contents

of Si02 (64-66 wt%) and A1203 (18-19 wt%) are constant among K-feldspar analyses

from different plutons.

56

Development of microperthitic intergrowths is particularly c o m m o n in the alkali

feldspar granite (R15900 and R15914). The perthite has a uniform narrow lamellae or

bleb form. In a single perthitic K-feldspar grain, the lamellae are oriented, while within

a thin section preferred orientation of lamellae is not evident. In perthitic grains,

compositions with less than Or64 do not occur, suggesting initial plagioclase

crystallisation depleted the melt in Ca (Fenn, 1986; Petersen and Lofgren, 1986). The

remaining melt, which was enriched in K, crystallised at eutectic temperature then

exsolution with the residual plagioclase resulted in composite growth (Hess, 1989). In

addition, tectonic strain may have induced unmixing and influence the preferred

orientation of perthitic lamellae (Shelley, 1993). Although there is no evidence of

ductile deformation in the Kashmar granitoid, the production of perthite, bending of

perthite and possibly inversion of perthite to patchy cross-hatched twinning is visible in

the alkali feldspar granite (e.g., Sample R15900).

Lobate myrmekite is usually situated on the boundary between plagioclase and K-

feldspar, and projects into the K-feldspar in a clearly replacive manner. Apparently

myrmekite formation was enhanced by late stage lime-bearing magmatic fluids which

attack the margins of K-feldspar and release potassium (Shelley, 1993). The released

potassium would be fixed in sericite or very fine-grained secondary muscovite that

rarely occurs in samples containing myrmekite (e.g., R15914; R15915).

4.2.6 QUARTZ

Subhedral and anhedral quartz grains range in size from 0.7 to 1.5 mm. They constitute

more than 20% of the rock volume and commonly fill the interstices between the earlier

formed minerals, especially in the tonalitic rocks. In the granodiorite and granite, quartz

57

shows corroded margins and undulose extinction. Occasionally it contains inclusions of

apatite and other accessory minerals.

Quartz has three modes of occurrence: as separate large anhedral grains, as irregular

patches, and as microgranophyric intergrowths. In the granodiorite it forms dominantly

in separate grains as a consequence of slow near-equilibrium growth at water pressures

high enough to restrict solid solution in K-feldspar. However, in the granite, typical

granophyric intergrowths developed. Development of microperthitic structure in the

granite may be interpreted by a change in PH20. For example, a decrease in PH20 may

result by losing vapour through fractures (raising of the liquidus/solidus curves) with a

consequential increase in undercooling and rate of crystal growth. Under such

conditions independent crystals do not develop, instead the simultaneous growth of

quartz and K-feldspar is coupled to produce microgranophyric structure (Tuttle and

Bowen, 1958; Philpotts, 1990).

4.2.7 ACCESSORY MINERALS

Apatite and titanite are the most common accessory minerals in all rocks of the Kashmar

granitoid. Apatite is not uniformly distributed. It occurs in two forms comprising small

inclusions in early crystallised minerals (e.g., plagioclase), and as euhedral grains

accompanying hornblende, magnetite (e.g., Sample R15922) and plagioclase (e.g.,

Sample R15911 and R15912). Biotite and plagioclase from the alkali feldspar granite

contains apatite inclusions. Association of apatite with plagioclase and ferromagnesian

phases suggests that apatite could be incorporated into early crystallised minerals.

However, apatite is also the most abundant accessory mineral occurring in

microgranular enclaves in the tonalite, granodiorite and granite. Since the microgranular

58

enclaves show a similar mineralogy to the host rocks, and the apatite has a similar

morphology to those of the enclaves, it is more likely that apatite may be a restite phase

(Chappell et al, 1987; Chen et al, 1990).

Titanite commonly occurs as a late stage crystallisation product. Isolated euhedral grains

of titanite typically occur in the alkali feldspar granite, while anhedral grains are

dominant and occur in the tonalite, granodiorite and granite. Anhedral grains of titanite

commonly replace hornblende, Fe-Ti oxides and biotite crystals. Secondary titanite

forms narrow rims or blebs around Fe-Ti oxides and hornblende. In the alkali feldspar

granite, titanite and ilmenite occur together in the same rock, but the ilmenite is an early

crystallising phase as titanite replaces ilmenite. The change from ilmenite to titanite as

the titaniferous mineral in the Kashmar granitoid corresponds to an increase mf02 (e.g.,

Wyborn, 1983; Whalen and Chappell, 1988).

Zircon is an ubiquitous accessory mineral in all rock types of the Kashmar granitoid. It

is distinctly euhedral and mostly occurs in association with hornblende, biotite and

magnetite grains. In particular, it is distributed as inclusions in hornblende and

magnetite but is less common in biotite (R15900). When zircon occurs as inclusions in

biotite, it shows typical pleochroic haloes (e.g., Sample R15914) indicating radioactive

emanations from the inclusion. Euhedral zircon grains from the Kashmar granitoid are

unique in shape, and growth zones are not observed. Euhedral isotropic rims are broader

at the ends of the crystals and are probably metamict.

At high temperatures, when the granitic melt is Zr-saturated, zirconium as a trace

element can be accommodated in pyroxene and amphibole (Chen et al., 1990). But

59

zircon grains in the Kashmar granitoid mostly accompany amphibole, indicating they

were possibly present in the melt prior to the conversion of pyroxene to amphibole. In

this case, zircon grains in the Kashmar granitoid may be residual from the melting of the

source (restite). The alternative possible explanation is that the zircon grains resulted

from accidental contamination, but other mineralogical and chemical evidence is not

consistent with contamination. If zircon grains are inherited from the source, the melts

that produced rocks of the Kashmar granitoid would have been saturated in zircon and

low in temperature (e.g., Williams, 1992; Chappell et al, 1998). Calculated zircon

saturation temperatures (Watson and Harrison, 1983) for the most mafic zircon-

saturated I-type granites of the Cobargo suite and Inlet pluton from the Lachlan Fold

Belt, Australia, represent maximum temperatures of 740°C to 762°C at which zircon

grains could have been present in their melts. According to Chappell et al (1998) such

melts form from low-temperature origin. Chemical characteristics of most minerals

from the Kashmar granitoid, particularly magnesio-hornblende and feldspars, show that

crystallisation occurred at low temperatures, therefore zircon grains would likely be

present in the melts that produced rocks of the Kashmar granitoid.

4.2.8 ALTERATION PRODUCTS

Plutons of the Kashmar granitoid have been affected by late stage, low temperature

subsolidus alteration which occurs extensively along the faults, major joints and

contacts. The strongly altered zones occur in the south and southwestern parts of the

Kashmar granitoid, particularly to the north of the city of Kashmar. The main mineral

assemblages developed are pyrite, sericite, epidote, minor carbonate and titanite.

Chlorite alteration is variably present with local pseudomorphs after hornblende and

60

biotite. Replacement by fine-grained accessory muscovite is also evident, the muscovite

occurring around the margins and along the biotite cleavages.

4.3 PETROGRAPHY OF BORNAVARD GRANITOID

The early magmatic episode in the Bornavard area is characterised by the occurrence of

tonalite and granodiorite. Granite represents the late stage intrusive episode which

occurs extensively in the Bornavard area. General geology and isotopic ages of these

intrusive episodes have been discussed in detail in Sections 3.3.2 and 3.3.2.1. Modal

data for intrusive rocks of the Bornavard area are illustrated in Figure 4.11.

4.3.1 TONALITE

The tonalite is grey to dark green in colour and occurs in the central part of the

Bornavard granitoid. It has a sharp or faulted contact with the granodiorite. Subhedral

amphibole grains, anhedral quartz and euhedral to subhedral plagioclase crystals (up to

3 mm long) form the major mineral components of the tonalite (Appendix 2.2).

Contents of K-feldspar (3% modal) and plagioclase (40-41% modal) do not vary

significantly but quartz ranges from 9.2 to 23.6% modal in samples from the tonalite.

This increase in quartz content correlates with a decrease in amphibole (from 45.8 to

29.8% by volume of the rock) which is the only ferromagnesian mineral in samples

taken from the tonalite.

4.3.2 GRANODIORITE

Granodiorite occurs in the inner parts of the Bornavard granitoid. It is always in sharp

contact with the granite and tonalite. Quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, biotite and

amphibole are major mineral components of the granodiorite. Quartz always shows

61

undulose extinction, indicating tectonic deformation. It contains several inclusions such

as apatite, Fe-Ti oxide and titanite (Sample R15947). Dark xenoliths (up to 10 cm

across) rich in biotite are common in the granodiorite. In hand specimen, the

granodiorite is distinguished from the tonalite by the presence of light milky to pink K-

feldspar grains that are surrounded by dark-green, medium-grained accumulations of

biotite (e.g., Sample R15946). In thin sections, some K-feldspar grains from the

granodiorite are characterised by cross-hatched twinning indicative of microcline (e.g.,

Sample R15943). The modal content of amphibole in the granodiorite (<0.2-ll% by

volume of the rock; Appendix 2.2) is considerably lower than in the tonalite (29.8-

45.8% modal), whereas the modal content of biotite from the granodiorite is high (up to

29.2%) as biotite commonly replaces amphibole in granodiorite (R15953). Quartz and

K-feldspar increase in both content and grain size from the tonalite to granodiorite. They

display microgranophyric texture in the granodiorite.

4.3.3 GRANITE

Granite is coarse- to medium-grained, pinkish in colour and is the late intrusive episode

occupying much of the northern and southern parts of the Bornavard granitoid. It mostly

occurs in sharp contact around the outer margins of the tonalite and granodiorite

plutons. At external contacts, the granite intrudes into very low-grade metavolcanic

rocks of the Taknar Zone.

Modal data for the granite are shown in Appendix 2.2 and Figure 4.11. Except for one

sample (R15939), the granite exhibits a relatively similar modal mineral content that is

consistent with the homogeneous features of this pluton. All samples from granite lack

amphibole and the content of biotite (<0.2 to 8.4 modal%) is lower than granodiorite

62

and tonalite, consistent with the very felsic nature of granitic pluton. Quartz and K-

feldspar occur in typical microgranophyric and graphic textures. Both vermicular and

cuneiform types of microgranophyric textures occur, especially in samples having

negligible amount of biotite (e.g., R15939). The presence of microgranophyric

intergrowths implies rapid undercooling and freezing under low PH20 and low

confining pressures (Pitcher, 1993; Shelley, 1993). A perthitic structure is not observed

in the K-feldspar of the Bornavard granitoid, as it was for the Kashmar granitoid. This

could possibly indicate that the post-crystallisation cooling process was not appropriate

in the case of the Bornavard granitoid to break down the feldspar structure to form the

perthitic K-feldspar, or the composition was not appropriate. Mineralogical differences

between the tonalite, granodiorite and granite suggest that the different plutons of the

Bornavard granitoid may not be genetically related.

4.4 MINERAL CHEMISTRY OF BORNAVARD GRANITOID

4.4.1 PLAGIOCLASE

Plagioclase forms euhedral to subhedral crystals in the tonalite and granodiorite, but

usually anhedral crystals in the granite. It contains common polysynthetic and pericline

twins (e.g., Sample R15943). In the granite, plagioclase shows strong resorption along

crystal borders (e.g., Sample R15941) and only small anhedral plagioclase grains occur

in some samples. Several inclusions such as biotite, Fe-Ti oxides, apatite, and some

alteration products including sericite, epidote and muscovite are common in plagioclase

crystals from the granodiorite and granite. Most of these inclusions, particularly

aluminosilieates, cover a large area in the core of the plagioclase crystals. Normal

compositional zoning is common in plagioclase grains from the tonalite and

63

granodiorite. However, owing to changes of temperature (and depth), or composition,

the early formed plagioclase crystals have partially resorbed borders.

Microprobe analyses of plagioclase are presented in Appendix 3.6 in which the rock

series is arranged according to increasing whole rock Si02 contents. The anorthite

content of plagioclases in the Bornavard granitoid decreases systematically from mafic

to felsic varieties, from A1143.5 to Ani.8. Homogeneous grains predominantly occur in the

granite, although variation in the composition of core and rim in plagioclase from the

tonalite and granodiorite is usually less than Anio A wider range in plagioclase

composition occurs in a normal-zoned grain with a core of An38 and rim of Anig from

the granodiorite (Sample R15947). For most plagioclase crystals there is an increase in

Na20 and a decrease in CaO with increasing Si02 content from core to rim. Variation in

plagioclase composition is relatively wider in the tonalite (Ani3_43) and granodiorite

(An2-38) compared with plagioclase in the granite (Ani,8-24)- The plot of plagioclase

composition (Fig. 4.12) from all rock types of the Bornavard granitoid shows a range

from albite to andesine that is slightly wider than the compositional range of plagioclase

from the Kashmar granitoid (Fig. 4.2).

4.4.2 K-FELDSPAR

K-feldspar is anhedral, minor and interstitial in the tonalite and granodiorite but it is the

most abundant phase in the granite (31.6-52.0% modal). It is partially twinned after

Carlsbad or Pericline laws, but commonly shows both in the well-known cross-hatched

pattern representing microcline. The presence of abundant microcline in granite suggests

equilibrium at a very low temperature in the plutonic environment (Gribble, 1988). This

feature is consistent with the quartzofeldspathic nature of the granite. Also, K-feldspar

64

occurs in perfect intergrowths with undulose quartz, producing a typical

microgranophyric texture, particularly in samples from the granite (Sample R15939).

Some K-feldspar grains are slightly perthitic but development of such a microstructure

is not as common as it was observed in the Kashmar granitoid.

Microprobe analyses of K-feldspar from the Bornavard granitoid are presented in

Appendix 3.7. K-feldspar from the granodiorite and granite have compositions of Or34_83

and Or?3-97 respectively. The small variation in composition of K-feldspar from the

granite (Fig. 4.13) is consistent with the homogeneous nature of microcline that shows

unique cross-hatched twinning in thin sections. All K-feldspar grains from the

Bornavard granitoid are high in Si02 (64.18-66.74 wt%) and A1203 (18.32-19.79 wt%)

but low in FeO (0.00-0.07 wt%) and CaO (0.00-0.66 wt%) contents (Appendix 3.7). The

amount of Ti02 (0.00-0.03 wt%) and MnO (0.00-0.03 wt%) in the all samples from the

granodiorite and granite are very low. All the above major oxides, particularly the

contents of Si02 and A1203, are very similar to those of the K-feldspar grains from the

Kashmar granitoid.

4.4.3 AMPHIBOLE

Amphibole is the only abundant mafic mineral in the tonalite (29.8-45.8% modal) but it

is the second most abundant mafic mineral after biotite in the granodiorite and ranges

from <0.2 to 11% by volume of this rock (Appendix 2.2). The pleochroic scheme for

amphibole is X = Y = pale green to bluish, and Z = pale yellow. Amphibole grains are

fresh, occurring as euhedral to subhedral crystals in the granodiorite, but interstitial in

the tonalite as a result of rapid cooling of this early intrusion. Amphibole grains from

65

the tonalite and granodiorite have been partially replaced by titanite and biotite,

respectively (e.g., R15945; R15953).

Chemical data and formulae listed in Appendix 3.8 show that the amphibole grains from

the Bornavard granitoid are relatively high in Mg/(Mg + Fe) (0.52-70) and Si contents

(6.65-7.78 a.f.u.), characteristic of magnesio-hornblende (Leake, 1978: Deer et al,

1997). Only one rim analysis (R15953) is ferro-Tschermakitic hornblende (Mg/(Mg +

Fe) <0.50; Si <6.5 a.f.u.) due to its lowest MgO and Si02 contents. All hornblende

analysed are low in Ti (<0.2 a.f.u); their (Na + K)A <0.50 but [Ca(M4) + Na(M4)] >1.34

is characteristic of calcic amphibole (Deer et al, 1997). In comparison with magnesio-

hornblende from the Kashmar granitoid, most amphibole analyses from the Bornavard

granitoid are lower in MgO/FeO (<0.75), possibly indicating higher f02 for the

Bornavard magmas. Except for the ferro-Tschermakitic hornblende rim (R15953), the

rest of analyses always contain total Al <2 a.f.u. and Fe3+ is, in most cases, greater than

Al^, which is characteristic of calcic amphiboles from shallow-level metaluminous

granitoids (e.g., Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986).

The CaO contents of hornblende crystals do not show significant variation from the

tonalite to granodiorite, but hornblendes become more Si02-rich in the granodiorite

(Sample R15943), possibly because they crystallised from a melt higher in Si02 content.

This accords with the observation of Cawthorn (1976) that the CaO content of

hornblende appears to be insensitive to the CaO content of the magma, while Si02

content is sensitive (Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986). Fractionation factors between

amphibole and magma composition for MgO, FeO and Ti02 were determined for

hornblende analyses from the Bornavard granitoid (Appendix 3.8). The calculated MgO

66

and FeO fractionation parameters show that both values are mostly >5, suggesting low

temperature for hornblende crystallisation. The Ti02 fractionation factor is always less

than 2.8, indicating crustal pressure during crystallisation of the Bornavard hornblende.

This is in accord with the geobarometer of Johnson and Rutherford (1989a) that

suggests low Al content of hornblende (total Al <1.5 a.f.u.) is indicative of pressures

less than 3 kbar (Fig. 4.14).

A significant difference is observed in the composition of hornblende crystals from

different samples of the granodiorite (Samples R15953 and R15943). Most of the

hornblende analyses from Sample R15953 are higher in Fe/(Fe + Mg) (0.52-0.62) and

Fe3+ (0.458-1.034 a.f.u.) but lower in Mg/(Mg + Fe) (0.43-0.59) and Si02 contents

(41.46-45.15 wt%). Also, hornblende grains in this sample are higher in total Al (1.184-

2.188 a.f.u.), Ti (0.037-0.181 a.f.u.) and Na (0.249-0.381 a.f.u.) compared with

hornblendes from Sample R15943. Experimental studies on amphibole compositions as

a function of temperature, pressure and f02 have been carried out by several workers

(e.g., Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986; Schmidt, 1992; Anderson and Smith, 1995). Most

workers report similar results which indicate that, with increasing temperature, Si

decreases and Al, Ti and Na increase, while with increasing y02 the reverse is the case.

Thus in a magma where f02 increases from early to late stages, early high-temperature

amphiboles crystallising at low f02 will be considerably enriched in Al, Ti and Na

compared to late stage low-temperature amphiboles crystallising at higher f02.

According to this scenario differences in hornblende compositions from the granodiorite

may be related to early and late crystallisation of this mineral under different oxidation

states.

67

4.4.4 B I O T I T E

Biotite occurs as medium- to fine-grained (<4 mm in grain size), subhedral to anhedral

crystals in the granodiorite and granite. It is fresh, sometimes bent, and strongly

pleochroic (from X = Y = dark brown to green and Z = straw coloured) typical of biotite

in oxidised I-type granites (Chappell and White, 1992). In the granodiorite, biotite is red

to green in colour; it sometimes replaces hornblende and forms the greatest mafic

component (up to 29.2 modal%; Appendix 2.2). While in the granite, biotite is less

abundant, it is green in colour and occurs as the only ferromagnesian mineral (up to

8.4 modal%). Biotite in the granite has been partially replaced by Fe-Ti oxide (Sample

R15941). In particular, biotite becomes less common in the granite when granophyric

intergrowths are dominant. Such samples are strongly enriched in total-rock Si02

content (e.g., R15939).

Microprobe data for biotites from the Bornavard granitoid are listed in Appendix 3.9

and plotted in Figures 4.15 and 4.16. Biotite analyses from the Bornavard granitoid are

lower in Mg/(Mg + Fe) (0.13-0.50) and higher in A1203 contents (15-17 wt%) compared

with biotites from the Kashmar granitoid. The composition of biotite in the granodiorite

is different from the composition of biotite in the granite (Appendix 3.9). A negative

correlation is observed between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and total Fe as FeO in the granodiorite

(Fig. 4.16). The average Mg/(Mg + Fe) for biotite in the granodiorite is 0.38 which is

significantly higher than for biotite in the granite (Mg/Mg + Fe = 0.15, on average). Low

Mg/(Mg + Fe) in biotite from he granite is consistent with the strong enrichment of

granite in whole rock Si02 content (74-76 wt%). Biotite crystals from the granodiorite

and granite are homogeneous in the composition of core and rim. However, biotite in

the granodiorite shows appreciable variation in the composition of some major oxides

68

(e.g., M g O = 5.76 to 11.49wt%). In contrast, biotites from different samples of the

granitic pluton are very similar in chemical composition (e.g., MgO = 2.70 to

3.59 wt%). A relatively large variation is observed in the content of total Fe as FeO

(17.58 to 27.66 wt%) from biotite in the granodiorite, which is common in most I-type

granites (Whalen and Chappell, 1988). Biotite crystals in the granite are strongly

enriched in total Fe as FeO content (28.66-32.25 wt%) with an average FeO/MgO =

10.27. This value is much higher than the average FeO/MgO (3.13) values from biotite

in the granodiorite. It is also significantly higher than average FeO/MgO (1.45) from

biotites in the Kashmar granitoid. Because high/02 conditions allow partition of Fe into

oxide rather than biotite (Burkhard, 1991), the Fe enrichment of biotite in granite from

the Bornavard area suggests crystallisation at relatively low f02 conditions. However,

differences in chemical composition of biotite in the granodiorite and granite suggest

that the granite and granodiorite plutons originated from different source compositions.

In general, the Bornavard biotites are low in Ti02 (<2.5 wt%). The Ti content of biotite

is mainly controlled by temperature and liquid composition; it appears to be particularly

insensitive to f02 (Wyborn, 1983). Compared with titaniferous biotite from the Kashmar

granitoid, the low Ti02 content of Bornavard biotite implies relatively lower

temperature. Also, low Ti02 content in biotite indicates possibly Ti depletion occurred

at the source (e.g., Harrison, 1990). Because ilmenite and titanite commonly occur in the

tonalite and granodiorite, early fractionation of Ti-rich phases, together with low

temperature, may be responsible for the low Ti02 content of biotite in the Bornavard

granitoid.

69

According to the statistics on mica compositions for S- and I-type granites in southeast

China (Liu et al, 1989), the amount of AT71 in biotite is more than 0.5 for S-type

granites and less than 0.5 for I-type granites. The biotite from the Bornavard granitoid

has a relatively high amount of A1VI in the octahedral layer, usually more than 0.5,

ranging from 0.43 to 0.89, averaging 0.59 (n = 24). This average is lower than 0.6 a.f.u,

a value for biotite occurring with muscovite (Chappell and White, 1992). The high

amount of A1VI in the Bornavard biotite is not consistent with petrographic and

mineralogical evidence that suggest an I-type source for the Bornavard granitoid. It is in

agreement with the high FeO and low MgO contents of these biotites that indicate, in

addition to the substitution of Fe for Mg, the substitution of kf1 for Mg has occurred

(e.g., Liu et al, 1989). Biotite in the Bornavard granitoid exhibits a great range in total

Fe as FeO content that is characteristic of biotite from I-type granites (Whalen and

Chappell, 1988). Because biotite in the granite coexists with secondary muscovite, high

A1VI in the Bornavard biotite may be the result of subsolidus alteration (e.g., Harrison,

1990).

4.4.5 ACCESSORY MINERALS

Fe-Ti oxide, titanite, allanite, apatite and zircon are accessory minerals occurring in

rocks of the Bornavard granitoid. They mostly accompany hornblende and biotite. The

Fe-Ti oxides and titanite are products of magmatic reactions but allanite may be the

result of hydrothermal alteration of biotite in granite samples. Ilmenite is the common

Fe-Ti oxide, coexisting with hornblende (R15945; R15953) in the tonalite and

granodiorite that are the early intrusive rocks of the Bornavard granitoid. Some ilmenite

grains have rounded edges, and ilmenite alteration is evidenced by narrow reaction rims

of fine-grained titanite along all rims, fractures and cracks. Such altered ilmenite can

70

result from magmatic evolution that is common in I-type granites, and indicates

relatively oxidising conditions (Whalen and Chappell, 1988; Petrik and Broska, 1994).

Microprobe data for Fe-Ti oxides from the Bornavard granitoid are listed in

Appendix 3.10. Homogeneous ilmenite (predominant) and magnetite occur in the

tonalite and granodiorite, while magnetite is the only Fe-Ti oxide typically occurring in

the granite. Some of the magnetite grains in the granite are heterogeneous, having

titanomagnetite (Ti02 up to 7.47-9.30 wt%) in the (R15938; R15941). The ilmenite is

slightly high in MnO content (2.40-3.18 wt%) but very low in AJ2O3, MgO and other

major oxides. The content of Ti02 (up to 52.45 wt%) is much higher than FeO (up to

44.66 wt%) in ilmenite. With increasing content of Si02 in the tonalite and granodiorite

(from 58.09 to 71.32 wt%), significant variation in MnO and total Fe as FeO contents of

ilmenite is not observed. This indicates that the composition of ilmenite is independent

of variation in silica content of magma, but is related to the/02 (e.g., Czamanske et al,

1981; Petrik and Broska, 1994).

Compared with ilmenite grains from the Kashmar granitoid (Appendix 3.4), ilmenite

from the Bornavard granitoid is slightly higher in Ti02 and lower in MnO and FeO

contents. These features may suggest slightly lower f02 conditions for ilmenite of the

Bornavard granitoid. However, ilmenite from both areas are compositionally similar to

ilmenite analyses from I-type granites of Central Chugoku, Japan (Czamanske et al,

1981) and the Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia (e.g., Wyborn, 1983; Whalen and Chappell,

1988).

71

Magnetite is absent in the tonalite, it coexists with ilmenite in the granodiorite, whereas

it occurs without ilmenite in the granite. After biotite, magnetite is the second most

common mafic mineral occurring in the granite but both minerals are less abundant than

in the tonalite and granodiorite. The absence of ilmenite in granite is consistent with the

higher total Fe as FeO contents and lower Mg/(Mg + Fe) values of biotite in granite

samples (Fig. 4.16); all are indications of progressive increase mf02. Therefore, the

nature of the source compositions, together with differences in f02 and PH20, are

essential to explain compositional variation of Fe-Ti oxide minerals for different plutons

of the Bornavard granitoid.

In the granite, the presence of titanomagnetite cores and magnetite rims (R15938;

R15941) indicates Ti depletion occurred in magnetite grains. Such grains are commonly

accompanied by biotite and titanite. The presence of reaction rims indicate that the loss

of Ti in magnetite occurred, either through exchange with biotite or by the formation of

titanite from magnetite by oxidising deuteric fluids (e.g., Petrik and Broska, 1994).

Lowering the Ti02 content of magnetite at high oxidation state, particularly in I-type

granites, may favour the presence of allanite (Hine et al., 1978; Petrik and Broska, 1994)

which is observed only in samples from the granite.

Allanite in the granite (Appendix 3.10; Sample R15940) is subhedral to anhedral,

homogeneous, reddish in colour, slightly anisotropic, low in birefringence, and has

anastomosing cracks that extend to the boundary of adjacent minerals; an indication of

radioactivity. Allanite grains are high in Ti02 and total Fe as FeO (up to 19 wt%). High

FeO content of allanite is consistent with coexisting homogeneous magnetite. It is

suggested that the entry of the relatively large amount of Fe and Ti into the allanite

72

structure is favoured by lower pressures (Deer et al, 1997). The sum of the major

oxides in allanite is low (70.13 wt%) because REE oxides were not analysed. Allanite

and monazite are included in contrasting mineralogies of both I- and S-type granites by

Chappell and White (1974) and later classifications (Hine et al, 1978; Petrik and

Broska, 1994). The presence of allanite in the Bornavard granite is considered to be a

strong indicator of the oxidised I-type feature (Sawka et al, 1986; Sawka and Chappell,

1988).

Burnham and Ohmoto (1980) and Wones (1980, 1989) suggested that magnetite-

granites formed at higher relative f02 than ilmenite-granites, with the QFM buffer as the

fundamental division between the two. Chappell and White (1992) interpreted thatjG2

is an inherited feature from the source for I- and S-type granites. In the early intrusive

rocks of the Bornavard granitoid, the assemblage titanite + ilmenite + magnetite +

quartz occurs with hornblende grains (e.g., Sample R15953). The hornblende grains are

relatively high in Mg/(Mg + Fe) (0.52-0.70), therefore, a reduced condition such as for

S-type granites is not implied (Wones, 1989). Accordingly, the occurrence of allanite +

magnetite + biotite instead of ilmenite + hornblende assemblage in the late intrusive

rocks (granite) implies higher J02 (e.g., Petrik and Broska, 1994).

4.4.6 ALTERATION PRODUCTS

In the Bornavard granitoid, common alteration products comprise sericite (up to 4.4%

by volume of the rock), epidote, chlorite and calcite. Some plagioclase grains are

intensely sericitised, particularly in samples from the granite. The biotite is replaced by

magnetite and sericite. Epidotisation of biotite and K-feldspar is common in the

granodiorite and granite. Secondary muscovite is fine-grained, commonly occurs

73

as interstitial crystals, as well as in small dispersed flakes within plagioclase. Secondary

muscovite becomes euhedral and more abundant when magnetite has a higher

abundance (e.g., R15938) and granophyric intergrowths are well developed (e.g.,

R15955). The presence of small flakes of muscovite within plagioclase may suggest

leaching of K and Si from the plagioclase at temperatures below the granite liquidus.

Epidote is a constituent of the late kinematic granites; its abundance is related to the

calcium content of the host granite (Deer et al, 1997). The amount of epidote increases

as the calcium content of the host rock decreases. In some samples from the granite, the

abundance of epidote and secondary muscovite resulted in lowering the whole rock CaO

content, consequently those samples show a slightly higher alurriinium saturation index

(e.g., Sample R15955). This scenario will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6.

4.5 TAKNAR RHYOLITE

The Taknar Rhyolite is part of the metavolcanic rocks of the Taknar Zone

(Razzaghmanesh, 1968). The Taknar Rhyolite is partly intruded by the Bornavard

granitoid, indicating a relatively younger age for the granitoid. The metavolcanic rocks

of the Taknar Zone are petrographically compared with the Precambrian basement

sequences in Iran (Crawford, 1977; Berberian and King, 1981; Hamedi, 1995). The

Taknar Rhyolite is widely distributed around the southwestern and northeastern parts of

the Bornavard granitoid (Fig. 3.4). The rhyolite is a light grey to slightly green in hand

specimen. K-feldspar, quartz, plagioclase, magnetite and rare biotite commonly occur in

samples from the Taknar Rhyolite. Phenocrysts of the first three minerals are set in a

holocrystalline fine-grained groundmass. The Taknar Rhyolite has been affected by very

low-grade metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration (Crawford, 1977; Muller and

74

Walter, 1983). The low-grade metamorphism in the rhyolite is distinguished by slight

recrystallisation of quartz, particularly in the groundmass (e.g., Sample R15948).

Common alteration products include sericite and chlorite.

4.5.1 PETROGRAPHY AND MINERAL CHEMISTRY

Petrographic data and chemical classification for the Taknar Rhyolite are presented in

Appendix 2.3 and Figure 4.17, respectively. Five samples were chemically analysed

from the Taknar Rhyolite. Based on Si02 vs (Na20 + K20) contents (Le Maitre, 1989;

Le Bas and Streckeisen, 1991), the rhyolites fall within the alkali rhyolite field

(Fig. 4.17). Only one sample (R15949) is lower in total alkali contents (Na20 + K20 =

3.69 wt%) due to the extensive sericitisation of K-feldspar in the groundmass.

Microprobe analyses show that plagioclase phenocrysts in the Taknar Rhyolite have an

albite composition (Ab99, Appendix 3.11). The plagioclase phenocrysts occur mostly as

subhedral grains up to 3.5 mm in size and some have common pericline twinning. Some

plagioclase phenocrysts have been partially altered to sericite.

K-feldspar occurs both in the groundmass and as small phenocrysts having simple

twinning. After quartz, it is the second most common mineral component of the

groundmass. The composition of K-feldspar from the Taknar Rhyolite (Appendix 3.11)

indicates homogeneous sanidine (Ofyi.z) as the phenocrystic phase and sanidine-

anorthoclase (Or22.8o.6) in the groundmass. The contents of Ti02 (<0.04 wt%), MgO

(<0.02 wt%), MnO (<0.05 wt%) and FeO (<0.3 wt%) in the all feldspars analysed from

the Taknar Rhyolite are very low (Appendix 3.11).

7 b

Biotite with Mg/(Mg + Fe) = 0.66-0.68, magnetite and titanomagnetite are the only

ferromagnesian minerals occurring in the Taknar Rhyolite. Biotite is homogeneous,

relatively low in K20 content (7-8 wt%) that may be the result of partial alteration of

biotite to chlorite. The chemical data that are summarised in Appendices 3.9 and 3.11

show that the compositions of biotite from the Bornavard granitoid and Taknar Rhyolite

are different. In particular, biotite from Taknar Rhyolite is low in Ti02, FeO/MgO and

K20, but high in Si02, AI2O3 and MgO contents. Such differences in chemical

composition of minerals suggest different sources for the Taknar Rhyolite and the

Bornavard granitoid.

Fe-Ti oxide is abundant (up to 8.2% modal) in the Taknar Rhyolite. Equant fine-grained

Fe-Ti oxide grains are scattered through the groundmass (e.g., R15950, R15951). These

grains are anhedral and commonly accompany alteration products. Analyses of Fe-Ti

oxide from the Taknar Rhyolite (Appendix 3.11) indicate a heterogeneous composition,

with titanomagnetite cores and magnetite rims. The core composition is strongly

enriched in Ti02 (18.6 wt%) and MnO (4.5 wt%) contents, while the rim composition is

depleted in these oxides. This trend indicates progressive oxidation during Fe-Ti oxide

crystallisation. Overall, the composition of Fe-Ti oxide from the Taknar Rhyolite is

different from those of in the Bornavard granitoid.

Quartz is a minor phenocrystic phase, it occurs both as rounded or anhedral phenocrysts

and in the groundmass. It is embayed and highly strained, as manifest by strong

undulose extinction to extensive subgrain development, and most often shows

recrystallisation with local granulation (e.g., R15951). It sometimes occurs as

microgranophyric intergrowths. Secondary muscovite, biotite and Fe-Ti oxides are other

76

constituents occurring in the groundmass. Zircon, titanite and apatite are the accessory

mineral assemblage occurring in the Taknar Rhyolite.

In the Taknar Rhyolite sericitisation of feldspars is mostly accompanied by chloritisation

of biotite (e.g., Sample R15949). Sericitisation requires the addition of water-rich fluids

and K+ (Shelley, 1993). The source of K+ can be found in the chloritisation of biotite

which is evidenced from the low K20 content of the biotite (Appendix 3.11); the K+

released reacts with plagioclase to free Ca2+ (Deer et al., 1992). Due to the relative

immobility of Si and Al (Rollinson, 1993), the host-rock became relatively poor in CaO

content (CaO = 0.13-0.35 wt%) with a consequential increase in the calculated

Aluminium Saturation Indices (ASI), showing a strong peraluminous character (ASI

> 1.1) for the Taknar Rhyolite. These criteria will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6.

4.6 KUH MISH INTRUSIONS

The Kuh Mish intrusions (Fig. 4.18) are Middle-Late Eocene in age (Sahandi, 1989) and

cover a total area of approximately 84 km2. They intrude into Late Cretaceous andesitic

and basaltic rocks, as well as into volcano-sedimentary rocks of Early Eocene age

(Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1976). These intrusions are mainly granodiorite in composition. In

the Kuh Mish area, the granodiorite has been intruded by medium-grained rocks of

mostly gabbroic and quartz monzodioritic composition. Two isolated granodiorite

plutons occur in the Darin and Namin regions, both located in the northwestern parts of

the Kuh Mish area (Fig. 4.18). Representative modal analyses for the Kuh Mish

intrusions are shown in Appendix 2.4 and Figure 4.19.

77

4.6.1 GABBRO

Gabbro (Si02 = 45.75 wt%) and quartz monzodiorite (Si02 = 51.85-63.93 wt%)

comprise the only mafic rocks analysed from the Kuh Mish intrusions, m the Kuh Mish

area, gabbro intrudes in dyke-form in the central part of the quartz monzodiorite; while

the latter intrusion crops out widely around, and into the granodiorite pluton. Quartz

monzodiorite is the finest grained rock (minerals, 2-3 mm in size) among these

intrusions. Its contact with the surrounding rocks, as well as into the granodiorite, is

clearly intrusive.

4.6.1.1 Mineralogy of Gabbro

Clinopyroxene grains form 44.6% by volume of the gabbro (Appendix 2.4). They are

simply-twinned, yellowish orange in colour, and show exsolution lamellae of

hedenbergite. Sometimes clinopyroxene crystals contain pale yellowish cores of relict

olivine, which are altered. Microprobe data (Appendix 3.12) show that diopside (E1145-

47-W044-49-FS6-7) is the dominant clinopyroxene present in the gabbro (Fig. 4.20). Only

one rim is slightly lower in CaO (14.5 wt%) and higher in MgO contents (18.2 wt%),

representing augite in composition (En57.7-Wo32.9-Fs9.s), which is a common constituent

of gabbros. However, the diopside grains are optically homogeneous. They are depleted

in Ti02 content. According to Deer et al (1992), formation of augite as a low-calcium

clinopyroxene in the rim composition or in the groundmass is due to rapid cooling.

Plagioclase grains form 53.6% by volume of the gabbro (Appendix 2.4). Euhedral

crystals of plagioclase together with diopside grains display a hypidiomorphic granular

texture in the gabbro. The composition of the plagioclase in gabbro ranges from Ango to

78

An98.8 (Appendix 3.13), representing the most calcic plagioclase grains that were

analysed in the present study (Fig. 4.21). The plagioclase grains are homogeneous, high

in Al203 (up to 35.8 wt%) and low in Si02 (up to 45 wt%) contents. They are

compositionalry different from plagioclase crystals of the Kashmar and Bornavard

granitoids, representing a distinct source for gabbro from the Kuh Mish intrusions.

Minor mineral constituents in the gabbro include alteration products such as Fe-Ti

oxide, sericite, tremolite, actinolite and epidote. Microscopic evidence shows possibly

two stages of alteration for the gabbro. At higher temperatures plagioclase changed to

epidote, as well as pyroxene changed to fine-grained fibrous tremolite and actinolite.

Then at lower temperatures, probably with an enrichment in H20 content (magmatic or

meteoritic), sericitisation developed and became dominant as the last secondary mineral

phase in gabbro (Sample Rl5929).

4.6.2 QUARTZ MONZODIORITE

The quartz monzodiorite is grey to green in colour, hi the Kuh Mish locality, quartz

monzodiorite partly intrudes into the granodiorite in east-west trending parallel dykes.

The quartz monzodiorite seems to be a very high level intrusion as evidenced from its

medium-grained minerals, particularly near its contact with the granodiorite. Towards

the contact with the granodiorite, chlorite alteration has locally been developed. There is

no evidence for xenoliths derived from the granodiorite or the adjacent volcanic rocks.

4.6.2.1 Mineralogy of Quartz monzodiorite

The modal mineral assemblage for the quartz monzodiorite is shown in Appendix 2.4

and Figure 4.19. Plagioclase (36-50 wt%), amphibole (10-33.6 wt%), K-feldspar (9-

/y

19 wt%) and quartz (9-14.6 wt%) are the major mineral components in the quartz

monzodiorite. Minor diopside occurs as anhedral crystals, most of them have been

replaced by amphibole due to normal magmatic reactions. In some hornblende crystals

diopside relicts are observed. Biotite is absent since after amphibole crystallisation, or

possibly during its evolution, the melt encountered hydrothermal fluids that caused Fe-

Ti oxide, chlorite, epidote and titanite to commonly replace amphibole grains. Apatite is

present as prisms up to 0.8 mm long embedded in late crystallising minerals and as

intergranular crystals. Plagioclase occurs mostly as laths (up to 3 mm long) in samples

taken near the contacts. In other places, it is euhedral and normally zoned, or anhedral

with strongly resorbed boundaries. Alteration of the plagioclase cores is ubiquitous,

varying in intensity from slight to extensive sericitisation. K-feldspar occurs as anhedral

grains or interstitial fillings. In some samples (e.g., R15956) it is subhedral and shows

simple twinning. Amphibole and Fe-Ti oxide are the most common ferromagnesian

phases in the quartz monzodiorite. In general, amphibole and Fe-Ti oxides decrease as

the host-rock Si02 content increases. Amphibole is anhedral in fine-grained samples

with a lower Si02 content, but subhedral in other samples. The amphibole is slightly

pleochroic from X = Y = pale green, to Z = light-yellow. Actinolite and tremolite after

amphibole are common in quartz monzodiorite.

4.6.3 GRANODIORITE

Three separated homogeneous plutons of granodiorite composition occur in the Kuh

Mish (28 km2), Darin (21 km2) and Namin (5 km2) localities (Fig. 4.18). Rocks of the

Kuh Mish and Darin plutons are mineralogically similar, which may imply similarity of

the source compositions. They are white on fresh surfaces, low in mafic minerals and

lacking in biotite. In the Kuh Mish and Darin plutons, amphibole shows partial

80

alteration to chlorite. In the Kuh Mish pluton the intensity of alteration in some

amphibole grains resulted in complete pseudomorphism of the amphibole. Samples

from the Namin pluton are black to grey in colour due to the presence of abundant

amphibole, biotite and Fe-Ti oxides. Granodiorite from the Namin pluton (Sample

R15926) contains a total of 23.4% modal contents of biotite, amphibole and Fe-Ti

oxide. Petrographic data for eight granodiorite samples from these plutons are

summarised in Appendix 2.4 and Figure 4.19.

4.6.3.1 Mineralogy of Granodiorite

Plagioclase is the dominant mineral in the granodiorite samples from Kuh Mish, Darin

and Namin plutons; it is typically euhedral and commonly shows polysynthetic and

pericline twinnings. Most plagioclase grains are normally zoned, but some have

resorbed rims. The grains are variably altered to epidote and sericite; the latter has partly

proceeded to form small crystals of secondary muscovite.

Chemical data for plagioclase crystals in granodiorite from the Namin (R15926) and

Darin (R15927) plutons are shown in Appendix 3.13. The composition of plagioclase

ranges from An26-57 and Ann-54 in the Namin and Darin plutons, respectively. However,

most plagioclase grains from Namin and Darin plutons are compositionally overlapped,

that indicates these plutons may be genetically related. Similar to plagioclase

composition from the Kashmar granitoid (Fig. 4.2), most plagioclase grains from the

Namin and Darin plutons represent an intermediate composition (Fig. 4.21) which is

typically recognised in low-temperature granitoids. The presence of some normally-

zoned plagioclase crystals in these plutons suggests that mineralogical equilibration was

much slower than the rate of crystallisation. This is characteristic of low-temperature

81

systems in which plagioclase takes a very long time to equilibrate with the melt because

that would involve a change in the Al/Si (e.g., Pearce and Kolisnik, 1990; Shelley,

1993).

Subhedral amphibole typically occurs in the Namin and Darin plutons. Amphibole

grains are up to 2.5 mm long and form up to 14.8% by volume of the rock. The

pleochroic scheme is generally from X = Y = pale green/brown to Z = light yellowish. In

Namin pluton, amphibole grains are partially replaced by fine-grained biotite, chlorite,

irregular grains of Fe-Ti oxide and titanite. Replacement is common along the cleavages

or grain boundaries. Actinolite occurs where moderate to complete pseudomorphs of

amphibole are visible.

Microprobe analyses of amphibole grains from the Namin and Darin plutons are listed

in Appendix 3.14, For all analyses Ca(M4) is more than 1.5 a.f.u. and Na(M4) is less

than 0.50 a.f.u., indicating calcic amphiboles. They are high in Mg/(Mg + Fe) (>0.50)

and Si content (Si = ~7 a.f.u.), but their (Na + K)A and Ti are both less than 0.50 a.f.u.

These characteristics represent typical magnesio-hornblende (Deer et al, 1997) for the

Namin and Darin plutons. Magnesio-hornblendes are high in MgO/FeO, in contrast the

Fe/(Fe + Mg) is commonly less than 0.50 indicating magmatic amphibole (Harrison et

al, 1990). These distinctive properties may be a result of a low FeO content in the

source or a lower oxidation state for amphiboles from the Namin and Darin plutons.

Magnesio-hornblendes from the Namin and Darin plutons have a higher Mg/(Mg + Fe)

(up to 0.83) compared with analyses of magnesio-hornblende from the Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids (Appendices 3.2 and 3.8). The high Mg/(Mg + Fe) of magnesio-

82

hornblende from the Namin and Darin plutons suggests that these plutons originated

from sources being more mafic in nature. They are low in total Al (<1.5 a.f.u.)

indicating a low pressure in the source. Fractionation factors for MgO (5-10), FeO (2-5)

and Ti02 (1-4) for most magnesio-hornblende analyses imply low-temperature and

relatively low crustal pressures, as suggested for the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids.

Biotite is fine-grained, it occurs in the Namin pluton (R15926), while other plutons of

the Kuh Mish area lack this mineral because alteration, together with a high state of

oxidation, were dominant during or after amphibole crystallisation. Under these

conditions, possibly hornblende would have directly transfered to opaque minerals and

chlorite instead of being replaced by biotite (e.g., Shelley, 1993). Analyses of biotite

grains from the Namin pluton are high in MgO (up to 13.6 wt%) and low in total Fe as

FeO (19-21 wt%) contents, with a high Mg/(Mg + Fe) (0.50-0.54), which is in accord

with the high Mg/(Mg + Fe) of coexisting magnesio-hornblendes. Biotite crystals from

the Namin pluton (Appendix 3.15) are compositionally different from biotites in the

Bornavard granitoid (Appendix 3.9), while they are similar in composition to those of

the Kashmar granitoid (Appendix 3.3).

Analyses of Fe-Ti oxide from the Darin pluton represent heterogeneous grains,

including magnetite and titanomagnetite compositions (Appendix 3.15).

Titanomagnetite grains contain notable Si02 (up to 5.64 wt%) and CaO (up to

4.58 wt%) contents but they are low in Ti02 content (up to 5.67 wt%). One rim is

depleted in these components, being magnetite in composition, that possibly means an

increase in f02 during crystallisation of Fe-Ti oxides encouraged precipitation of

magnetite.

83

4.7 SUMMARY

Apparently, all ferromagnesian minerals in magmas of the northeastern CIP crystallised

at an initially high f02 and PH20 that possibly increased during the final stages of

crystallisation in the relevant pluton. The coexisting biotite, magnesio-hornblende and

magnetite suggests a direct relationship between f02 and PH20 (Mason, 1978;

Burkhard, 1991), the two fundamental criteria important in determining the

characteristics and generation of mineralised I- and S-type granites (Blevin and

Chappell, 1992; Blevin et al, 1996). The availability of H20 and equilibrium conditions

(e.g., Burkhard, 1991) are responsible for homogeneous crystallisation of hornblende

and biotite grains in different plutons of the northeastern CJP. When biotite and

magnesio-hornblende coexist, the former replaces the latter, indicating normal magmatic

reactions. Biotite crystals are typically pleochroic from dark brown to straw-coloured,

and they are high in FeO/MgO representing oxidised I-type magmas. The composition

of biotite in the Bornavard granitoid is multi-modal, representing three different sources

for episodic intrusions of the Bornavard granitoid. Biotite and magnesio-hornblende

from the Kuh Mish intrusions are high in Mg/(Mg + Fe) values that implies magmas of

the Kuh Mish intrusions originated from sources being more mafic in nature. Except for

two analyses, structural formulae of the analysed amphibole from northeastern CJP

show a total Al <1.5 a.f.u. that is characteristic of shallow-level intrusions

(Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986; Hollister et al, 1987).

Fe-Ti oxide occurs as magnetite, titanomagnetite and ilmenite grains, but magnetite is

the dominant opaque phase, indicating high f02. The Fe-Ti oxides are usually

accompanied by biotite, titanite and amphibole. Where titanomagnetite occurs, it is

b4

commonly encountered in magnetite cores. In the Bornavard granitoid, ilmenite and

amphibole specifically are found in rocks of the early intrusive episode, while magnetite

and biotite are present as the only ferromagnesian phases in rocks of the late intrusive

episode.

Plagioclase crystals from the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are commonly lower

than An5o in composition. For the Kuh Mish intrusions plagioclases in the Namin and

Darin plutons are compositionally lower than An57. In each area of this study,

plagioclase from a certain pluton shows an evolutionary trend towards enrichment in

albite content by progressive increase in whole rock Si02 content, that is characteristic

of fractional crystallisation. Plagioclase crystals are homogeneous or variably normally-

zoned which is a response to the nature of plagioclase crystallisation during changes in

temperature and fluctuation in PH20. Analyses of feldspar grains from each pluton

record evidence of low-temperature crystallisation.

CHAPTER 5

WHOLE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In the present study, 60 representative samples of igneous rocks from the Kashmar,

Bornavard and Kuh Mish areas have been analysed for major and trace elements

(Appendices 4.1 to 4.4). Major elements were determined by X-ray fluorescence

spectrometry (XRF), while trace elements were analysed by a combination of XRF and

instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Tantalum, Co and W are not reported

because of contamination of the sample by crushing in a tungsten-carbide mill (Tema).

The loss on ignition (LOT) (Appendix 1) for all samples in the present study is less than

3.5 wt%, with most less than 1 wt%, supporting the contention that samples are fresh

and represent magmatic compositions. The CIPW normative mineralogy (Appendix 2)

was calculated using the computer program Geochemical Data Analysis (GDA) of

Sheraton and Simons (1991). Since most of the I-type granites (e.g., Lachlan Fold Belt)

maintain a ratio of 2:1 for FeO/Fe203, this ratio was assumed for calculation of CIPW

normative mineralogy.

5.2 KASHMAR GRANITOID

5.2.1 MAJOR ELEMENTS

Based on the silica content, all samples from the tonalite (Si02 = 54.18-59.79 wt%) and

one sample (R15908) from the granodiorite are mafic in composition, whereas other

samples are felsic in composition (Si02 > 63 wt%). The widest range in silica content is

observed in the granite (Si02 = 63.42-71.81 wt%) but other plutons of the Kashmar

granitoid are relatively uniform in composition and show small variation (-5 wt%) in

Si02 contents, which is characteristic of I-type granites (Chappell and Stephens, 1988).

Wide variation in Si02 content is usually interpreted as fractional crystallisation

(Azevedo and Nolan, 1998). This process is observed in the granitic pluton by a general

decrease in plagioclase and increase in K-feldspar contents towards more silica variants

(Appendix 2.1). Overall, the Si02 content in rocks of the Kashmar granitoid ranges from

54.18 to 77.06 wt% with an average of 66.80 wt% (29 analyses). In the classification of

I-type granites, this average content of Si02 would typically be I-(granodioritic) type

(e.g., Hill et al, 1988, 1992; Pharaoh et al, 1993; Waight et al, 1998; Ajaji et al,

1998).

Ti02 is typically low, mainly <0.5 wt% and all <0.92 wt%. The highest content of Ti02

(0.91 wt%) occurs in the tonalite, whilst the lowest content is in the alkali feldspar

granite (Fig. 5.1). High Ti02 content in the tonalite is consistent with its higher modal

contents of biotite, amphibole and Fe-Ti oxides. In the alkali feldspar granite, biotite and

ilmenite are the only Ti-rich minerals. Although they occur in small amounts,

microprobe analyses (Appendices 3.2 to 3.4) show that biotite (Ti02 up to 4.90 wt%)

and ilmenite (Ti02 up to 53.54 wt%) are richer in Ti02 content than the hornblende

(Ti02 up to 2.37 wt%). It can be concluded that the lower Ti02 content of the alkali

feldspar granite may be related to fractionation of biotite and ilmenite.

The content of A1203 is low in the alkali feldspar granite (11.70-12.73 wt%) but high in

the tonalite (16.04-17.04 wt%), granodiorite (15.22-16.20 wt%) and granite (13.61-

15.89 wt%) as they contain high plagioclase contents. Referring to Appendices 3.1 and

3.2, both plagioclase and hornblende are enriched in A1203 contents (up to 27.72 wt%

S7

and up to 8.41 w t % , respectively), thus explaining the higher Al203 content of the

granodiorite and granite. The same explanation can be attributed to the tonalite that

contains higher modal contents of plagioclase and hornblende. The content of Al203 in

the granite is reasonably wide because some samples from this pluton are relatively

enriched in Al203 by the presence of plagioclase, hornblende and biotite, whereas others

are low in such components and high in K-feldspar and quartz contents. This resulted in

a good linear trend on the plot of Al203 versus Si02 that is observed from the granite

samples (Fig. 5.1).

Total Fe as Fe203 content is high (mostly between 3.5 to 9.5 wt%) and is consistent with

high/02 conditions, suggested by chemical data for ferromagnesian minerals (Chapter

4). The content of total iron as Fe203 shows a negative correlation with Si02 (Fig. 5.1)

that is related to the decreasing modal content of Fe-Ti oxide and other ferromagnesian

minerals from the tonalite to the alkali feldspar granite.

The content of MnO is low and decreases from 0.14 wt% in the tonalite to 0.01 wt% in

the alkali feldspar granite (Appendix 4.1). A slight scattering is observed in the granite

analyses (Fig. 5.1) that is the result of differences in modal contents of Fe-Ti oxides,

hornblende and biotite, common minerals that accommodate variable Mn in their crystal

structures (Deer et al, 1997). Since Mn+2 has an ionic radius (0.80 A0) near to Fe+2

(0.76 A0), it can substitute for Fe+2 in ferromagnesian minerals (Harrison, 1990). This

substitution seems to be higher in ilmenite (MnO up to 5.27 wt%) than in hornblende

(MnO up to 0.88 wt%). Therefore, a low content of MnO, particularly in samples from

the alkali feldspar granite, is related to fractionation of ilmenite.

M g O is relatively low and mostly ranges from 2.97 to 0.43 wt%. It shows an excellent

negative correlation with Si02 throughout different samples of the Kashmar granitoid.

The highest MgO content (4.27 wt%) is observed in Sample R15924 (tonalite) as a

result of its high modal content of hornblende (20.4% by volume of the rock). For the

granodiorite and granite, a lower content of MgO is consistent with their lower modal

contents of hornblende. The lowest content of MgO (0.09-0.30 wt%) is observed in the

alkali feldspar granite because this rock lacks hornblende. Therefore, variation in the

contents of MgO from different rock types of the Kashmar granitoid is mainly related to

differences in modal contents of hornblende.

CaO shows the same compositional trend as for MgO. The content of CaO decreases

from 7.6 to 5 wt% in the tonalite, to 4.5 to 2 wt% in the granodiorite and 4.7 to 1.3 wt%

in the granite, with <1 wt% in the alkali feldspar granite. For each pluton, the decrease

in CaO content from rocks of low Si02 to high Si02 content would be the result of

crystal fractionation of plagioclase and calcic amphiboles. Two samples of tonalite

(R15911 and R15924) at the same silica level (Si02 = -54 wt%) plot away from the

general trend, however, one of them (R15924) which has a lower CaO content

(4.18 wt%), contains the highest modal content of plagioclase (51.6%). The contrast in

behaviour of CaO in Sample R15924 may be related to secondary processes owing to

mobile nature of CaO.

Na20 is high and is dominated by values between 3 and 5 wt%. The high content of

Na20 means that Na has not been removed from the source rocks, therefore, these

plutons are genetically I-type (e.g., Kleemann and Twist, 1989; Chappell and White,

1992; Pitcher, 1993; Raymond, 1995). The content of Na20 is never less than 2.6 wt%

and is only slightly <3 w t % in three samples from the alkali feldspar granite (R15916,

R15900, R15914). A relatively low content of Na20 in the alkali feldspar granite is in

accord with its lower content of plagioclase and absence of hornblende, whereas the

presence of abundant K-feldspar enriched the rock in K20 content (up to 5.88 wt%).

This resulted in a higher K20/Na20 in the alkali feldspar granite, although this ratio is

mostly low in other rock types (Appendix 4.1). Overall, the low K20/Na20 ratio

supports an I-type granodioritic composition and generation by partial fusion of pre

existing igneous rocks in the crust (e.g., Sun and Chen, 1992; Roberts and Clemens,

1993; Ajaji et al, 1998). This feature indicates that similar to I-type granites from

elsewhere (Gromet and Silver, 1987: Wyborn et al, 1992; Wyborn, 1998), most plutons

of the Kashmar granitoid were derived from plagioclase-dominated sources.

The content of K20 is variable (1.36 to 5.88 wt%), but typically high (mostly

>2.5 wt%), characteristic of subduction-related granites in continental margin settings

(Grigoriev and Pshenichny, 1998; Rottura et al, 1998). K20 shows a positive

correlation with Si02 but an inverse correlation with all other major oxides. This

behaviour is normal and occurs when granitoid magmas fractionate and become

enriched in alkalis, Si02 and a water-rich vapour phase (Raymond, 1995). Such

processes are supported by the occurrence of aplitic veins and dykes that

microscopically show allotriomorphic granular textures. Rapid chilling or depletion of

certain chemical species in the melt, as well as other processes, may initiate the

development of allotriomorphic granular texture.

The content of P205 is low (<0.4 wt%). One analysis from the tonalite (R15912) has the

highest content of P205 (0.33 wt%) as a result of the presence of abundant apatite

9TJ

crystals. In the granodiorite and granite, with increasing Si02 contents the content of

P2Os decreases in a regular fashion (Fig. 5.1). This behaviour is consistent with a

decrease in apatite and microgranular enclaves towards higher Si02 contents in these

plutons. The regular pattern of decreasing P205 with increasing Si02 is characteristic of

low-temperature I-type granites (Chappell et al, 1998). The lowest content of P2Os

(0.01-0.03 wt%) is observed in the alkali feldspar granite, which is dominated by quartz

and K-feldspar, consistent with the lower solubility of P in more felsic and lower

temperature granite melts (Harrison and Watson, 1984; Chappell et al, 1998). Typical

examples of low-temperature I-type granites reported from Cobargo and Inlet plutons

(Lachlan Fold Belt, southeastern Australia) that show regular variation of P2Os from

mafic to felsic rocks is a consequence of crystallisation from a 'minimum-melt'

composition (Chappell et al, 1998). In the Kashmar granitoid, the behaviour of P205

and the quartzofeldspathic nature of the alkali feldspar granite indicate that plutons of

the Kashmar granitoid are I-type and would have crystallised at low temperature.

5.2.2 SUMMARY OF MAJOR ELEMENTS

Major element data from mafic and felsic rocks of the Kashmar granitoid show several

common features including high A1203, Na20, K20, total Fe as Fe203, and low CaO,

MnO, P205, Ti02 and MgO contents (Appendix 4.1). Harker diagrams (Fig. 5.1) show a

continuum of compositions with linear trends from the tonalite to the alkali feldspar

granite. All tonalite samples are low in Si02 content and define a mafic composition.

But the main plutonic bodies of the Kashmar granitoid are felsic in composition. In the

granodiorite and granite, with increasing Si02, hornblende disappears, plagioclase,

biotite and Fe-Ti oxides decrease to a smaller extent but K-feldspar and quartz become

dominant. These continuous and regular trends for major oxides favour the concept of

crystal fractionation (e.g., Sewell et al, 1992; Mason, 1996; Grigoriev and Pshenichny,

1998). The absence of microgranular enclaves and sparse occurrence of apatite in the

most felsic compositions (Si02 >74 wt%), may suggest restite fractionation. All samples

from the alkali feldspar granite are strongly enriched in silica and K-feldspar. They are

low in Al203, MgO, CaO and total Fe as Fe203 contents. In the alkali feldspar granite,

biotite is the only hydrous mineral and occurs in low amount (<0.2-4.6 modal%). The

composition of the alkali feldspar granite is similar to the felsic haplogranites of the

LFB (cf. Chappell, 1998b). The haplogranites dominantly can be formed initially as

primary melts that separated from restite, and less often by the fractionation of mafic

high temperature melts (Chappell et al, 2000). But all mineralogical features of the

Kashmar granitoid indicate crystallisation from low temperature magma. For each

pluton of the Kashmar granitoid, the absence of inflection in the P205 data and the trend

of decreasing P2Os with increasing Si02 support crystallisation from a relatively low

temperature magma. Therefore, fractional crystallisation is not the only possible process

for variation in the chemical composition of the Kashmar granitoid.

5.2.3 INCOMPATD3LE ELEMENTS

As the primordial mantle is the ultimate source of all I-type magmas, incompatible trace

element contents in Tertiary rocks from the Kashmar granitoid were normalised to

primordial mantle, using the normalising values of McDonough et al. (1991). To assess

the degree of chemical fractionation of the granitoid from this original common source,

samples are plotted in spider diagrams (Fig. 5.2). The patterns for each pluton are almost

parallel but in the tonalite, granodiorite and granite, some incompatible elements such as

Ba, Th and U are slightly scattered due to differences in the contents of hornblende,

biotite and K-feldspar. In general, the spider diagrams for different plutons of the

"TZ

Kashmar granitoid are similar, implying their close genetic relationship. Slight depletion

is observed only in Ti and P in samples from the alkali feldspar granite. This could

reflect apatite and ilmenite fractionation. Other trace elements, particularly Rb, Ba, Th,

K and La, are strongly enriched in different samples from the Kashmar granitoid. The

tonalite, granodiorite and granite show an overall relative enrichment with increasing

incompatibility from right (Na) towards left (Pb) on the spidergram patterns, with

distinct negative anomalies for Ba, Nb, P and Ti. For Sr, a negative anomaly is observed

only in samples from the alkali feldspar granite. This may indicate that fractionation of

plagioclase depleted the magma in Sr. All plutons show distinct Nb and Ti anomalies

when normalised to primitive mantle compositions, which is a geochemical indication

for involvement of a subduction-type environment (Hill et al, 1992; Whalen et al,

1996; Ajaji et al, 1998; Soesoo, 2000). Compared to some I-type granites that show

direct mantle contribution (e.g., Kent, 1994), the relatively moderate to high

concentration of various incompatible elements such as Ba, Rb, Sr, Th, Zr, Y, La, Ce,

Nd, Sc and V (Appendix 4.1) indicate an infracrustal source (e.g., Brownlow, 1996). In

particular, most of the low field strength elements (LFSE) have higher concentrations

due to the abundance of various silicate minerals such as amphibole, biotite, feldspars

and accessory minerals (Appendix 2).

5.2.3.1 Low Field Strength Elements (LFSE)

The content of Ba is high but variable (140 to 745 ppm), with most samples containing

-500 ppm Ba. High content of Ba is consistent with the presence of abundant biotite and

K-feldspar in the analysed rocks (e.g., Sample R15906). Jn general, with increasing

Si02, a convex curvature for Ba is observed in Figure 5.3. With increasing Si02

contents, samples from the tonalite, granodiorite and granite show an increase in Ba

content. This may be related to fractionation of plagioclase and hornblende, particularly

for plagioclase because it has a mineral partition coefficient for Ba (DBaPas/L) that is

substantially less than one (Blundy and Wood, 1991; Chappell et al, 1998). With

increasing Si02, a negative trend is observed for Ba contents from the alkali feldspar

granite (Fig. 5.3). This rock contains abundant K-feldspar and a small amount of biotite.

Because biotite and K-feldspar have high partition coefficients for Ba, their

crystallisation can significantly lower the Ba content of the melt. For example the lowest

Ba content (140 ppm) is observed in Sample R15914 from the alkali feldspar granite.

This sample is low in biotite (2.2% modal) but extremely high in Si02 (76.97 wt%) and

modal content of K-feldspar (56.2%). Therefore, a large fraction of Ba was partitioned

into K-feldspar crystals. Precipitation of K-feldspar crystals from the melt of the alkali

feldspar granite resulted in Ba content falling sharply in the remaining melt, consistent

with fractional crystallisation processes (e.g., Wybom et al, 1987; Chappell et al, 1998;

Wyborn, 1998).

The content of Rb is low and mostly <150 ppm (Appendix 4.1). For all samples from

the tonalite, granodiorite and granite, Rb/Sr is less than one, whereas for the alkali

feldspar granite Rb/Sr is high (1.14-5.75). Rb does not correlate with Si02 content,

possibly reflecting on variability of biotite and K-feldspar content in different rock

types. The low content of Rb in the granite samples may reflect the source composition

(Faure, 1986; Grigoriev and Pshenichny, 1998) or fractional crystallisation of biotite and

K-feldspar (Chappell, 1996b). In the case of the Kashmar granitoid, fractional

crystallisation is more likely, because rocks with lower Rb content have a higher modal

content of biotite. For instance, the tonalite with Rb = 45-72 ppm and the granodiorite

with Rb = 56-88 ppm, contain much more biotite than the alkali feldspar granite which

has a R b content mostly between 120 and 207 ppm. However, the latter rock is not

significantly enriched in Rb content, because it contains abundant K-feldspar. Although

Rb and K are similar in chemical properties and ionic radii, biotite has a substantially

higher mineral partition coefficient for Rb than K-feldspar (Ewart and Griffin, 1994).

This feature is consistent with the lower Rb content in the tonalite and granodiorite that

contain appreciable amounts of biotite. Therefore, the low content of Rb in rocks of the

Kashmar granitoid is related to fractionation of biotite and K-feldspar.

The content of Sr ranges from 367 to 36 ppm, and shows a typical negative correlation

with increasing Si02 contents (Fig. 5.3). Sr is moderately high in the tonalite (316-

367 ppm), granodiorite (256-342 ppm) and granite (188-315 ppm; Appendix 4.1).

Concentration of Sr is relatively low (36-72 ppm) only in samples from the alkali

feldspar granite, consistent with the lower plagioclase abundances of this rock. Since Sr

is partitioned into and retained by plagioclase, higher modal abundances of plagioclase

in the tonalite, granodiorite and granite may be correlated with higher concentration of

Sr in these rocks. Although fractionation of plagioclase may lower the Sr contents of the

melt, the high Na20 and Sr contents observed in the Kashmar granitoid, is considered to

be dominantly a primary feature of the source rocks. Also, high Na20 and Sr contents

precludes significant alteration in the Kashmar granitoid (e.g., Pollard et al, 1995).

Concentration of Sr in rocks with Si02 >69 wt% from the Kashmar granitoid are similar

to Sr contents of highly fractionated I-type granites (at the given Si02 content) from

western Tasmania (Sawka et al, 1990).

The content of Th increases from mafic towards felsic compositions (Fig. 5.3). Among

different plutons of the Kashmar granitoid, the highest concentration of Th (31 ppm) is

observed in the alkali feldspar granite, which contain Si02 >74 wt%. Although, Th

mostly accommodates in the structure of the ferromagnesian minerals, but all samples

from the alkali feldspar granite lack in calcic amphibole and are very low in biotite. The

presence of zircon, titanite and apatite may explain high Th content of the alkali feldspar

granite. Some authors believe that the enrichment in Th is typical of that expected for an

incompatible LFSE in a fractional crystallisation system (e.g., Wyborn, 1983, Chappell,

1998b).

5.2.3.2 High Field Strength Elements (HFSE)

The Y content of the Kashmar granitoid is relatively high and dominated by values

between 20 and 32 ppm. On a Harker plot (Fig. 5.3), samples from the tonalite show an

increase in Y content with increasing Si02 content from 55 to 60 wt%. For other rock

types the Y contents show scattering with increasing Si02 contents. This behaviour of Y

content is due to its substitution into many different minerals (Belolipetskii and

Voloshin, 1996; Larsen, 1996). The relatively high and scattered Y content in the

Kashmar granitoid is mainly due to the presence of various quantities of calcic

amphibole, apatite, titanite and K-feldspar. It seems that calcic amphibole is critical

because trivalent Y replaces Ca2+ in calcic amphiboles probably by coupled substitution

with Na or K (e.g., Wyborn, 1983). This explanation is plausible for most samples of the

granodiorite and granite that contain appreciable apatite, calcic amphibole and have

relatively high P205 contents. But the content of Y is high in the most felsic samples

(Si02 >74 wt%) from the alkali feldspar granite. The other common minerals that can

readily accommodate Y are biotite and zircon (Ewart and Griffin, 1994); both minerals

are common in the alkali feldspar granite.

A m o n g the HFSE, Zr has the highest concentration and ranges in value between 84 and

250 ppm; most analyses contain Zr >150 ppm (Appendix 4.1). High concentration of Zr

is consistent with high Na20 contents of these rocks (e.g., Deer et al., 1992) and

indicates the absence of significant alteration (Rubin et al, 1993). Figure 5.3 shows that

the content of Zr is variable in the tonalite. This may be related to the different

abundances of amphibole and zircon grains (Chen et al, 1990). From the granodiorite

towards the alkali feldspar granite Zr content generally decreases with increasing Si02

content. This is related to a decrease in modal abundances of zircon and ferromagnesian

minerals. Because, in the Kashmar granitoid, zircon is mostly accompanied by calcic

hornblende which indicates a low temperature crystallisation, the negative trend for Zr

versus Si02 may suggest zircon crystals would be present in the melt (e.g., restite). If the

melts that produced the different plutons of the Kashmar granitoid were high

temperature, they would be Zr-undersaturated. Hence by increasing Si02, the content of

Zr would increase in the melt until zircon started to crystallise, then Zr would decrease

in abundance. This behaviour is typical of high-temperature I-type granites (King et al.,

1997; Chappell et al., 1998) but does not accord with the Kashmar granitoid.

5.2.3.3 Rare Earth Elements (REE)

The REE concentrations were normalised to standard CI chondrite using normalising

values of Taylor and McLennan (1985) and plotted in Figure 5.4 These rocks are

characterised by enrichment in LREE relative to HREE, with Lau values between 38.15

and 87.19. The EREE ranges from 83.74 to 94.32 ppm in the granodiorite, 80.55 to

106.73 ppm in the granite and 132.06 to 143.28 ppm in the alkali feldspar granite

(Appendix 4.1). For most samples, the increase in XREE is slightly greater in LREE

than in HREE, so that LaN/YbN (5.60-8.71) increases with increasing whole rock Si02

y /

contents (Appendix 4.1), All samples display steep negative slopes for L R E E , moderate

to strongly negative anomalies for Eu (Eu/Eu* = 0.88-0.18), and flat to slightly negative

gradients for HREE. The steep LREE and flat HREE, with slight depletion trend, imply

fractionation of amphibole, plagioclase and accessory minerals, and indicate garnet-free

residuum in the source (Henderson, 1984; Skjerlie, 1992; Green, 1994); characteristics

of I-type magmas (King et al, 1997). Furthermore, amphibole fractionation is suggested

because the content of Sc drops with increasing Si02 (Fig, 5.3), and the most REE-rich

samples lack amphibole. Also, the flat HREE gradient is consistent with the relatively

high concentration of Y (Fig. 5.3) and negative Eu anomalies, all features of granites

that have experienced fractional crystallisation (Allen et al, 1997). A strong similarity

of REE patterns and incompatible element ratios between the granodiorite and granite

support a genetic link between them. The main difference between REE patterns is that

the lowest level of ZREE and Eu anomaly is observed in the granodiorite. Both values

are intermediate in the granite. The alkali feldspar granite has the highest SREE (132-

143 ppm) with a pronounced Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.18-0.20). Such differences

suggest a higher degree of fractionation for the alkali feldspar granite (e.g., Sun and

Chen, 1992). Petrographic observations demonstrate that the abundances of the REE are

correlated with the abundances of accessory minerals such as titanite, apatite, and

zircon. This is compatible with the fact that titanite alone may hold up to 90% of the

REE in felsic rocks (Skjerlie, 1992; Peacock et al, 1994).

5.2.4 COMPATIBLE ELEMENTS

Nickel and Cr have very low concentrations (<6 ppm and <22 ppm, respectively). Even

the most mafic samples analysed from the tonalite are depleted in these elements. Ni and

Cr contents in the granites are highly dependent on hornblende and Fe-Ti oxide contents

(Soesoo, 2000). Therefore low contents of Cr and Ni in the Kashmar granitoid suggests

that a large amount of ferromagnesian minerals may have been fractionated or the

source was low in such compatible elements (e.g., Tate et al, 1999). The content of Sc

is <15 ppm; it becomes extremely depleted in samples with Si02 >70 wt% (Fig. 5.3),

which supports fractionation of amphibole and Fe-Ti oxides. Vanadium content shows a

wide range (200-4 ppm). With increasing silica, the content of V decreases with a

regular trend (Fig. 5.3). This is to be expected because V substitutes for Fe3+ in mafic

silicates, especially in amphibole and Fe-Ti oxides. Similar V behaviour has been

reported from I-type granites of the New England Batholith of eastern Australia (Bryant

et al, 1997). Among the compatible elements, Mn has the highest concentration

particularly in the mafic rocks (up to 1070 ppm), and decreases in a linear trend through

the felsic rocks (Fig. 5.3). The higher Mn content of mafic rocks indicates that Mn is

partitioned into ferromagnesian minerals. Concentrations of Mn from different rock

types in the Kashmar granitoid are similar to Mn contents of I-type granites that have

been generated in subduction-related environment (e.g., Silver and Chappell, 1988). The

behaviour of Ga versus Si02 (Fig. 5.3) is very similar to Sr versus Si02 contents and

represents a negative trend from mafic to felsic compositions. This trend is typical of

that expected for a compatible element, since Ga3+ substitutes Al3+ in plagioclase.

Collectively, all transition metals in the different plutons of the Kashmar granitoid show

increases in compatibility with increasing Si02 contents and supports fractional

crystallisation process.

5.2.5 Sr AND Nd ISOTOPES

Isotopic data from different plutons of the Kashmar granitoid (Table 5.1) show low

initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70471-0.70569) and eNd values (-0.70 to -1.86). The eNd values show

a narrow range, and for most samples these values are indistinguishable within the limits

of analytical uncertainty. For each pluton differences between initial 87Sr/86Sr values are

small but are significantly larger than 2a analytical uncertainties. Consequently, a model

of simple fractional crystallisation of any isotopically uniform melt for the generation of

on a/:

each pluton is unlikely. L o w initial Sr/ Sr and slightly negative sm values suggest a

typical infra-crustal source for the origin of the Kashmar granitoid (e.g., Rapela et al,

1992).

The initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio is relatively higher in the granodiorite (0.70552-0.70569) than

in the granite (0.70516-0.70550). Slight Sr isotopic heterogeneities are apparent for each

pluton but this is more distinct for samples from the granite. Considering the 2o

analytical uncertainty (±0.00005), slight overlap is observed between initial 87Sr/86Sr

ratios from the granodiorite and granite. This overlap suggests similarity in the source

composition of the granodiorite and granite and supports the similarity in REE patterns

and incompatible element ratios between them. In the granite, except for Sample

R15909, other samples show an increase in initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio with increasing whole

rock Si02 content. This feature would be the result of fractional crystallisation (e.g.,

Soesoo, 2000). Some authors (Graham and Hackett, 1987; Price et al, 1999) pointed

out that a broad positive correlation between Si02 abundances and Sr/ Sr isotopic

ratios is a feature attributed to assimilation of a crustal component during crystal

fractionation. But granite from the Kashmar granitoid shows a very limited range in

87Sr/86Sr isotopic ratios and eNd values (-0.70 to -1.58) that suggest assimilation of older

crust is unlikely (cf. Bryant et al, 1997). This implies that the magma chemistry was

effectively controlled by fractional crystallisation as evidenced from behaviour of most

of the major and trace element data.

In the Kashmar granitoid, the lowest initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio (0.70471-70478) is observed

in the alkali feldspar granite. This characteristic suggests a different source for the alkali

feldspar granite. However, this rock is quartzofeldspathic with a strongly enriched in

Si02 content (74.63-77.06 wt%). The relatively low initial 87Sr/86Sr in the alkali feldspar

granite may be the result of a low 87Rb/86Sr in the quartzofeldspathic source at the time

of melting (e.g., Chappell et al, 1999). Although a different source is inferred, the

source rocks do not impose the sole control on the Sr isotopic signature of granitic

magmas (Gray, 1990; Barth et al, 1993; Nelson et al, 1993). For example, if melting

R*7 Rri

proceeds faster than the Sr diffusion rate in crystals, then a hquid with Sr/ Sr value

that is lower than the source can be produced (Pichavant et al, 1996). Similar

contrasting behaviour between Si02 and initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio may be observed when

compositional variation of granites is mostly controlled by restite (Chappell et al, 1999,

2000).

5.3 BORNAVARD GRANITOID

The whole rock samples analysed from the Bornavard granitoid comprise two tonalites,

four granodiorites and seven granites. To understand relationships between the

composition of volcanic and plutonic rocks of the Bornavard area, five samples from the

Taknar Rhyolite have been chemically analysed. The whole rock geochemical data for

the Bornavard granitoid and the Taknar Rhyolite are presented in Appendices 4.2 and

4.3, respectively.


Tonalite is the only mafic rock that occurs in the central part of the Bornavard granitoid.

The tonalite (Si02 = 48.64-58.09 wt%) and granodiorite (Si02 = 63.18-71.32 wt%)

show a relatively wide range in silica contents, whereas the granite is more

homogeneous and shows a very narrow range in Si02 contents (74.84-76.04 wt%). The

distinctive geochemical features of these rocks, particularly the granodiorite and granite,

are low (<1 wt%) Ti02, MnO, P205 and high A1203, total Fe as Fe203 and Na20

contents. The content of Na20 is mostly >3.5 wt% which suggests that the source rocks

have not undergone hydrothermal or meteoric alteration, and hence they would be

genetically I-type (e.g., Sun and Chen, 1992; Raymond, 1995; Ferre et al., 1998). The

content of K20 is high (>3.5 wt%) in the granite due to the presence of large quantities

of K-feldspar (Appendix 2.2). MgO and CaO are variable but, relative to the

granodiorite, they are higher in the tonalite, reflecting the higher modal proportions of

calcic amphibole and plagioclase in the tonalite (Appendix 2.2). On Harker plots

(Fig. 5.5) the tonalite and granodiorite show negative correlation for Ti02, total Fe as

Fe203, MnO, MgO and CaO contents. This feature may suggest that fractional

crystallisation was involved in the generation of the tonalite and granodiorite plutons

(e.g., Jung et al, 1998). In samples taken from the granite, significant variation in the

composition of major oxides was not observed. This is consistent with small variation in

mineralogy and the homogeneous nature of the granitic pluton.

5.3.2 INCOMPATIBLE ELEMENTS

Primitive mantle-normalised elemental contents for the Bornavard granitoid are shown

in Figure 5.6. These rocks show an overall relative enrichment with increasing

incompatibility. The most striking feature of these data is that all plutons show marked

negative anomalies for Ba, Nb, Sr, P and Ti. Compared with primordial mantle, Ti and

P depletion occurs only in the granite samples, consistent with the low modal content of

apatite, biotite and Fe-Ti oxides. Also, Sr shows a stronger negative anomaly in the

granite compared with the granodiorite. This can be explained by lower modal

abundances of plagioclase in the granite (Appendix 2.2). The behaviour of incompatible

elements for most samples from the Bornavard granitoid is generally similar to those of

the Kashmar granitoid (Figs 5.2 and 5.6). This is related to the similarity in mineralogy

for different plutons from both granitoids. In particular, enrichment in Rb, Ba, Th, U, K,

La, Ce and Nd elements is stronger in the granite and the alkali feldspar granite from the

Bornavard and Kashmar granitoids, respectively. Both rock types are quartzofeldspathic

(Si02 = 74-77 wt%) and enrichment in Rb, Ba and K may have resulted from high

modal abundances of K-feldspar and common accessory minerals such as zircon, titanite

and allanite. In the Bornavard granitoid, most incompatible elements (e.g., Rb, Ba, Th,

U and K) are higher in the granite than in the tonalite and granodiorite. However, for

most analyses there is a considerable similarity in the behaviour of less incompatible

elements (Nd, Zr, Y and Na). Low contents of incompatible elements in the tonalite and

granodiorite may be explained by the presence of appreciable amount of amphibole and

biotite. It seems that biotite is favoured by Rb, Ba and K, while amphibole is favoured

by Th and U (Wyborn, 1983), thus explaining the lower content of the above

incompatible elements in the tonalite and granodiorite. The relative enrichment with

increasing incompatibility, together with negative anomalies particularly for Nb and Ti,

represent characteristics of I-type granites from subduction-related environment (e.g.,

Ferret al, 1998).

5.3.2.1 L o w Field Strength Elements (LFSE)

The content of Ba is low in the tonalite (70-85 ppm) and shows a wide range in the

granodiorite (55-810 ppm). It is notably high in the granite (580-890 ppm;

Appendix 4.2). It seems that variation in Ba content of the tonalite and granodiorite is

mainly controlled by biotite. Thus the low content of Ba in the tonalite is consistent with

the absence of biotite (Appendix 2.2). Ba variation in the granodiorite (Fig. 5.7)

illustrates an inflexion point at Si02 = -69 wt% that is characteristic of granites in

which the compositional variation resulted from fractional crystallisation (e.g. Chappell,

1998b). From 63 wt% Si02 up to -69 wt Si02, Ba increases in abundance, from

535 ppm to 810 ppm (Appendix 4.2). Samples with Si02 below 69 wt% (R15946 and

R15947) are high in modal abundances of biotite (29.2 to 12.4%). With increasing Si02

from -69 wt% to 71.32 wt%, the abundance of biotite decreases to a negligible amount

and Ba decreases to its lowest content (55 ppm). Therefore variation in Ba content in the

granodiorite is mainly related to fractionation of biotite.

The Ba variation in the granite is different from Ba variation in the granodiorite and

tonalite. In the granite, Si02 is relatively constant and the high concentration of Ba is

related to the presence of abundant K-feldspar and small amount of biotite. These

minerals have high partition coefficients for Ba (£>Baminera]/L - ~7). According to

Chappell (1996b) and Chappell et al. (1998) in the most felsic compositions, the

magnitude of DBamineraiyL substantially increases to higher values than for the most mafic

composition. This explains the higher Ba content in the granite, compared with the

tonalite, the former rock is strongly felsic (Si02 = 74.8-76 wt%) whereas the latter is

strongly mafic (SiQ2 = 48-58 wt%) in composition. Since the granite shows features of

high-K systems (K 2 0 = 3.65-4.35 w t % ) , the B a contents are higher in that pluton,

indicating K-feldspar was saturated in that melt because of the higher overall K content

of the melt (e.g. Chappell et al, 1998).

The content of Rb is very low in the tonalite (6-12 ppm). The behaviour of Rb in the

granodiorite is noteworthy because it rapidly decreases from moderate levels (129 ppm)

to less than 10 ppm with increasing Si02 contents (Fig. 5.7). Such rapid depletion,

coupled with decreasing K20 and Ba contents (Appendix 4.2), can be explained by

fractional crystallisation of biotite (e.g., Champion, 1991), a conclusion consistent with

the large changes in the incompatible elements in the granodiorite (Fig. 5.6). In the

granite Si02 has a restricted range (74.8-76 wt%), but Rb changes from 54 to 128 ppm,

resulting in a wide range of Rb/Sr (1.13-3.28) in this felsic rock. However, variation in

Rb content in the granite is independent of modal abundances of biotite and K-feldspar.

This is a common feature in quartzofeldspathic rocks, as stated by Chappell (1996b), in

felsic I-type granites those trace elements that occur in feldspars (e.g., Rb, Sr, Ba) may

vary widely in abundance.

In general, plutons of the Bornavard granitoid have slightly lower contents of Sr (168-

38 ppm) compared with plutons of the Kashmar granitoid. This may be related to lower

abundances of plagioclase in the Bornavard granitoid that reflects the initial source

composition was different. In the granodiorite, removal of Sr may be the result of

fractional crystallisation of plagioclase. Similar to the Kashmar granitoid, the Rb/Sr

ratio is low (0.04-0.89) in rocks with Si02 <74 wt% and high (1.13-3.28) in rocks with

Si02 >74 wt% (Appendices 4.1 and 4.2). In the granite, the content of Sr does not show

any regular variation with Si02 content (Fig. 5.7).

J.UJ

5.3.2.2 High Field Strength Elements (HFSE)

The Zr contents in the granite samples is relatively constant (226-240 ppm). In the

tonalite samples zircon was not observed in thin sections but concentration of Zr ranges

from 48 to 208 ppm that may reflect variation in modal abundances of hornblende (e.g.

Chen et al, 1990). In the granodiorite samples, Zr variation is very similar to that of Ba

variation (Fig. 5.7). Below about 69 wt% Si02, zircon is not observed in the

granodiorite, possibly because the melt was undersaturated in zircon (e.g., Chappell et

al, 1998). Again, beyond that point, concentrations of Zr decrease in a regular fashion

from 448 to 142 ppm. This is consistent with the presence of zircon crystals in all

samples with Si02 >69 wt% from the granodiorite. This means that after the inflexion

point the granodiorite melt was saturated in zircon and crystallisation of zircon from that

melt resulted in a decrease in Zr abundance. Ba concentrations show similar trends to

Zr, and Rb concentrations fall sharply (Fig. 5.7). All are characteristics of fractional

crystallisation occurring in I-type melts (Chappell, 1996a; Chappell et al, 1987,1998).

Uranium is low and shows a similar increasing trend to Th (Fig. 5.7). The Th/U ratio is

mostly around 4 to 8 and shows a weak increasing trend from mafic to felsic rocks.

However, there is a large scatter in Th/U, probably because of large variations in the

content of accessory phases such as titanite, apatite, zircon and allanite. The contents of

U and Th are higher in the granite samples because they contain abundant accessory

phases including allanite.

Yttrium ranges between 19 and 69 ppm for different rock types from the Bornavard

granitoid. For most samples the content of Y is high (>38 ppm) as a result of the

1UD

presence of a variety of accessory minerals such as titanite and zircon. There is an

apparent jump in Y values at about 69 wt% Si02 for the granodiorite, probably

corresponding to the appearance of zircon grains and the presence of abundant biotite as

another important Y-bearing phase (e.g., Ewart and Griffin, 1994; Green, 1994). Except

for one sample (R15946) from the granodiorite, other samples of this rock show a

negative trend for Y with increasing Si02 that is a general feature of LREE in low-

temperature I-type granites (Chappell et al, 1998). The content of Y is relatively high

and shows small variation in the granite (48-59 ppm). This is consistent with a lack of

significant variation in the abundances of accessory phases particularly zircon grains in

the granite samples.

5.3.2.3 Rare Earth Elements (REE)

The REE concentrations in one tonalite, four granodiorite and three granite samples are

plotted relative to standard CI chondrite (Fig. 5.8). The EREE content ranges from 109

to 214 ppm in samples from the Bornavard granitoid (Appendix 4.2). The chondrite-

normalised REE patterns display variable enrichment in LREE and MREE, with

LaN/YbN values mainly ranging between 3.38 and 5.76. There is a good consistency in

the REE patterns from the granite samples, reflecting the homogeneous nature of this

pluton. In the tonalite and granodiorite samples, enrichment is chiefly controlled by

presence of hornblende and biotite crystals, whereas in the granite accessory phases such

as apatite, titanite, zircon and allanite strongly influenced the REE patterns towards

extreme enrichment. One sample from the granodiorite (R15953) with EREE =

120 ppm, shows significant enrichment in HREE, possibly due to the presence of

abundant titanite grains (2.4% modal). Except for Sample R15947 (Eu/Eu* = 1.1) from

the granodiorite, other analyses display moderate to strong negative Eu anomalies

107

(Eu/Eu* = 0.37-0.97) indicating fractionation of plagioclase (e.g., Henderson, 1984;

Villaseca et al, 1998). The chondrite-normalised patterns for the granite are

characterised by strongly enriched LREE and MREE (LaN = 86-125), pronounced Eu

anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.37-0.45) and the highest in IREE contents (177-214 ppm). The

stronger negative Eu anomaly in the granite is consistent with the low Sr content of this

rock (Appendix 4.2). The tonalite and most samples from the granodiorite are variably

depleted in HREE because of differences in amounts of hornblende and accessory

phases. Collectively, the REE patterns exhibit a broad spectrum of compositions that

imply rocks of the Bornavard granitoid are not genetically related.

5.3.3 COMPATIBLE ELEMENTS

Most compatible elements, including Sc, V, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu and Zn, decrease in

abundance from mafic to felsic plutons of the Bornavard granitoid (Appendix 4.2). This

behaviour is normal because compatible elements such as Ni, V and Cr preferentially

partition into mafic minerals (e.g., hornblende and biotite) particularly at higher

temperatures (Rollinson, 1993). Among all trace element data Mn has the highest

concentration in the tonalite (up to 1300 ppm) reflecting its high contents of ilmenite

(Appendix 3.10) and hornblende (Appendix 2.2). On Harker plots, Mn and V display

negative correlation with increasing Si02 contents (Fig. 5.7). Concentrations of Zn in

the granodiorite show an inflexion at Si02 = -69 wt% that is similar to the behaviour of

Ba and Zr elements versus Si02 contents (Sections 5.3.2.1 and 5.3.2.2), emphasising

fractional crystallisation in the granodiorite melt. The content of V rapidly decreases

from 240 ppm in the tonalite to <2 ppm in the granite. The different behaviour of V is

because of its strong partitioning into magnetite, consistent with the composition of Fe-

Ti oxides, being magnetite and titanomagnetite in granite samples (Appendix 3.10).

lUt!

However, the granite samples are extremely depleted in most of the compatible elements

suggesting that the source of the granite was strongly fractionated. Sc is nearly constant

among samples from each pluton. Concentration of Sc in the granodiorite (16.4-

17.0 ppm) is higher than in the granite (11.5-11.8 ppm). This is expected because the

granodiorite contains hornblende and Sc accommodates into hornblende (Wyborn,

1983).


For whole rock analyses, the initial ratios were calculated at 149.2 and 117.8 Ma for the

tonalite and granodiotite, respectively. These ages are the average ages obtained at the

present study by Rb-Sr dating on biotite-whole rock pairs for the first and the second

intrusive episodes of the Bornavard granitoid (Section 3.3.2.1). The Bornavard granitoid

R7 Q^

exhibits a broad spectrum of isotopic characteristics with initial Sr/ Sr ranging from

0.70757 to 0.75008 values and the sNd ranging from -1.41 to -5.20 values (Table 5.1).

The range of initial isotopic ratios and the &m values are significantly larger than the

estimated 2c analytical uncertainties which equate to ±0.00005 and ±0.5 for initial

R7 Rfi

Sr/ Sr and eNd values, respectively (Appendix 1).

An important feature of these data is the high initial 87Sr/86Sr and low ENd values, with

Sr and Nd-isotope heterogeneity within and between individual plutons. The lowest

initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70798) was observed for the granodiorite but it is significantly higher

than values are proposed for mantle-like sources (cf. Soesoo, 2000). The granodiorite

has wide range in initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70757-0.72153) and eNd values (-1.41 to -4.29). The

tonalite has an initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.70820 and sNd value of -4.16, both values are within

109 " ^ ^ ^

the range of isotopic values from the granodiorite, indicating similarity in isotopic

characteristics of the early intrusive rocks of the Bornavard granitoid. The initial

87Sr/86Sr values of granite are significantly high and wide in range (0.73622-0.75008).

The wide range in initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the granite is in contrast with its uniform

chemical composition and a limited range of em values (-4.50 to -5.20) from different

samples of the granite. Differences between initial 87Sr/86Sr values of the early and late

intrusive episodes is the result of a -22 Ma age different between emplacement of the

granodiorite and granite. During this time interval, the source of magmas changed

towards strongly felsic nature.

The origin of very high values of initial 87Sr/86Sr in granites has been attributed to a

variety of processes including: (1) derivation from metasedimentary sources (Sylvester,

1998); (2) protracted crystal fractionation (McCarthy and Cawthorn, 1978); (3)

hydrothermal exchange of Sr with surrounding country rock (Richardson et al, 1990;

Cuney et al, 1992); and (4) assimilation of older crustal components (e.g., Graham and

Hackett, 1987; Hess, 1989; Mason et al, 1996; Moghazi et al, 1998; Price et al, 1999).

In the Bornavard granitoid, metasedimentary enclaves are absent and mineralogical

87 Rfi

properties are not consistent with S-type sources. In plots of Si02 against initial Sr/ Sr

(Fig. 5.9),* rocks of the Bornavard granitoid show two trends. By increasing Si02

content, the initial 87Sr/86Sr values in the granodiorite decrease. This is in contrast with

the operation of fractional crystallisation. A decrease in the initial 87Sr/86Sr may be a

response to restite separation (e.g., Chappell et al, 1999). This process may be

supported by presence of dark xenoliths (Section 4.3.2), possibly being restite in the

granodiorite. In the granite, the initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio increases while Si02 is relatively

constant. Due to the lower Sr contents of the granite samples (38-54 ppm) and presence

110

of allanite and notable amount of sericite in this rock, hydrothermal alteration may be

responsible for the generation of high initial 87Sr/86Sr values. But the effect of

hydrothermal fluids is not consistent with the low variation in 8Nd values (-4.5 to -5.20)

in the granite (e.g., Darbyshire and Shepherd, 1994; Darbyshire and Sewell, 1997).

Therefore, significant enrichment in initial 87Sr/86Sr values of the Bornavard granitoid

may be the result of extensive contamination of magmas with radiogenic Sr derived

from old felsic rocks of the continental crust, or the magmas were produced by partial

melting of old felsic rocks (e.g., Sewell and Campbell, 1997).

5.4 TAKNAR RHYOLITE

5.4.1 MAJOR AND TRACE ELEMENTS

Chemical data for five samples from the Taknar Rhyolite are presented in Appendix 4.3.

The high content of Si02, ranging from 75.75 to 77.90 wt%, is a typical feature of

continental arc rhyolites (Raymond, 1995). The content of A1203 shows a limited range

from 10.9 to 12.6 wt%. The molar proportion of A1203 is higher than total alkalies,

consistent with the presence of appreciable normative C (0.51-6.80%) for most of the

rhyolite samples (Appendix 2.3). The aluminium saturation index (ASI) ranges from

1.04 to 2.46 and is characteristic of weakly to strongly peraluminous rhyolites (e.g.,

Reece et al, 1990; Feldstein et al, 1994). However, the peraluminous characteristic

may not be an intrinsic feature of the Taknar Rhyolite because primary aluminous

minerals are absent. The development of secondary muscovite may have resulted in the

higher ASI values (Appendix 4.3). Secondary muscovite commonly replaces K-feldspar

in the groundmass. The strongly peraluminous feature is observed only in Sample

R15949 because K-feldspar in the groundmass is extensively sericitised. The Taknar

Rhyolite is low in Ti02 (0.13-0.16 wt%), MnO (0.00-0.06 wt%), MgO (0.22-0.64 wt%),

Ill

Ca O (0.13-0.35 wt%) and P 2 0 5 contents (0.03-0.06 wt%). The content of K 2 0 is high

and ranges from 3.31 to 5.35 wt%. The highest K20 content is observed in Sample

R15952 because it contains higher abundance of sanidine phenocrysts.

i

Spidergram patterns (Fig. 5.10) show similar trends for most of the incompatible

elements from different samples of the Taknar Rhyolite. Depletions in Sr, P and

particularly Ti are pronounced but other incompatible elements show strong enrichment

in the rhyolite compared to primordial mantle. Significant negative anomalies for Sr, P

and Ti elements indicate they are compatible in the residual mineral assemblage, which

may be inferred to include plagioclase, apatite and titanomagnetite. One sample

(R15949) with the highest Si02 content (-78 wt%) is extremely depleted in Na (Na20 =

0.37 wt%) and Sr (12 ppm) possibly due to lack of plagioclase phenocrysts. Some light

rare earth elements such as La and Ce generally increase with increasing Si02 content,

but also show quite an amount of scatter. This is perhaps caused by different amounts of

accessory phases.

The Taknar Rhyolite is high in Ba content (545-1020 ppm). This feature may be

attributed to greater incorporation of Ba into K-feldspar that is the major component of

the groundmass. Other LFSE such as Rb (76-130 ppm), Sr (12-93 ppm), Pb (6-12 ppm)

and Th (17-23 ppm) are have low abundances in the Taknar Rhyolite (Appendix 4.2).

Also, most of the HFSE, including Zr, Y, REEs and Hf, show lower concentrations in

the rhyolite samples because biotite is negligible, accessory phases occur in low

abundances and particularly titanite and allanite are absent. The concentrations of most

of the incompatible elements and the first transition metals such as V, Cr, Ni, Cu and Sn

are lower in the Taknar Rhyolite, compared with tonalite and granodiorite from the

112

Bornavard granitoid. This supports the lack of relationship between the Taknar Rhyolite

and the Bornavard granitoid.

The REE pattern from the Taknar Rhyolite (Fig. 5.11) is fractionated and enriched in

LREE (LaN = 77.66), has a strong negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.25) and flat HREE

with LaN/YbN = 4.01. The abundances of REE in the Taknar Rhyolite (EREE =

84.48 ppm) is lower than REE abundances in the different plutons of the Bornavard

granitoid (EREE = 109.41-214.05 ppm). Also, the Eu anomaly is much stronger in the

Taknar Rhyolite. Overall, differences in mineralogy (Section 4.5.1) and concentrations

of REE and incompatible elements from the Taknar Rhyolite preclude any relationship

with the Bornavard granitoid. Such differences are consistent with the older age of the

Taknar Rhyolite that forms part of the country rock of the Bornavard granitoid.


In the Taknar Rhyolite the initial (at 190 Ma) 87Sr/86Sr is high (0.72378) and the eNd

value is low (-4.1; Table 5.1). The high initial 87Sr/86Sr of the rhyolite is consistent with

the silica-rich nature of this rock and indicates that derivation of Taknar Rhyolite from

the mantle would be precluded (e.g. Lightfoot et al, 1987). The initial (at 190 Ma)

87Sr/86Sr value of the Taknar Rhyolite is significantly lower than the initial 87Sr/86Sr of

the granite from the Bornavard granitoid. This supports the lack of any genetic

relationship between the granite and rhyolite in the Bornavard area. Because the Taknar

Rhyolite has undergone hydrothermal alteration and low-grade metamorphism

(Section 3.3.2.2), its isotopic signatures would have modified by these processes.

Enrichment in initial 87Sr/86Sr and depletion in HFSE in the Taknar Rhyolite would

appear to be the result of hydrothermal alteration (e.g., Pollard et al, 1995). In

1

particular, the Zr content of the Taknar Rhyolite is low (124-144 ppm) because this

element is highly mobile in hydrothermal systems (Rubin et al, 1993).

5.5 KUH MISH INTRUSIONS

Based on the Le Bas and Streckeisen (1991) scheme, the analysed samples from the Kuh

Mish intrusions comprise one gabbro, four quartz monzodiorite and eight granodiorite

samples. The gabbro is uniform in composition (Si02 = 45.75 wt%) but the quartz

monzodiorite shows a relatively wide range in chemical data (Si02 = 51.85-60.71 wt%).

The granodiorite occurs in three localities including the Kuh Mish, Darin and Namin

areas. In the Kuh Mish area, granodiorite has been intruded by a quartz monzodiorite

which shows sharp contacts. The Kuh Mish granodiorite ranges in composition from

Si02 = 70.66 to 75.96 wt%. Granodiorite from the Darin (Si02 = 71.58 wt%) and

Namin (Si02 = 63.93 wt%) plutons are similar in mineralogy, except the former pluton

lacks biotite (Appendix 2.4). Geochemical data for the Kuh Mish intrusions are

summarised in Appendix 4.4.


The gabbro is strongly enriched in A1203 (17 wt%), MgO (11.8 wt%) and CaO

(16.6 wt%), because it contains mainly anorthite and diopside minerals. Except for total

Fe as Fe203 (4.19 wt%), contents of other major oxides from the gabbro are low

(<1 wt%), consistent with the most primitive nature of the gabbro. The Kuh Mish

intrusions are low in normative C (0.00-1.69) and high in Na20 (mostly between 3 and

5 wt%). The content of K20 is low (<2 wt%) and variable because of different modal

abundances of K-feldspar and biotite. Low content of normative C and high content of

114

N a 2 0 are consistent with mineralogical features of the Kuh Mish intrusions that suggest

I-type source.

For all analyses of the Kuh Mish intrusions K20/Na20 is extremely low (mostly <0.5)

which may indicate the absence of significant involvement of the continental crust in

generation of these intrusions (e.g., Roberts and Clemens, 1993). On Harker diagrams,

from the gabbro to granodiorite, contents of A1203, MgO and CaO decrease with

increasing Si02 content (Fig. 5.12), consistent with an increase in Rb/Sr ratios from 0.01

to 0.63 (Appendix 4.4). Also, from the quartz monzodiorite to granodiorite, contents of

total Fe as Fe203 and MnO typically decrease (Fig. 5.12). These features suggest that the

Kuh Mish intrusions may form a differentiation series. In the granodiorite, Ti02 and

P2Os decrease regularly with increasing Si02 (Appendix 4.4) because towards more

felsic compositions, hornblende and biotite disappear and plagioclase decreases to a

lower content. With the exception of the Namin Granodiorite (Sample R15926), all

samples from Darin and Kuh Mish Granodiorites show a narrow range of composition

for most of the major and trace element data. This feature suggests that these plutons

have a close genetic relationship.

5.5.2 INCOMPATIBLE ELEMENTS

In the gabbro most of the incompatible elements, including Ba, Rb, Pb, Th, U, Zr, Nb, Y

and REEs, are lower than in the quartz monzodiorite and granodiorite. The abundances

of most of these elements in the gabbro are close to the primordial mantle (Fig. 5.13). A

slight positive Sr anomaly in the gabbro is possibly related to the crystallisation of calcic

plagioclase (A1190-99) at low temperatures, a factor contributing to an increase in DSrplag/L

values of plagioclase relative to the melt (Chappell, 1996b). Among the HFSE, the

115

content of Sc is high (41 ppm) in the gabbro due to the presence of abundant

clinopyroxene grains. The spidergram patterns for the quartz monzodiorite and

granodiorite show enrichment in most of the incompatible elements, particularly for

some LFSE such as Rb, Ba, Th and K. hi the granodiorite, enrichment in some

incompatible elements (e.g., Zr, Sr, K, Rb, La and U) is stronger than for the quartz

monzodiorite. This is related to the presence of biotite, zircon and apatite in the

granodiorite samples. Other trace elements in granodiorite and quartz monzodiorite

show some similarities in concentrations. All samples analysed from the Kuh Mish

intrusions are very low in Nb (<2 ppm) and Ti02 contents (mostly <0.56 wt%). When

normalised to primitive mantle composition, the granodiorite shows distinct Nb and Ti

anomalies, which is a geochemical indication for involvement of a subduction-type

environment (e.g., Soesoo, 2000). This is also in agreement with recent tectonic models

for the Sabzevar Zone proposing that formation of the Eocene ophiolites occurred in an

island arc related environment (Ghazi and Hassanipak, 1999).

5.5.3 RARE EARTH ELEMENTS (REE)

The REE concentrations from the Kuh Mish intrusions represent two distinct patterns

(Fig. 5.14). In the gabbro, EREE is very low (3.93 ppm), LREE are strongly depleted

and are lower than HREE (LaN/YbN = 0.16), the negative Eu anomaly is small (Eu/Eu*

= 0.7) and the HREE display a convex downward trend becoming flat at Yb and Lu.

None of the chondrite-normalised REE abundances approach 4x chondritic values and

the REE signature is consistent with low concentrations of other incompatible trace

elements in the gabbro. Most of the REE abundances in the gabbro are comparable to

the concentrations of REE in the mantle peridotite (harzburgite) from Tethyan ophiolite

belts in Iran, which have island arc affinities in the Sabzevar Zone (Lensch and

116

Davoudzadeh, 1982; Frey, 1984; Ghazi and Hassanipak, 1999). The R E E concentrations

for two granodiorites from the Namin (Sample R15926) and Darin (Sample R15927)

plutons are very similar (LaN = 16 and 18 ppm, EREE = 38 and 40 ppm, respectively).

The chondrite-normalised patterns for both plutons (Fig. 5.14) show slight fractionation

of LREE (LaN/YbN = 1.54-2.18), flat MREE to HREE and small negative Eu anomalies

(Eu/Eu* = 0.8-0.9). These features indicate that the Namin and Darin plutons evolved

under similar magmatic conditions and were derived from similar source compositions.

5.5.4 COMPATD3LE ELEMENTS

In the gabbro, the contents of Cr (805 ppm) and Ni (242 ppm) are extremely high and

are good indicators for derivation of gabbroic magma from a peridotite mantle source

(e.g., Wilson, 1989). The high content of Cr and Ni is in agreement with the REE

pattern (Fig. 5.14) and negligible quantities of HFSE, particularly Zr (2 ppm) and Hf

(0.1 ppm), which are classic incompatible elements, not readily substituted in major

mantle phases. Samples from the quartz monzodiorite and granodiorite have variable

low Cr and Ni contents but high in V (up to 316 ppm), Mn (up to 1490 ppm) and Zn

contents (up to 90 ppm). A few anomalous samples from the quartz monzodiorite have

slightly higher Cr and Ni contents (up to 62 ppm of Cr and 26 ppm Ni). On Harker

diagrams, V, Mn and Zn elements decrease in concentration from the quartz

monzodiorite to the granodiorite (Fig. 5.12). This behaviour is related to differences in

the contents of hornblende, titanomagnetite and biotite. All these minerals variably

decrease towards the higher Si02 contents.


The Kuh Mish intrusions are isotopically different from the Bornavard granitoid

(Fig. 5.9). These intrusions have a remarkably low initial 87Sr/86Sr (Table 5.1) and high

positive 8Nd values. Low initial 87Sr/86Sr values of the Kuh Mish intrusions are

somewhat sirnilar to the Kashmar granitoid (Fig. 5.9) but the positive end values are not

matched. The gabbro has the lowest initial (at 42.8 Ma) 87Sr/86Sr (0.70386) and the

highest 8Nd value (+8.02). These values are consistent with strong depletion of

incompatible elements (particularly LREE) and enrichment of Sc, Cr and Ni in the

gabbro. All the above features support the assumption that the gabbro was derived from

a primitive mantle peridotite source. The initial (at 42.8 Ma) 87Sr/86Sr values for the

Namin and Darin Granodiorites are 0.70388 and 0.70475, respectively. The

corresponding £Nd values are +6.73 and +6.30, respectively. Sr-Nd isotopic data for the

Kuh Mish intrusions suggest that the gabbro and granodiorites are genetically related.

The initial (at 42.8 Ma) 87Sr/86Sr ratios for the gabbro (0.70386) and the Namin

Granodiorite (0.70388) are indistinguishable within experimental error (2a = ±0.00005).

R7 Rfi

The Darin Granodiorite does not show a distinctly more radiogenic initial Sr/ Sr

value than the Namin Granodiorite, suggesting that the Darin Granodiorite derived from

the same parent as the gabbro. This is supported by similarity in eNd values in the Darin

(+6.73) and Namin (+6.30) Granodiorites. The Kuh Mish intrusions do not show

significant positive correlations between Si02 and initial 87Sr/86Sr values (Fig. 5.9), nor

between Si02 and eNd values. This indicates that magma mixing is not the case and these

rocks may be derived from a single parent through simple fractional crystallisation (e.g.

Soesso, 2000). The possibility of simple fractional crystallisation is supported by: (1)

reasonable fractionation trends in some major and trace element abundances (Fig. 5.12);

118

(2) similar Sr-Nd isotopic systematics of the gabbro and granodiorites; and (3) a strong

similarity of REE patterns and incompatible element ratios between the Namin and

Darin Granodiorites (Figs. 5.13 and 5.14). Sometimes, linear trends of chemical

elements can be produced by magma mixing of, for instance, mantle derived and crustal

magmas (Collins, 1996, 1998). However, the isotopic similarities between the Kuh Mish

intrusions preclude such mixing. The only possible explanation for the slightly less

isotopically primitive feature of the Darin Granodiorite (initial 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70475 and

ENd = +6.30) is that it may be the effect of very limited local crustal contamination or

fractional crystallisation.

It is interesting to note that the isotopically most primitive compositions in the Kuh

Mish intrusions show similar characteristics to the Moruya I-type granite suite in central

eastern part of the Lachlan Fold Belt (Keay et al, 1997). The Moruya suite contains a

gabbroic-granitic component. The gabbro sample from the Kuh Mish intrusions and the

on or

microdiorite sample (BN11) from the Moruya suite are similar in Sr/ Sr (0.70388),

and show ENd values of +8.02 and +8, respectively. The geological evolution of the

Moruya suite is controversial. It is recognised as a type example of restite-controlled

chemical variation by White and Chappell (1977) and Chappell et al (2000), while

Keay et al. (1997) believed that the parent magma was derived as a mixture of mantle

and crustal melts, followed by fractional crystallisation (Collins, 1996, 1998). But for

the evolution of the Kuh Mish intrusions, restite or mixing models are not involved,

because microgranular enclaves and isotopically evolved rocks are absent. Therefore,

fractional crystallisation of a common mantle-derived magma is more likely responsible

for generation of the Kuh Mish intrusions (e.g., Soesso, 2000).

CHAPTER 6

GENETIC CLASSIFICATION AND COMPARISON WITH OTHER

GRANITOIDS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Granitoid rocks have been subdivided on the basis of a variety of criteria by many

authors (e.g., Ishihara, 1981; Petrik and Broska, 1994; Forster et al, 1997). A

fundamental subdivision into I- and S-types was proposed by Chappell and White

(1974) on the basis of petrographic and geochemical characteristics of the LFB

granitoids, southeastern Australia. Later contributions (Chappell and White, 1984,1992;

Chappell et al, 1998) confirmed the I- and S-types subdivision and proposed that I-type

granites occur as two distinct groups, high- and low-temperature, based on the absence

or presence, respectively, of inherited zircons. The high-temperature I-type granites are

the most primitive and form by the partial melting of mafic rocks in the deep crust, or

perhaps in modified mantle (Chappell et al, 1998), whereas the dominant group of low-

temperature granites have been formed by partial melting of quartzofeldspathic crust at

low magmatic temperatures (Chappell et al, 2000). The characteristics of the I- and S-

type granites of the LFB have been widely used for the petrogenetic distinction of many

granites around the world (e.g., Polard et al, 1995; Harris et al, 1997; Encarnacion and

Mukasa, 1997; Sylvester, 1998; Moghazi, 1999). In this chapter, the most important

characteristics of granites from the northeastern CIP are discussed to assign them

according to the I- and S-type scheme.

6.2 FIELD AND PETROGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

Granitiod rocks from the Kashmar, Bornavard and Kuh Mish areas are part of the

Ururniyeh-Dokhtar Volcanic Belt that is a major Cretaceous to Recent geological

structure in the CIP. In this belt, andesite is the most common igneous rock that has

been generated by subduction of the Tethyan Oceanic crust beneath the CIP

(Hassanzadeh, 1993; Alavi, 1994; Moradian, 1997). At most places in this belt, plutonic

and volcanic rocks are broadly similar in mineralogy since the igneous protoliths are

probably similar. Granitic plutons of the northeastern CJP (present study) commonly

have mineral assemblages of quartz + plagioclase + K-feldspar + biotite ± hornblende.

In the terminology of Chappell and White (1992), this uniform mineral assemblage is a

feature of metaluminous I-type sources. When present, xenoliths in rocks from the

current study are commonly hornblende-bearing microgranular varieties (Section 4.1.2).

The minerals present in the xenoliths match those of the enclosing rocks (e.g.,

Sample Rl 5912).

6.3 MINERALOGICAL EVIDENCE

Granitoid rocks of the northeastern CJP lack Al-rich minerals such as cordierite,

andalusite, sillimanite and garnet, Muscovite is rare, but it is fine-grained secondary and

formed by subsolidus alteration. It sometimes occurs in granite from the Bornavard

granitoid. The K-feldspar crystals are frequently pale pink in colour, and less commonly

white, reflecting high/02; characteristic of I-type granites (Chappell and White, 1992).

The mafic minerals are magnesio-hornblende, biotite and Fe-Ti oxides. In the Kashmar

and Kuh Mish areas, biotite coexists with hornblende and contains lower total Fe as FeO

content than biotite from the Bornavard granitoid (Appendices 3.3; 3.9 and 3.15). The

presence of two OH-rich phases indicates a relatively high H 2 0 content in the m a g m a

(Peacock et al, 1994), consistent with the more homogeneous nature of biotite grains

from the Kashmar and Kuh Mish areas. Burkhard (1991) stated that granitic melt will

cross the saturation point of H20 during cooling at a temperature that depends on the

amount of H20 dissolved in the melt. Once this point is crossed, an increasing amount

of H20 will be set free during further cooling and PH20 and/02 will increase. Increase

m.j02 allows the crystallisation of magnetite, i.e. partitioning of Fe into the oxide rather

than into biotite. Therefore, lower total Fe as FeO in biotite is attributed to higher PH20

andy02 of the Kashmar and Kuh Mish magmas, compared with the Bornavard magmas.

Biotite grains from the Kashmar and Kuh Mish areas are high in Ti02 content (up to

4.90 wt%) and contain negligible amounts of A1VI (mostly <0.1 a.f.u.). This is

characteristic of biotite coexisting with hornblende in I-type granites (Chappell and

White, 1992). In the Bornavard granitoid, where biotite coexists with secondary

muscovite, it contains appreciable A1VI (0.43-0.89 a.f.u.) in the structural formulae and

has a lower Ti02 content. This is not characteristic of the source because of subsolidus

alteration. Biotite from the Bornavard area sometimes coexists with allanite and shows a

wide range in Fe/(Fe + Mg), both are typical I-type features (Whalen and Chappell,

1988; Petrik and Broska, 1994). Biotite in all granitoid rocks from the northeastern CIP

is, however, typically high in FeO/MgO and shows the distinctive pleochroic scheme of

oxidised I-type granites (X = Y = reddish to dark brown, Z = straw-coloured). When

present, ilmenite commonly occurs with hornblende. Ilmenite without magnetite is less

common in granitoids of the northeastern CIP. Microprobe data show that ilmenite and

titanomagnetite preferentially occur as cores of Fe-Ti oxide grains while magnetite

occurs in the rim or as single grains (Appendices 3.10 and 3.15). These features indicate

evolution towards higher f02 (Whalen and Chappell, 1988; Blevin and Chappell, 1995).

Titanite usually replaces hornblende and biotite, however large euhedral titanite grains

seem to be primary (e.g., Sample R15900). Overall, the chemical characteristics of the

ferromanesian minerals and presence of accessory phases such as titanite, apatite and

allanite suggest that the granitoids of the northeastern CJP are I-type (e.g., Chappell and

White, 1992; Pollard et al, 1995).

6.4 EVIDENCE FOR RESTITE

Microgranular enclaves are common in the Kashmar granitoid, particularly in the

tonalite, granodiorite and granite. They are mostly dark grey to black in colour and occur

as angular or spherical shapes 3-4 cm in diameter. The enclaves are mainly more mafic

and finer grained than the host rocks. They have an igneous texture. They show solid

state reactions on their margins and become less common and smaller in size as the

host-rock increases in Si02 content. According to the modal analyses, the enclaves are

microtonalites rich in plagioclase, biotite and hornblende. Magnetite (5.4%), apatite

(0.8%), titanite (0.2%) and zircon (<0.2%) are the only accessory minerals occurring in

the microgranular enclaves as well as in the host-rocks. The apatite occurs as tiny

needles or prisms concentrated in plagioclase crystals, and less commonly in biotite and

hornblende. These occurrences suggest that the apatite is restite, crystallised at low-

temperature I-type melts (Chappell et al, 1987). In contrast, apatite occurs as large squat

prisms where it has precipitated from high-temperature I-type melts as in the Toulumne

Intrusive Series, California (Bateman and Chappell, 1979; Beams, 1980). One sample

(R15912) of microtonalite enclave taken from granodiorite has been chemically

analysed. This enclave is high in Na20 (4.33 wt%), CaO (5.13 wt%), Ba (455 ppm) and

Sr (367 ppm) and low in Rb (45 ppm) contents that suggests an I-type source (e.g.,

White et al, 1999). The abundances of most major and trace elements in the enclave are

J.ZO

similar to those in tonalite and granodiorite (Appendix 4.1). The chemical composition

of the enclave reflects an ASI = 0.87 that is metaluminous.

Many granitic rocks from elsewhere contain darker coloured enclaves, typically more

mafic in composition (usually tonalitic to dioritic) than their hosts. For example in some

granitic suites of the LFB the enclaves reflect mechanical interaction (mingling) and

partial chemical hybridisation (mixing) of basaltic to andesitic magmas with host

granitoids, and suggest the involvement of mafic mantle-derived magmas in granite

petrogenesis (Gray, 1984, 1990; Keay et al, 1997; Collins, 1998). Variation in isotopic

signatures (Sr, Nd and Pb) of such granitic suites is compatible with an origin involving

contrasted crustal and mantle source components (Collins, 1996; Keay et al, 1997). In

two-component mixing model, mafic rocks and enclaves have primitive, mantle-like

initial 87Sr/86Sr and ENd values, however in some cases the isotopic mixing arrays, do not

match the predicted trace element mixture (Soesoo and Nicholls, 1999; Soesoo, 2000).

In the Kashmar granitoid, variation in initial 87Sr/86Sr is low (0.70471-0.70569) and all

ENd values are negative and show a limited range (-0.70 to -1.86). These data suggest

that possibly lower crust is the source for the Kashmar granitoid. Therefore, origin of the

Kashmar granitoid by two-component mixing model is unlikely, and microgranular

enclaves are not fragments of solidified mantle-derived magmas. This is supported by

enrichment in most of the incompatible elements and similarity in rock/primordial

mantle normalised patterns and the REE abundances in different rock types of the

Kashmar granitoid.

Assuming that compositional variation of the Kashmar granitoid was solely resulted by

fractional crystallisation of a mafic melt (e.g., Wyborn et al, 1987; Soesoo, 2000), then

124

the parental m a g m a would be completely or largely molten, high in temperature and free

of restite (e.g., Chappell et al, 1998). At high temperature, crystals of zircon are not

initially present in the melt because the melt is undersaturated in zircon (King et al,

1997; Chappell et al, 2000). But in the Kashmar granitoid, zircon grains mostly coexist

with hornblende or biotite and commonly occur in mafic and felsic rocks as well as in

microgranular enclaves. Most zircon grains are similar in morphology and size, some

have a very narrow black rim. In each pluton of the Kashmar granitoid, inflexion in Zr

versus Si02 contents is not observed that may imply zircon was not homogenised in the

magma, therefore the melt was low in temperature and zircon may be a restite phase

(e.g., Chappell, 1998c). In addition, some uniform plagioclase cores that show

discontinuity in their outer rims (e.g., Samples R15908 and R15918) may be interpreted

as restite phase (e.g., Chappell, 1996b). Also, in the Kashmar granitoid, most major and

trace element data show negative correlation with Si02 contents, particularly decrease in

the contents of P2Os suggests lower solubility of P in more felsic and lower temperature

granite melts (Harrison and Watson, 1984). These characteristics are invoked to explain

compositional variations of the Kashmar granitoid may be generated by fractional

crystallisation and removal of restite from a low-temperature melt compositions (e.g.,

Chappell et al, 1987). Therefore, microgranular enclaves of the Kashmar granitoid may

be restite.

6.5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS

The granitoid rocks of northeastern CJP are generally high in Na20, K20, CaO, Ba and

Sr. These elements are distinct because they occur in feldspars. High content of these

elements suggest I-type characteristics. According to White and Chappell (1977) and

Chappell and White (1992) high total alkalis (Na20 + K20) relative to A1203 is

125

characteristic of granites derived from source rocks that would not have undergone

weathering or alteration processes. These characteristics are retained during production

of I-type granites. In northeastern CIP, granitoid rocks are low in Rb content but Cr, Ni,

Pb and Sn are very low that suggest the source rocks were previously fractionated

(Chappell and White, 1992).

Within and between each rock type, particularly in the Kashmar and Bornavard

granitoids, with increasing Si02, there are marked increases in the contents of K20, Rb,

Th, EREE, and the magnitude of the Eu anomaly, while the transition metals and Sr

decrease in abundance. These features may be attributed to fractional crystallisation in I-

type granites. The process of fractional crystallisation is supported by observation of

inflexion point on Harker diagrams for Ba, Zr and Zn elements from granodiorite of the

Bornavard granitoid (Sections 5.3.2.2 and 5.3.3).

Chappell and White (1992) point out distinctive chemical contrasts between I- and S-

type granites of the LFB that are manifested during fractionation. For example, P205

decreases in I-types and increases in S-type granites, Th and Y increase in I-types but

remaining fairly constant in the S-type granites. The contents of La and Ce do not

change in I-type but decrease markedly in S-type granites. According to Harker plots

(Fig. 6.1) for all felsic rocks (Si02 >63 wt%) in the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids,

P205, A1203 and total Fe as Fe203 markedly decrease towards higher silica contents.

Decrease in P205 means that P was saturated in the melt and behaved compatibility

during fractional crystallisation, implying that the the Kashmar and Bornavard

granitoids are I-type (e.g., Pollard et al, 1995; Chappell, 1998b). The concentrations of

some incompatible elements such as Ce, Th, La, and Y are illustrated in Figures 6.2.

The concentration of Th in rocks of the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids shows a

typical positive correlation with increasing Si02 contents, again supporting the I-type

characteristics (Chappell, 1998b). In the Kuh Mish intrusions, Ce, Th, La and Y are

relatively constant and strongly depleted. This feature is consistent with primitive

isotopic signature of the Kuh Mish intrusions. The concentrations of the above HFSE in

the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are high and variable. However, above 74 wt%

Si02 contents corresponding to crystallisation of alkali feldspar granite and granite,

respectively from the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, La, Ce and Y increase

dramatically. Because alkali feldspar granite and granite are the most quartzofeldspathic

rocks of the present study, the strongly incompatible behaviour of HFSE suggests no Y-

bearing accessory phases (e.g., fluorite) were being fractionated (King et al„ 1997).

Such behaviour in REE concentrations implies I-type characteristics (Chappell, 1998b).

6.6 ALUMINUM SATURATION INDEX (ASI)

The aluminum saturation index (ASI = molecular Al203/[CaO + Na20 + K20]) is one of

the most useful chemical discriminant between peraluminous and metaluminous

granitoid rocks (Zen, 1988; Barbarin, 1996; Chappell, 1998b). The S-type granites are

always saturated in Al (ASI >1) so they are peraluminous. Since a degree of Al-

oversaturation is an intrinsic property of most felsic granite melts, I-type granites may be

either metaluminous or weakly peraluminous (e.g., Nakajima, 1996). In particular the

most felsic I-type granites are dominated by quartz and feldspars (haplogranite, ASI =

1), hence their ASI converges to values close to one (Chappell, 1998b). In the present

study, the boundary between metaluminous and peraluminous terms is not exactly

defined at ASI = 1 because the CaO value is not corrected for apatite. Due to the

absence of minerals being more peraluminous than biotite, rocks with ASI = 1 to -1.1

127

are known as 'weakly peraluminous I-type' (e.g., Chappell, 1984; Miller, 1985;

Nakajima, 1996; Chappell, 1998b). Calculated ASI values for rocks of the northeastern

CJP are shown in Appendices 4.1 to 4.4.

Figure 6.3a shows that most analyses are metaluminous. The peraluminous feature is

attributed to most Samples from the Taknar Rhyolite and few samples from granitoid

rocks. For all analyses the molar proportion of total alkalis (Na20 + K20) is less than

A12Q3 (in moles) that indicates that these rocks are not A-type (cf. Wormald and Price,

1988; Whalen et al, 1996). With increasing Si02, the ASI values generally increase but

some scattering is observed (Fig. 6.3b). The positive correlation between ASI and Si02

is consistent with I-type metaluminous features (Chappell, 1998b). The scattering results

from different modal contents of biotite, the only peraluminous mineral that occurs in

these granitoid rocks.

In the Kashmar granitoid, about two thirds of samples have ASI <1. With the exception

of sample R15906, others stay at ASI values close to the unity (Appendix 4.1). The

average ASI value for 29 analyses of the Kashmar granitoid is 0.97 that suggests typical

metaluminous I-type characteristic. This feature is consistent with mineralogy

(Section 4.2) and low initial 87Sr/86Sr values reported for the Kashmar granitoid

(Section 5.2.5). In particular, the metaluminous nature of the Kashmar granitoid is

reflected by the appearance of CIPW normative diopside (Di) that ranges from 0.0 to

8.4%. In most samples of the Kashmar granitoid normative corundum (Q ranges

between 0.00 and 0.82% (Appendix 2.1). Some samples contain normative hypersthene

(Hy) (average of 7.1% on 29 analyses). Only one sample from granite (R15906) is

weakly peraluminous (ASI =1.15) and contains -2.5 % normative C. This sample is

i!r IZS

quartzofeldspathic with high N a 2 0 (4.68 w t % ) and low C a O (1.33 w t % ) contents but its

feldspars are commonly serialised. It seems that sericite increases normative C because

except biotite other aluminous minerals are not present in this sample. Samples from the

alkali feldspar granite have ASI = 1 to 1.05. These values are slightly higher than ASI

values for granite. The higher ASI values of alkali feldspar granite, is consistent with the

presence of quartz and K-feldspar as the major mineral components of this rock. The

Si02 contents of alkali feldspar granite range from 74 to 77 wt%. It also contains minor

amount of fresh euhedral biotite, and approximately equal amounts of normative quartz

(0, albite (Ab) and orthoclase (Or). All the above features are similar to the

composition of low temperature hydrous silicate melt in equilibrium with quartz and

feldspar; i.e. haplogranite composition. According to Chappell (1998b), the composition

of haplogranites is usually weakly peraluminous and produces an overlap between ASI

values of I- and S-type granites. To a first approximation, haplogranites have

compositions that are independent of their precursor materials and separation into I- or

S-type, is often difficult. But in the Kashmar granitoid, the alkali feldspar granite is part

of a suite that extends to more mafic compositions with ASI values less than one. This is

conformed by similarity in initial 87Sr/86Sr and ENd values of alkali feldspar granite and

other plutons of the Kashmar granitoid. Therefore, weakly peraluminous characteristic

of alkali feldspar granite is different with those haplogranites derived from S-type

origin.

The ASI values for Bornavard granitoid range from 0.64 to 1.11 (Appendix 4.2) with an

average of 0.95 that is very similar to the average ASI values of the Kashmar granitoid.

With the exception of Sample R15955 (normative C = 1.30%), other samples from the

Bornavard granitoid (Appendix 2.2) are low in normative C (0.00-0.77%), emphasising

the metaluminous feature. Samples from tonalite are strongly metaluminous (ASI =

0.64-0.67) as they contain modal abundances of hornblende. Most samples from the

granodiorite are weakly metaluminous (ASI = 0.84-0.98). But the ASI values for granite

samples range from 1.04 to 1.11, indicating weakly peraluminous characteristic. This is

due to the appearance of secondary muscovite in most of the granite samples

(Appendix 2.2). For example the highest ASI value (1.11) for granite is observed in

Sample R15955 because it contains the highest modal content of secondary muscovite

(9.0% modal). The granite from Bornavard granitoid is a very felsic rock (Si02 = 74-

76wt%) and high in Ba contents, varying between 580 and 890 ppm that may be

resulted from fractional crystallisation. The granite compositionally plots close to the

Tuttle and Bowen (1958) minimum-temperature melt composition (Fig. 6.4), which

shows that the granite represents liquid composition, resulted from the dominant role of

fractional crystallisation (e.g., Chappell, 1998b). Water is one component that would be

concentrated by such extreme fractionation. In Figure 6.4, the curves for water-saturated

liquids in equilibrium with quartz and K-feldspar at confining pressures of 0.5 and

3.0 kb are also shown (Tuttle and Bowen, 1958). The granite samples are clustered near

the isobaric line of 0.5 kb, consistent with the general lack of primary muscovite. In the

system KAlSi308-Si02-H20, muscovite crystallisation reflects PH20 exceeding 5 kb

(Sun and Chen, 1992). Therefore, low PH20 of the granite (0.5 kb) suggests that

muscovite in the granite samples is not primary. Hence, the weakly peraluminous

feature of the granite resulted from its quartzofeldspathic nature. Also, the granite

contains biotite, titanite, magnetite and allanite, the last three minerals are typical

accessories in I-type granites (Pollard et al, 1995).

13U

For most samples of the Taknar Rhyolite, the ASI ratio is higher than 1.1 and shows

peraluminous to strongly peraluminous features (Appendix 4.3). This characteristic is

different with the granite form the Bornavard granitoid, consistent with differences in

age, mineralogy and concentrations of most incompatible elements (Section 5.4.1), all

indications that the granite and rhyolite are not genetically related. The extremely high

value of the ASI (2.46) in Taknar Rhyolite is related to Sample R15949 that is very high

in normative C (6.8%). This sample is depleted in whole rock Na20 content (0.37 wt%)

as all feldspars in the groundmass are strongly sericitised that is a major contributor to

the very high C content. It must be noted that the ASI values are very sensitive to the

effect of hydrothermal alteration. This process can lead to the destruction of feldspars

and the mobilisation of Ca, Na and K, with consequence increase in ASI value. As the

rhyolite samples are quartzofeldspathic in nature, it is expected to show ASI values

close to one (e.g., Chappell, 1998b), but hydrothermal alteration may be responsible for

peraluminous feature of the Taknar Rhyolite.

The Kuh Mish intrusions mostly range from strongly metaluminous to weakly

peraluminous (ASI = 0.55 to 1.13), typical of I-type granites. This feature is consistent

with low initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70386-0.70475) and positive £Nd values (+6.30 to +8.02) of

these rocks. Only two samples of granodiorite, R15935 and R15931 are slightly

peraluminous (ASI = 1.13 and 1.25). They contain normative C of 1.69 and 0.38%,

respectively. Both samples have higher Na20 contents (5.63 and 4.05 wt%,

respectively) than strongly metaluminous rocks of the Kuh Mish intrusions. They are

felsic and dominated by quartz and feldspars. They do not contain a mineral more

aluminous than biotite. Their normative C is not unusual because felsic I-type granites

may contain more than 1 % C and ASI value >1.1 (Nakajima, 1996: Chappell et al,

1998; Chappell, 1998b).

Collectively, on the ASI frequency histogram (Fig. 6.5), igneous rocks of the

northeastern CJP have a distribution between strongly metaluminous to weakly

peraluminous values that is a very similar pattern to that shown by 1025 analyses of I-

type granites of the LFB, Australia (Chappell, 1998b). The Kashmar and Bornavard

granitoids show similar distributions in ASI values (Fig. 6.5). The average ASI values

for the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are 0.97 and 0.95, respectively (Table 6.1).

Both distributions are approximately symmetrical and centred at an ASI equal to one,

with a range between 0.8 and 1.2. This implies that the Kashmar and Bornavard

granitoids are weakly metaluminous to weakly peraluminous and this is characteristic of

low-temperature I-type granites (Chappell, 1998b).

The mean ASI value for 59 analyses of igneous rocks of the northeastern CJP is 0.97 and

the median value is 0.99 with 90% of the values being greater than ASI = 0.80, so that

the studied rocks are not cumulates. The ASI values confirm that most of the analyses,

particularly those of the weakly peraluminous, have a composition of hydrous silicate

melt in equilibrium with quartz and feldspar. Most of the weakly peraluminous rocks are

strongly felsic (Si02 >74 wt%) and lacking in microgranular enclaves. They may have

been formed at low temperature when only the felsic components of the source rocks

were fused, or by fractional crystallisation (e.g. Chappell and White, 1992; Chappell,

1998b).

PP; 132

6.7 Sr AND Nd ISOTOPES

Isotopic ratios are potentially useful indicators of granite classification because granites

compositionally image their source rocks in the deep crust (Chappell, 1994; Chappell et

al, 1998). For I-type granites the range in initial 87Sr/86Sr is from 0.703 to 0.712 and for

eNd from + 8.4 to - 7.2 (e.g., Chappell and White, 1992; Keay et al, 1997). For S-type

granites in the LFB, the corresponding values are 0.708 to 0.720 and -5.8 to -9.2

(Chappell and White, 1992; Sun and Chen, 1992; Raymond, 1995).

In the Kashmar granitoid initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70471 to 0.70569) and £Nd values (-0.70 to

-1.86) are typically within the range of Sr-Nd isotopic signature of I-type granites. For

Kuh Mish intrusions both initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70386 to 0.70475) and eNd values (+6.30 to

R7 Rfi

+8.02) are not evolved. These initial Sr/ Sr values are the lowest extreme of the I-type

range and the ENd values are similar to more primitive granitoids (e.g., Keay et al,

1997). Also, the initial 87Sr/86Sr values of the Kuh Mish intrusions are very similar to

Mt Buller I-type suite in the southeastern LFB (Soesoo, 2000) that shows granites and

mafic rocks are likely to have formed by fractional crystallisation from a common

mantle-derived magma. In the Bornavard granitoid, the initial 87Sr/86Sr values are

variably high. For example tonalite and granodiorite have initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70757 to

0.72153) that fall within the range of values shown in S-type granites. The granite

shows distinctively more radiogenic initial 87Sr/86Sr values, 0.73622-0.75008. But the

eNd values (-1.41 to -5.20) from all plutons of the Bornavard granitoid are within the

range of I-type granites. Except for initial ratios, other petrographic and geochemical

data for the Bornavard granitoid confirm I-type characteristics. As mentioned in

Section 5.3.4, the initial 87Sr/86Sr values of the Bornavard granitoid would be the result

of contribution of older continental crust in the source. Such isotopic values suggest that

the Bornavard granitoid may be an I-type contaminated granitoid (e.g., Ague and

Brimhall, 1988b; Yui et al, 1996).

6.8 ALLOCATION OF GRANITOIDS TO SUITE

An important feature of the study of granitoid rocks in Australia has been the

recognition of sets of plutons that can be often grouped into suites. Such grouping is

based on the shared similarities of field, petrographic and compositional data (Griffin et

al, 1978; Hine et al, 1978; Chappell, 1984; Chappell and White, 1992; Blevin and

Chappell, 1995; White et al, 2000). Granites from a particular suite may be uniform or

varied in chemical composition but they should have distinctive properties, reflecting

similar features of their source rocks. The allocation of granites to suites is fundamental

to understanding their petrogenetic concepts (e.g., Whitten, 1991). Granites, which

might be grouped together in suites except for small compositional differences that

preclude such a precise grouping, are placed in supersuites (White et al, 2000).

In the Kashmar granitoid, rocks of different plutons are fairly equigranular,

homogeneous in appearance and similar in age (-42.5 Ma). Hornblende, biotite,

magnetite and titanite are common minerals. The abundance of most major and trace

elements (e.g., P205, total Fe as Fe203, Sr and V) are well correlated (linear with smooth

trends). They are high in Na20 (mostly between 3 to 5 wt%), Mn (up to 1070 ppm), Ba

(-500 ppm, on average), and low in Ti02 (all <1 wt%), Rb (all <210 ppm), Cr (mostly

<10 ppm), Ni (-2 ppm) and Sn (all <5 ppm). These plutons are enriched in LREE, flat

in HREE and low in initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.704 to 0.705) and the ENd values (-0.70 to

-1.86). The small but significant isotopic differences suggest that each pluton represents

independent evolution from similar, but not identical parent magmas (e.g., Rapela and

Pankhurst, 1996). The above similarities and common metaluminous I-type

characteristic (ASI = 0.81 to 1.05) precisely suggest a 'simple suite' for the Kashmar

granitoid. Using modern nomenclature of granites, 'simple suite' corresponds fairly

closely to the low-temperature granites of Chappell et al (1998).

In the Bornavard granitoid, rocks of different plutons are metaluminous (ASI <1) or

weakly peraluminous (ASI = 1 to 1.1) that is similar to the Kashmar granitoid. Typical I-

type features include the occurrence of hornblende, biotite, magnetite, titanite and

allanite (e.g., Ague and Brimhall, 1988a; Petrik and Broska, 1994). The weakly

peraluminous feature is only attributed to the granite that is lacking in hornblende. In

general, rocks of the Bornavard granitoid are high in Na20, Ba, Zr, Mn, and low in

Ti02, Rb, Pb, U, Nb, and most transition metals (Appendix 4.2). These rocks share in

most petrographic and chemical characteristics with the Kashmar granitoid (Figs 6.1 and

6.2). Both granitoids show similar patterns for incompatible elements. The content of

Rb is lower than Sr for all rock types with Si02 <74 wt% whereas Rb is higher than Sr

in rocks with Si02 >74 wt%. Isotopic data for the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids

suggest crustal source. The compositions of granite from the Bornavard granitoid and

alkali feldspar granite from the Kashmar granitoid represent typical examples of low-

temperature I-type melts. The above similarities suggest that the Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids can be assigned as a 'simple suite' in the Taknar Zone. However,

the Bornavard granitoid is Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous in age and the Kashmar

granitoid is Middle-Late Eocene that is significantly younger. But age is not used as part

of the recognition of a suite (White et al, 2000). Isotopic data show that rocks of the

Bornavard granitoid are more evolved than the Kashmar granitoid but the isotopic

composition of a granite suite may be varied (e.g., Bullenbalong suite, Chappell et al,

5

1999). Because the Kashmar granitoid represents typical 'simple suite' and is

compositionally similar to the average composition of the Bornavard granitoid

(Table 6.1), the name of the Kashmar suite is introduced as a fundamental lithological

concept for granite petrology in the Taknar Zone.

The Kuh Mish intrusions show some differences with the Kashmar and Bornavard

granitoids (Fig. 6.2). The Kuh Mish intrusions are lower in most of the incompatible

elements particularly Ba, Rb, Sr, Pb, Th, U and REE (Appendix 4.4). They are high in

some transition metals such as V, Cr, Mn and Ni. Isotopic data show that mafic and

felsic rocks of the Kuh Mish intrusions have primitive, mantle-like initial 87Sr/86Sr and

End values (Table 5.1). Differences between the composition of rocks of the Kuh Mish

intrusions, with the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids preclude allocation of all the

igneous rocks of the northeastern CJP into a 'simple suite'. The Kuh Mish intrusions

form a magmatic suite that magmas are mantle-related. Whereas, the Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids form a magmatic suite that magmas are crastal-related (indirect-

mantle).

6.9 HIGH- AND LOW-TEMPERATURE I-TYPE GRANITES

Recently, new and conclusive information provided by Chappell (1998a,b) and Chappell

et al (2000) has led a fundamental subdivision of I-type granites into two groups, formed

at 'high- and low-temperatures'. The subdivision was deduced specifically from the

criteria of zircon age inheritance and the abundance of Zr and its pattern of variation in

Harker plots. The high-temperature I-type granites formed by partial melting of mafic

source rocks at completely or largely molten state while the low-temperature I-type

13b

granites formed by partial melting of quartzofeldspathic rocks such as older tonalites

(Chappell etal, 1998).

There are some indications that the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids have been

formed at low magmatic temperatures. Although, contacts with the country rocks are

often steeply inclined but the absence of significant thermal aureole around plutons

indicates that magmas were possibly low in temperature. Variations in concentrations of

Ba and Zr for most plutons indicate that they did not form progressively as cumulates

from an originally liquid or largely liquid magma (e.g., Chappell, 1996b). This is

supported by presence of microgranular enclaves that were interpreted as restite in the

Kashmar granitoid. The presence of zircon grains in mafic and felsic plutons of the

Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids suggests that zircon possibly presented in the

magmas, hence temperature was low (e.g., King et al, 1997). But in the Kuh Mish

intrusions, zircon is absent, possibly because zircon was not in the source or magmas

were at higher temperature. Alkali feldspar granite from the Kashmar granitoid and

granite from the Bornavard granitoid are dominated by quartz and feldspars. These

rocks contain microcline that is typical low-temperature K-feldspar in plutonic

environments. According to Chappell (1998b), such quartzofeldspathic granites may be

produced by partial melting of the crust at low magmatic temperature or by fractional

crystallisation from mantle-derived magmas. The latter alternative is not indicated in the

Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, because they are not associated with cumulates to

suggest fractionation of mantle-derived magma and also isotopic data show crustal

sources. In the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, the content of P205 is low (all

<0.34 wt%) and decreases to negligible amount in granite and alkali feldspar granite,

suggesting low solubility of P in low-temperature I-type granites (Harrison and Watson,

1984). The normal distribution of the ASI values with a mean value close to the unity

(0.97) and low deviation (o = 0.1155) indicate that the Kashmar and Bornavard

granitoids are generally neither strongly metaluminous nor strongly peraluminous.

Hence, they are not cumulates and they have not been crystallised from completely

molten magmas. Whereas in high-temperature I-type granites (e.g., Boggy Plain and

Marulan suites of the LFB), the ASI values are composite with a wide range of values

(0.18 to 1.07), relative to low-temperature I-type granites (Chappell and White, 1992;

Chappell, 1998b). The above features are consistent with the presence of calcic

hornblende with low contents of A1203 and Ti02 (e.g., Section 4.2.2) that are

characteristics of amphibole from low-temperature magmas at high^02 (Mason, 1978;

Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986; Hollister^ al, 1987).

6.10 COMPARISON WITH OTHER GRANITOID TYPES

In Table 6.1 the average geochemical data from igneous rocks of the northeastern CJP

are compared with the averages of the three major granite types (I-, S- and A-type). The

main reason for comparison with the Mashhad Granite is because the last two phases of

the Mashhad granite which are biotite/muscovite granites and pegmatites, respectively,

are known as the only peraluminous S-type granites (Section 2.5.2.1) that reported from

northeastern CJP (Iranmanesh and Sethna, 1998). Comparison with A-type granites is

because Esmaeili et al (1998a) stated that the Bornavard granitoid is A-type in

character.

6.10.1 COMPARISON WITH S-TYPE GRANITES

Compared with averages of 18 analyses of the S-type granites from Mashhad, Iran and

704 analyses of S-type granites from the LFB (Table 6.1), the most obvious

uts ..

compositional differences are the higher Sr, CaO, MgO and total Fe as Fe203 and lower

Pb and Rb contents of KBTK (Kashmar, Bornavard, Taknar, Kuh Mish). In particular,

rocks of the KBTK are significantly higher in Na20 contents than S-type granites of the

LFB. These features are fundamental and indicate that the sources of magmas in

northeastern CJP have not been previously weathered, hence they are I-type. In contrast,

S-type granites are low in Na, Ca, Mg and Sr but high in K20 and Rb because prior

weathering of their supracrustal source, particularly involves the loss of key elements,

Na, Ca and Sr in solution (Chappell, 1996b; Chappell et al, 1998; 2000). Both Mashhad

and the LFB S-type granites are higher in Si02 contents than granitoids of the

northeasten CJP. The reason is because S-type granites are in many ways analogous to

the low-temperature I-type granites that were generated initially by partial melting of

quartzofeldspathic rocks in the crust (Chappell et al., 2000). The content of total Fe as

Fe203 is significantly higher in granitoids of northeastern CJP, compared with S-type

granites from Mashhad and the LFB. This feature is consistent with modal abundances

of magnetite, and indicates that I-type granites of northeastern CJP axe high mf02, while

S-type granites are low in f02 because they are mostly ilmenite-bearing and contain

graphite in their source rocks (Chappell et al, 1998).

6.10.2 COMPARISON WITH A-TYPE GRANITES

Using XRF data, Esmaeili et al. (1998a) stated that the granite from Bornavard granitoid

is peraluminous, sub-alkaline, lacking in OH-bearing minerals, and formed in

anorogenic environment, hence it is A-type granite. Such arguments for this granite are

in contrast with the petrographic and geochemical data that were obtained by the present

study. According to modal petrography (Appendix 2.2), quartz, K-feldspar and

plagioclase are major mineral components of the granite. In most granite samples, minor

139

biotite is conspicuous and may form up to 8.4% by volume of the rock (Appendix 2.2).

Biotite is the only primary aluminous mineral in the granite samples. The biotite grains

contain Mg/(Mg + Fe) = 0.13 to 0.19 and shows typical pleochroic scheme of oxidised

I-type granites (Section 4.4.4). Whereas in A-type granites, annite (Fe/Fe+Mg = -0.00),

Fe-rich amphibole, and fluorite are common (Collins et al, 1982; King et al, 1997).

Analyses of Fe-Ti oxides in granite represent magnetite, and only two core composition

as titanomagnetite (Appendix 3.10), indicating oxidised conditions, while the A-type

granites are relatively reduced as they have primary ilmenite and Fe-rich amphiboles

(Wones, 1989; Weaver et al, 1992; Landenberger and Collins, 1996: King et al, 1997).

Such differences preclude A-type feature for the granite of the Bornavard granitoid. The

ASI values for most granite samples are close to the unity indicating sub-aluminous

(e.g., Hess, 1989), reflected from quartzofeldspathic nature of the granite. Only one

sample (R15955) is weakly peraluminous (ASI = 1.11) because it contains 9% modal

abundance of secondary muscovite. Therefore, peraluminous feature that proposed by

Esmaeili et al. (1998a) is not valid.

Most of the A-type granites from elsewhere are peralkaline (Wormald and Price, 1988;

Sylvester, 1989; Eby, 1990; Poitrasson et al, 1995; Whalen et al, 1996), but for all

analyses of the Bornavard granitoid, the molar percent of A1203 is less than (Na20 +

K20). For this reason, the Bornavard granitoid is compared with 43 analyses of

ahiminous A-type granites of the LFB (Table 6.1). The LFB A-type granites are

characterised by higher K20 and lower MgO, CaO, Fe203 and A1203 contents compared

,+h the Bornavard granitoid (Table 6.1). Compositional similarities include high Na20,

Y, REE and low MnO and P205 contents.

Because A-type granites overlap in some major element compositions to very felsic I-

type granites (Chappell and White, 1992), distinctive differences between the Bornavard

granitoid and A-type granites become clear when trace elements are considered. The

obvious feature of the LFB A-type granites is much higher abundances of HFSE (Zr,

Nb, Y, La, Ce), LFSE (Rb, Pb, Th) and transition metals (Zn and Ga) (Table 6.1). The

higher abundances of HFSE suggest that A-type granites are higher in temperature. This

is consistent with experimental studies that show partition coefficient of HFSE

particularly Zr increases with increasing temperature (King et al, 1997; Chappell et al,

1998). But lower contents of HFSE particularly Zr indicate that the Bornavard granitoid

may be formed at lower temperature than the A-type granites. The ternary plot of

normative Q-Ab-Or (Fig 6.4) for the granite samples supports low temperature

crystallisation of the granite magma. The lower concentrations of La, Ce and Y in the

Bornavard granitoid suggests that no Y-bearing minerals particularly fluorite was

crystallised, whereas fluorite commonly occurs in A-type granites (Clemens et al, 1986;

Eby, 1990; Landenberger and Collins, 1996). The above characteristics suggest that the

presence of A-type granite in the Bornavard granitoid is unlikely.

6.10.3 COMPARISON WITH I-TYPE GRANITES

Compared with subvolcanic I-type intrusions from Natanz, Iran (Table 6.1), the

Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are lower in average content of A1203, total Fe as

Fe203, MgO and CaO but higher in Si02 and K20 contents. Differences in chemical

composition are consistent with isotopic data that suggest magmas of the Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids are more evolved and derived from igneous rocks of the crust

(Sections 5.2.5 and 5.3.4), while magmas of the Natanz intrusions are less evolved and

derived from mantel source (Berberian, 1981). The Kuh Mish intrusions are similar to

141

the Natanz intrusions in some major element data such as total iron, M g O , C a O and

Na20 contents. This similarity is consistent with primitive isotopic features of the Kuh

Mish (Section 5.5.5) and Natanz intrusions.

The average content of Na20 from igneous rocks of the northeastern CIP is higher than

average Na20 content of 1074 analyses of Early Palaeozoic I-type granites of the LFB

(Table 6.1). The lower Na20 contents of igneous rocks of the LFB may be related to

different tectonic settings (Chappell, 1994) as the bulk of the I-type granites of the LFB

formed at low magmatic temperatures and involved the partial melting of older

quartzofeldspathic crust (Chappell et al, 2000). The higher Na20 content of igneous

rocks of the northeastern CJP is comparable with average Na20 contents of I-type

granites from different magmatic provinces of the Peninsular Ranges Batholith (PRB,

Table 6.1). Chemical and isotopic properties of I-type granites of the PRB indicate a

subduction-related environment (Silver and Chappell, 1988). In the present study, the

Kuh Mish intrusions are typically low in total alkalis and high in CaO, Cr and Ni

contents. These features are very similar to I-type granites of the WPRB and indicate

possibly involvement of subduction in generation of the Kuh Mish intrusions. This may

be supported by large volume of andesitic to basaltic rocks, and an extensive ophiolitic

belt with island arc character that occurs to the northern parts of the Kuh Mish

intrusions (Ghazi and Hassanipak, 1999).

Similar to the average chemical composition of I-type granites of the LFB, the Kashmar

and Bornavard granitoids are high in average contents of Si02 (66.80 and 69.84 wt%),

Ba (494 and 516 ppm), Sr (249 and 90 ppm) and Zr (175 and 234 ppm, respectively).

Also, the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are high in most of the REE contents such

as Nb, Y, La and Ce (Table 6.1). These elements have the potential to discriminate

between I-type granites formed at different temperatures. Some REEs (e.g. Ce and Y)

behave compatibility in low-temperature I-type magmas (Chappell et al, 1998).

Therefore, high content of the above REE in the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids

indicates I-type low-temperature.

143

CHAPTER 7

PETROGENESIS AND TECTONIC SETTING

7.1 PETROGENESIS

7.1.1 PRODUCTION OF I-TYPE GRANITE SOURCE ROCKS

At an earlier stage of evolution, all of the Earth's crust was produced by partial melting

of the mantle, with the S-type granites being derived after that more primitive crust was

modified by weathering processes. I-type granites are produced either directly by

fractional crystallisation of mantle-derived liquids or by direct partial melting of mantle-

derived source rocks of the crust, therefore the source materials for 1-type granites will

be broadly basaltic to andesitic in composition (Chappell and White, 1992; Pitcher,

1993).

The high-temperature I-type granites are the most primitive and form by the partial

melting of mafic rocks in the deep crust, or perhaps in modified mantle (Chappell et al,

1998). They are dominantly high-Ca tonalitic to low-K granodioritic rocks and occur in

younger subduction-related continental margins. They characterise the Cordilleran I-type

granites of Pitcher (1993). The 'low-temperature' I-type granites form by the partial

melting of older quartzofeldspathic igneous rocks such as older tonalites, to produce

magmas that comprise varying proportions of low-temperature felsic melts and restite.

These rocks are mostly granodiorite and granite that typically occur in continental

marginal arcs (e.g., eastern province of the LFB, Idaho Batholith, western USA and the

Newer Granites of the Scottish Caledonides). They are generally more potassic than

Cordilleran I-type granites since they represent a further stage of fractionation away

1 1 < ±

from mantle-derived materials. Such low-temperature I-type granites are known as

Caledonian I-type granite of Pitcher (1993), however they do occur in Cordilleran fold

belts (Chappell and Stephens, 1988).

In the present study, granodiorite and granite are the main rock types of the Kashmar

and Bornavard granitoids. Chemical data show that the average contents of K20 in rocks

of the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are higher than average K20 contents of

Cordilleran I-type granites (e.g. PRB, Table 6.1). Isotopic data show that older igneous

rocks of the crust that are virtually quartzofeldspathic in composition would likely be

the source rocks for I-type granites of the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids. These

characteristics suggest that the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are similar to the

Caledonian I-type granites. In contrast, the Kuh Mish intrusions are high in CaO

(5.56 wt% on average) and low in K20 contents (0.92 wt% on average), features

attributed to Cordilleran I-type granites. This similarity is consistent with low initial

87Sr/86Sr and high £Nd values of the Kuh Mish intrusions. Primitive isotopic

characteristics of the Kuh Mish intrusions indicate that mantle is the only possible

source for generation of I-type granites in the Sabzevar Zone.

7.1.2 PRODUCTION OF I-TYPE GRANITES BY PARTIAL MELTING WITHIN

THE CRUST

For both I- and S-type granites, if melting of the source rocks occurs at minimum

temperatures, then its composition will be slightly peraluminous, and is known as

'minimum-melt' composition (Chappell and White, 1992). In this case, the magma or

'minimum-melt' plus restite will initially have the same composition as that of the

crustal source material. As the mantle is the ultimate source of all I-type granites, with

145

fractional crystallisation and/or restite separation, a range of compositions between

'minimum-melt' and mantle-derived material are produced (Chappell et al, 1998,

1999).

Using an ACF diagram (Fig. 7.1), molecular percent of major oxides from plutonic

rocks of the northeastern CJP, fall within the field of the metaluminous granites

containing amphibole and biotite, implying source rock materials of mafic to felsic

igneous composition (e.g. Chappell, 1984; Chappell and Stephens, 1988; White and

Chappell, 1988). The join of plagioclase to the (FeO + MgO) apex defines ASI = 1,

which divides metaluminous from peraluminous compositions. Most samples from the

Kuh Mish intrusions fall within the central parts of the ACF diagram, where Chappell

and White (1992) considered as 'mantle-derived source composition for I-type granites.

This is consistent with low K20 and high CaO contents of the Kuh Mish intrusions and

supported by very low initial 87Sr/86Sr and very high £Nd values (Section 5.5.5). For the

Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, a series of rock compositions ranging from mafic to

strongly felsic occurs and may be interpreted as having been generated by a combination

of restite separation and fractional crystallisation processes (Sections 5.2.2, 5.3.1 and

6.4). All rock types from the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are low in Rb (mostly

< 150 ppm) implying that the sources have been previously fractionated (Chappell and

White, 1992). Also, the average Si02 contents from Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids

are 66.80 and 69.84 wt%, respectively (Table 6.1). These values are higher than

chemical composition of the continental crust (Si02 = 66 wt%) estimated by Taylor and

McLennan (1985). The above features are consistent with isotopic data (Table 5.1) that

suggest magmas of the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids originated from partial

melting of igneous rocks in the crust (e.g., Krogstad and Walker, 1997).

7.1.3 FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLISATION IN LOW-TEMPERATURE I-TYPE

GRANITES

All granite's are, in a sense, fractionated rocks, especially 'high-temperature' I-type

granites because they formed originally from a magma that was completely or largely

molten (Chappell et al, 1998). In this case, a series of more mafic compositions will be

generated, but felsic compositions corresponding to 'minimum-melt' will only result

when all restite has been removed and further crystal fractionation continues (e.g.,

Boggy Plain Zoned Pluton, Australia and Tuolumne Intrrusive Series, California). Low-

temperature I-type granites produced by continuing fractional crystallisation of quartz

and feldspars from felsic granite melt. Under such conditions the major element

compositions of the melts change very little and hence major element abundances in the

granites are all very similar, being determined by the equihbrium between quartz,

feldspars and melt at low magmatic temperatures. However, trace element contents can

range widely, and in some cases in a different way with high-temperature I-type granites

(Chappell etal, 1998).

In the present study, fractional crystallisation at low magmatic temperature is attributed

to the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids. For example, granite and granodiorite from

the Kashmar granitoid do not show significant variation in major element composition

(Appendix 4.1). Also, the initial 87Sr/86Sr and ENd values of these plutons are very

limited in range (Table 5.1). For each pluton, with increasing Si02 contents, little

variation is observed in concentration of most of the trace elements such as Ba, Rb, Sr

and Zr. In the granite, with increasing Si02 from 63.42 to 71.81 wt%, the content of Sr

decreases from 315 to 188 ppm (Appendix 4.1). In the granodiorite, Si02 increases from

62.30 to 67.47 wt%, while Sr decreases from 342 to 282 p p m (Appendix 4.1). The

granodiorite and granite contain variable amount of microgranular enclaves or restite

(Section 6.4). It seems that magmas containing significant amount of restite can not

readily undergo fractional crystallisation because relatively little liquid is available

(Wyborn, 1983; Wyborn et al., 1987). This may be supported by low content of Rb in

tonalite (45-72 ppm) and granodiorite (56-88 ppm) from the Kashmar granitoid (e.g.,

Azevedo and Nolan, 1998).

The role of fractional crystallisation is well observed in producing variation in chemical

composition of granodiorite from the Bornavard granitoid. In the granodiorite, with

increasing Si02 contents from 63.18 to 71.32 wt% (Appendix 4.2), wide range is

observed in concentrations of Ba (535-55 ppm), Rb (129-8 ppm) and Zr (272-142 ppm).

On Harker plots (Fig. 5.7), Ba and Zr show inflexion at Si02 = 68.85 wt% that supports

the process of fractional crystallisation (Section 5.3.2.1). For most analyses from the

granodiorite, the elements Ce and Y decrease with increasing Si02 contents

(Appendix 4.2). This behaviour is consistent with fractional crystallisation of low-

temperature I-type granites (Chappell et al, 1998).

7.1.4 RESTITE FRACTIONATION

Linear variations in chemical composition of granitoids (e.g., LFB) have been

considered to result from magma mixing, restite unmixing and crystal fractionation

(Collins, 1996, 1998; Chappell, 1978, 1994, 1996a,b; Chappell et al, 1999). In the

present study, linear variation is well developed for the Kashmar granitoid, but direct

field or petrographic evidence for magma mixing, even on small scale, is absent. In

addition, major problem with the magma mixing is very httle occurrence of mafic rocks

148

(e.g., tonalite) and limited range in initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70471-0.70569) and ENd values (-

1.86 to -0.70) of the Kashmar granitoid. Similarity of chemical composition (e.g., Ba,

Rb, Sr) of the microgranular enclaves with the host tonalite, granodiorite and granite

(Section 6.4) indicates that the enclaves are not parts of different source (e.g., Chappell,

1996a). If the enclaves were produced by fractional crystallisation of the host granite

magmas (e.g., cumulates), then enclaves should be relatively higher in Cr, Ni and Sr and

lower in Ba and Rb abundances compared with the host rocks (e.g., Chen et al, 1990).

This behaviour is not observed in the present study. Magma mixing requires very large

scale mixing of very fluid, high-temperature mafic melt with much less fluid and low-

temperature felsic melt (Chappell, 1996a; Passmore and Sivell, 1998). Assuming that

pure combination of two components (mantle and crust) produced a homogenised

magma, then microgranular enclaves would be absent or uniformly distributed. But in

the Kashmar granitoid, the microgranular enclaves reduce in size towards higher silica

contents and disappear at Si02 >74 wt% (e.g., alkali feldspar granite). In the case of

well-mixed magmas, initial 87Sr/86Sr and sNd values most often fall within the mantle

values (Castro et al, 1991). For example, Pankhurst et al. (1988) reported isotopic

evidence relating to the petrogenesis of the Andean granitoids. Their values are nearly

homogeneous within a given pluton and are consistent with a mixing model involving

variable proportions of mantle-derived magmas (87Sr/86Sr <0.704 and £Nd >0). In the

Kashmar granitoid each pluton is homogeneous in the initial 87Sr/86Sr and eNd values but

all values indicate crustal origin. Therefore, linear variations in chemical composition of

the Kashmar granitoid can not be explained by magma mixing.

Since mineralogical and chemical data of the Kashmar granitoid show characteristics of

low temperature I-type granites (e.g., Section 6.9), fractional crystallisation is not the

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only possible process for variation in chemical compositions (Section 7.1.3). Therefore,

the observed linear variations are interpreted to reflect restite separation. In this, case the

primary melt composition can not be determined precisely because it has been modified

by removal of restite and fractional crystallisation (Chappell et al, 1987). The

composition of the source rocks for the Kashmar granitoid can be estimated by plotting

a refractory component such as total Fe as Fe203 versus Si02 contents (Fig 7.2). The

compositions of rocks of the Kashmar granitoid show a well linear trend. The

composition of one microgranular enclave (R15912) plots very close to the trend line.

For other samples, when selecting granite for chemical analysis, inclusions of all types

were discarded. As the most felsic rock containing restite, is granite (Si02 <74 wt%,

Appendix 4.1), then the composition of restite free rock (alkali feldspar granite) would

be between Si02 = 74 to 77 wt%, that is a composition nearly similar to 'minimum-

temperature' melts. The most abundant microgranular enclaves (restite) occur in tonalite

that is low in Rb, indicating little fractionation. The enclaves are mineralogically and

compositionally similar to tonalite that is the only mafic rock of the Kashmar granitoid.

Therefore, according to the restite model (Fig. 7.2), the composition of the source rocks

(restite + melt) would lie between restite (Si02 = -60 wt%) and 'minimum-melt' (Si02

= 74-77 wt%). The limited range in initial 87Sr/86Sr and ENd values of the Kashmar

granitoid is usual condition for the restite model, indicating a relatively homogenisation

during partial melting of the source rocks. In contrast magma mixing occurs in an open

system and produces wide range in isotopic values (Collins, 1998). The Si02 content of

restite is similar to the average composition of andesitic rocks that are complete

equivalence in chemical composition with respective plutonic rocks of the Peninsular

Ranges Batholith (cf. Hess, 1989; Wilson, 1989). This is consistent with the range of

initial 87Sr/86Sr values of the Kashmar granitoid that is completely within the range of

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initial 8/Sr/80Sr values of andesites (0.7046-0.7063) from the continental margins (Hall,

1987).

7.1.5 'MMMUM-MELT' COMPOSITIONS

Analyses of alkali feldspar granite and granite, respectively from the Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids show the limited range in major element compositions

(Appendices 4.1 and 4.2). These rocks are very siliceous (Si02 = 74-77 wt%). They

contain low A1203 (<13 wt%), and they have very low contents of MgO (<0.40 wt%), CaO

(<1 wt%) and the transition elements (except for Mn). Na20 and K20 have high and

relatively constant abundances. These rocks are dominated by four metals, Si, Al, Na and

K, which do not vary greatly in amount, and the variation in abundances of the normative

minerals Q, Ab and Or, that incorporate those four elements are likewise restricted

(Appendices 2.1 and 2.2). The alkali feldspar granite is typical example of extreme

evolution of felsic I-type granite magmas. As mentioned earlier (Section 7.1.4), it may

result from a combination of restite separation and fractional crystallisation processes.

The granite from the Bornavard granitoid is free of microgranular enclaves, low in P205

(<0.04wt%), Rb (54-128 ppm) and Sr (38-54 ppm) but high in Ba contents (580-

890 ppm). Low content of P205 indicates low solubility of P that is characteristic of low-

temperature I-type granites, consistent with abundant microcline and microperthitic K-

feldspar in the granite. The I-type characteristic is confirmed by low A1203 content and

presence of valuable modal abundance of biotite that is the only ferromagnesian mineral

in the granite (Appendix 2.2). Major and trace element data from the granite do not show

significant linear variation (Figs 5.5 and 5.7). This is consistent with homogeneous nature

of the granite pluton and indicates that fractional crystallisation possibly was not operated

151

or it occurred below the present level of exposure. However, the granite is strongly

enriched in LREE and initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.73978-0.75008) but low in concentration of

transition metals that indicate earlier fractional crystallisation of the source rocks. Based

on the chemical composition, the most favoured and significant process for generation of

the granite, is selective fusion of only the quartzofeldspathic components of the crust and

leaving the mafic components as a solid residue, which may have disengaged from the

melt at or near the source. Evidence supporting the likelihood of such origin for the

granite include textural relations (e.g.,; corroded or partly melted plagioclase and quartz

crystals); absence of high-temperature mafic rocks; elevated initial 87Sr/86Sr and negative

ENd values (e.g., Raymond, 1995). But on the ternary plot of normative Q-Ab-Or (Fig 6.4),

the granite samples do not fall exactly in the position of the 'minimum-melt' of Tuttle and

Bowen (1958).


The regional variation in initial 87Sr/86Sr of granitoid rocks from the northeastern CJP is

wide and range from 0.70471 to 0.70569 for the Kashmar granitoid, 0.70757 to 0.75008

for the Bornavard granitoid and 0.70386 to 0.70475 for the Kuh Mish intrusions (Table

5.1). The Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are characterised by low sNd values

(Fig. 7.3) ranging from -0.70 to -5.20 that indicate crustal sources. In the Bornavard

granitoid, granodiorite shows wider range in initial 87Sr/86Sr and ENd values compared

with the granite. The wider range in Sr-Nd isotopic compositions may be related to

heterogeneity of the source or fractional crystallisation of accessory minerals such as

apatite, titanite, and zircon. These minerals are the main carriers for the REE and may

have prevented equilibration for the Nd isotopes (e.g., Holden et al, 1987; Dias and

Leterrier, 1994). In the Bornavard granitoid, granite is strongly higher in initial Sr/ Sr

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than the granodiorite. This is consistent with the quartzofeldspathic nature of the granite

(Section 7.1.5). The Sr-Nd isotopic values indicate that the plutons of the Kashmar

granitoid have incorporated an isotopically less evolved component that may represent

either young isotopically lower continental crust or enriched mantle magmas with

juvenile sources (e.g., Rapela et al, 1992: Sewell et al, 1992; Bryant et al, 1997). The

sources incorporated little or no Nd from the country rocks. The lower continental crust

is characterised by low 87Sr/86Sr values that are not greatly different with modern

enriched mantle values (e.g., Rollinson, 1993). This means that modern granites derived

from the lower crust and those derived from the mantle will have very similar initial

87Sr/86Sr values. However, most of the granitic magmas are unlikely to have been

derived directly from the mantle, but the relative contributions of components from the

crust and mantle produce the range of isotopic compositions for I-type granites

(Williams, 1998; Wyborn et al, 1998).

Sr-Nd isotopic data for the Kuh Mish intrusions suggest that gabbro and the granodiorite

from Darin and Namin plutons are genetically related. Variation in Sr-Nd isotopic

values of the Kuh Mish intrusions is low and all values typically show characteristics of

mantle-derived magmas (Fig. 7.3). The strong positive sNd values, low concentrations of

incompatible elements (Section 5.5.2) and Nb and Ti anomalies may suggest a volcanic

arc environment for the Kuh Mish intrusions (e.g., Allen et al, 1997; 1998; Price et al,

1999). The Kuh Mish intrusions are the most primitive I-type rocks of the northeastern

CJP (Table 5.1). It is possible that the CJP is relatively more mafic and thinner in the

Sabzevar Zone than in the Taknar Zone. However, low initial 87Sr/86Sr and high £Nd

values for I-type granites from elsewhere have been attributed to thinner and younger

153

age of the continental crust by some authors (e.g., DePaolo, 1988; Soler and Rotach-

Toulhoat, 1990; Grigoriev and Pshenichny, 1998).

In general, the initial 87Sr/86Sr values of the Kashmar granitoid and Kuh Mish intrusions

are low and similar to initial Sr/ Sr values of the Oligocene to Miocene metaluminous

I-type granites from the central and western American Cordillera, respectively (Silver

and Chappell, 1988; Hess, 1989; Soler and Rotach-Toulhoat, 1990). Similarity in

isotopic composition with young granitoids is in accord with the Middle-Late Eocene

age, obtained at the present study, for different plutons of the Kashmar granitoid

(Section 3.3.1.2). Also, the initial 87Sr/86Sr values of the Kashmar granitoid (0.704-

0.705) are similar to the values reported from I-type granites of the New England Fold

Belt, eastern Australia (Shaw and Flood, 1981, 1993; Hansel et al, 1985; Bryant et al,

1997). Such I-type granites with low initial 87Sr/86Sr values would have been developed

according to the processes of subduction-related magmatism (Chappell, 1994).

7.1.7 LFSE ENRICHMENT AND HFSE DEPLETION

On rock/primordial mantle-normalised spider diagrams (Figs 5.2, 5.6 and 5.13),

representative compositions from different plutons of the northeastern CIP show

compositional similarities with those igneous rocks that occur in active continental

margins (e.g., Sewell and Campbell, 1997). In particular, the spider diagrams show

enrichment in most LFSE (e.g., K, Rb, Ba, Th) and LREE but relative depletion in

HFSE (e.g., Nb, Ti, U, Hi), compared with primordial mantle-normalised values.

Enrichment in LFSE and depletion in HFSE are stronger for the Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids, compared with the Kuh Mish intrusions. This is characteristic of

subduction-related magmas and involvement of the continental crust in magma genesis

154

(Rottura et al, 1998; Feldstein and Lange, 1999), consistent with negative sNd values of

the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids.

All plutons of the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids display a distinct negative

anomaly in Ba with respect to the adjacent Rb and Th. This behaviour of the trace

elements is common in granites that occur in continental regions (e.g., Pearce et al,

1984). The negative anomaly in Ba is not conspicuous for the Kuh Mish intrusions

(Fig. 5.13) indicating possibly an island arc environment (e.g., Price et al, 1999). The

enrichment of Rb and Th relative to Ba cannot result from hydrothermal overprint, since

Ba and Rb show comparable mobility and Th is considered to be immobile in aqueous

fluids (Rottura et al, 1998).

Many authors believe that LFSE enrichment and HFSE depletion are intrinsic features

of the mantle wedge and a consequence of the immobility of most HFSE in aqueous

fluids derived from dehydration of the subducted oceanic crust (McCulloch, 1993;

Pearce and Peate, 1995; Price et al, 1999). There are numerous theories for the origin of

HFSE depletion in arc magmas, but no consensus of opinion. In magmas of the

northeastern CJP, variation in LFSE and HFSE probably results from differences in

degree of partial melting and amount of LFSE enrichment of the source rocks and extent

of fractional crystallisation. For example, the Kuh Mish intrusions originated from

mantle source and are low in most of the incompatible elements. They show small

variation between HFSE and LFSE on spider diagrams (Fig. 5.13). Whereas, the

Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, originated from crustal sources. They are high in

most of the incompatible elements. They show large variation between LFSE and HFSE

(Figs. 5.2 and 5.6). In the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, variation between LFSE

155

and H F S E are similar and becomes larger in plutons that extended fractional

crystallisation. Examples are alkali feldspar granite and granite from Kashmar and

Bornavard, respectively. Both the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids generated from

low-temperature I-type magmas that may suggest similar heat flow beneath the two

granitoids. They occur in the same crustal structure that is probably a thick continental

crust where regional heat flow is significantly low (e.g., Price et al, 1999). According to

Chappell et al. (2000), low-temperature I-type granites mostly formed through partial

melting of pre-existing quartzofeldspathic igneous rocks. This is in agreement with

similar distribution of the ASI values that converge towards unity in the Kashmar and

Bornavard granitoids. Therefore, similarity in variation of the LFSE and HFSE between

the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids may be the result of similar degree of partial

melting of the crust.

7.1.8 A MODEL FOR EVOLUTION OF MAGMAS IN NORTHEASTERN CIP

Rb/Sr ages of biotite-whole rock pairs for I-type granites of the northeastern CIP

(Section 3.3) are consistent with the timing of magmatism associated with Late

Mesozoic to Tertiary subduction of the Neo-Tethys Oceanic crust beneath the CIP (e.g.,

Kazmin et al, 1986a). In the present study, Mesozoic magmatism is reflected in Late

Jurassic and Early Cretaceous ages, obtained respectively for granodiorite (153-145 Ma)

and granite (124-112 Ma) from the Bornavard granitoid. The Late Jurassic and Early

Cretaceous ages indicate the oldest plutonic activity in the Taknar Zone, and are

consistent with widespread Jurassic-Cretaceous magmatism in the Middle East (e.g.,

Laws and Wilson, 1997).

156

Tertiary magmatism related to subduction of the Neo-Tethys produced extrusion of

calcalkaline basaltic to andesitic rocks and intrusion of subvolcanic metaluminous

granitoids in Iran and adjacent countries (Wilson, 1989). In the northeastern CJP,

Tertiary magmatism is reflected in Middle-Late Eocene ages (43-42 Ma) of the Kashmar

granitoid (Section 3.3.1.2). The isotopic ages indicate a significant time interval

(-70 Ma) between the emplacement of the Bornavard granitoid and the Kashmar

granitoid. However, during this time interval magmatism occurred in other parts of Iran

(Darvichzadeh, 1992). For example, in the S-SMZ, most of the contact-aureole granites

intruded before Eocene times (Mohajjel, 1997). In the CJP, igneous rocks of Tertiary

age are widespread and the peak of volcanic activity is related to Eocene times

(Darvichzadeh, 1992; Moradian, 1997).

The isotopic data (Section 3.3) show that in the Taknar Zone, Middle-Late Eocene rocks

are less isotopically evolved than Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous rocks. Because the

Kashmar granitoid (Middle-Late Eocene) is less isotopically evolved than the Bornavard

granitoid (Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous), it is not concluded that Middle-Late Eocene

rocks have intruded outboard of a significant thickness of continental crust. The

Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids occur in the same geological zone and within

-25 km at the present level of exposure. Explanation for a trend toward more

isotopically primitive magmatism in younger rocks from elsewhere has been attributed

to various models (Allen et al, 1997, 1998). Two of these models include 'plumbing'

and steepness of the subduction zone and 'basification' of the continental lower crust

(Pankhurst et al, 1988). In bran, a steep angle of subduction was first proposed by

Berberian (1981) who believed that during the Middle Tertiary, the subduction zone

steepened due to the collision of the Arabian plate and CJP. She also argued that

157

differences in isotopic compositions of Tertiary magmas derived from subduction of the

Neo-Tethys beneath the CIP reflect a low-dip angle of subduction near the trench and a

high-dip angle beyond the arc magmatic chain. According to Pankhurst et al. (1988),

increase in subduction angle results a hotter melting, while low-temperature

characteristic of the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids indicate similar heat flow

beneath the continental crust (Section 7.1.7). Therefore, the steepened aiigle of

subduction can not explain lower isotopic values of the Kashmar granitoid, compared

with the Bornavard granitoid.

The second model relies on 'basification' which means that continental lower crust

becomes more mafic through time by repeated injection of basalt (Asmerom et al,

1991; Farmer et al, 1991). This model has been used for at least two locations (Nevada

and Arizona) in the Cordilleran Interior of the western United States. It is in agreement

with isotopic data and some field relations of the granitoids occurring in northeastern

CIP. For example, the Bornavard granitoid is Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous in age

and very high in initial 87Sr/86Sr. The Kashmar granitoid is Middle-Late Eocene in age,

low in initial 87Sr/86Sr and associated with andesite. The Kuh Mish intrusions are

associated with basaltic to andesitic rocks of Eocene age and have primitive mantle-like

initial 87Sr/86Sr and eNd values (Table 5.1). According to the above explanations,

'basification' of the continental lower crust with time is a more likely model to explain

the magmatic evolution at the northeastern margin of the CIP. This model is supported

by the occurrence of large volume of mainly intermediate magmas extruded in the U-

DVB and the CIP through the entire Eocene and Oligocene (Haghipour and Aghanabati,

1989). The Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks have been intruded by several gabbroic

to dioritic bodies of Oligocene in age (Darvichzadeh, 1992).

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7.2 TECTONIC SETTING

Iran is located in the middle of the extensive Alpine-Himalayan orogenic system,

produced by collision between the Eurasian plate to the north, and Afro-Arabian plate to

the southwest (Bina et al, 1986). Along the entire active Eurasian continental margin of

the Neo-Tethys, a large number of occurrences of calcalkaline rocks in Romania (Mason

et al, 1996), the southern Alps (Rottura et al, 1998), the northern Arabian Plate (Laws

and Wilson, 1997), Turkey (Wilson et al, 1997) and Pakistan (Petterson et al, 1993)

have been investigated and the current study fills the missing link to the database of

Tethyan I-type granitoids in northeastern CIP. According to many Iranian geologists the

U-DVB is parallel to the Zagros Fold-thrust Belt, ophiolite-melange belt and linear

metamorphic belt of the S-SMZ that extends from the Turkey to southeast of Iran (e.g.,

Moradian, 1997; Ghazi and Hassanipak, 1999). The U-DVB could have resulted from

subduction of Neo-Tethys oceanic crust beneath the CJP during Mesozoic and

Cainozoic (Alavi and Mahdavi, 1994; Berberian, 1995). In Iran, calcalkaline magmatism

related to this subduction has occurred during five stages comprising Early Jurassic,

Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous, Late Cretaceous, Paleogene and Late Miocene-

Quaternary (Kazmin et al, 1986b). As closure of the Neo-Tethys proceeded, island arcs

gave way to marginal continental volcanic belts with widespread development of high-K

calcalkaline to shoshonitic series (Kazmin et al, 1986b; Moradian, 1997). hi Iran the

intensity of calcalkaline magmatism is more pronounced in Jurassic-Cretaceous and

Eocene times. In northeastern CJP, Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous and Middle-Eocene

magmatism is recognised by occurrence of metaluminous I-type granitoids of the

Kashmar and Bornavard, respectively.

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7.2.1 ANOROGENIC GRANITES

A chemical-tectonic approach to granite classification has been taken by some

researchers, where chemical parameters are taken as indicative of the tectonic

environment in which the granite formed (e.g., Pearce et al, 1984, Forster et al, 1997).

Others have inferred magma source compositions from chemical and mineralogical

features, for example, the I- and S-type classification of Chappell and White (1992).

Anorogenic granites may occur in different tectonic settings but they are mainly related

to rift, continental epirogenic and uplift stages. Among the anorogenic granites, 'A-type'

is the most recognised granite that is referred to alkaline rocks (high K20 + Na20).

Some A-type granites are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous that may be produced

by high-temperature partial melting of a felsic infracrustal source (e.g., King et al,

1997).

In the northeastern CJP anorogenic environment reported only for granite of the

Bornavard granitoid by Esmaeili et al. (1998a). For several reasons (Sections 6.10.2),

petrographic and geochemical data of the granite from the Bornavard granitoid are not

similar with characteristics of the A-type granites. Esmaeili et al (1998a) believed that

this granite emplaced in a rift-related tectonic setting. But rift-related granites may have

a predominantly mantle source (Pitcher, 1993) or may be evolved by magma mixing to

generate M-type (hybrid) granitoids (Castro et al, 1991). The rift-related magmas are

typically low in initial 87Sr/86Sr (<0.704) and have positive £Nd values (e.g. Wilson,

1989). In contrast, the granite samples of the Bornavard granitoid are significantly high

in initial 87Sr/86Sr and show negative sNd values (Table 5.1). Assuming that the granite

of the Bornavard granitoid generated by lower crustal derived A-type magmas, it would

be drier and hotter than I-type granites (e.g., Landenberger and Collins, 1996). But the

160

granite samples of the Bornavard granitoid plot close to the 'minimum-temperature'

melt composition of Tuttle and Bowen (1958) and indicate a water-saturated melt at

PH20 = -0.5 kb (Fig. 6.4). Also, the granite samples are low in the content of P205 that

supports the low temperature characteristic of the felsic melt (Harrison and Watson,

1984; Chappell et al., 1998). Therefore hot and dry conditions for the granite of the

Bornavard granitoid are not evidenced, hence A-type feature and rift-related

environment are unlikely.

7.2.2 OROGENIC GRANITES

Orogeny is characterised by plutonism, deformation and metamorphism (Lutgens and

Tarbuck, 1992). In the CJP and the U-DVB of Iran, orogeny is characterised by

extensive volcanic-plutonic associations and deformation during Late Mesozoic and

Tertiary times (Darvichzadeh, 1992). The volcanic-plutonic associations are calcalkaline

and alkaline in composition and occur through the entire southern parts of the Alp-

Himalaya Belt (Kazmin et al, 1986a; Bina et al, 1986). In the northeastern CIP, the

volcanic-plutonic rocks are calcalkaline in composition. The plutonic rocks of the

northeastern CJP are I-type metaluminous granitoids.

7.2.2.1 Island Arc Granites

The Kuh Mish intrusions show characteristics of the most primitive magmas in the

northeastern CJP. They occur in the south of the extensive Late Cretaceous ophiolites of

the Sabzevar Zone. The only published chemical data for the ophiolites of the Sabzevar

Zone indicate calcalkaline character with trench-type, ridge-type and coloured melange

affinities (Lensch and Davoudzadeh, 1982). The ophiolites of the Sabzevar Zone are

low in Ti02 and K20 contents. The initial 87Sr/86Sr values of the trench-type ophiolites

161

of the Sabzevar Zone are very close to values found in gabbro and granodiorite samples

of the Kuh Mish intrusions. This may indicate that the Kuh Mish intrusions formed near

an arc-trench system or even as a part of this system.

Because rocks of the island arcs are usually high-temperature, at least plagioclase is

cumulative, and hence their REE patterns mostly show pronounced positive Eu

anomalies (Tate et al, 1999), while the REE patterns of the Kuh Mish intrusions show

slightly negative Eu anomalies (Fig. 5.14). The Kuh Mish intrusions represent an

average of 64.68 wt% Si02 (Table 6.1) that is significantly higher than that of the M-

type rocks of the primitive island arcs (e.g., Bismark Volcanic Arc, mean Si02 =

60.13 wt%) (Hill et al, 1992). The average of 64.68 wt% Si02 from the Kuh Mish

intrusions is very similar to the average of 64.63 wt% Si02 from 323 analyses of

tonalitic I-type granites of the Cordillera (PRB, Table 6.1) that are excellent

representatives of the active continental margins.

7.2.2.2 Magmatic Arcs of Continental Margins

There is some evidence that granitoid rocks of the northeastern CJP originated in

continental arc environment. For example the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids

together with the extensive Tertiary volcanic rocks occur in a belt parallel to the margins

of the CJP. hi this belt, igneous rocks have typical arc shape and continuously extend

towards the eastern boundary of Iran with a total length of about 300 km (Haghipour

and Aghanabati, 1989). In northeastern CJP, granodiorite and granite are the most

abundant plutonic rocks and. show characteristics of Cordilleran I-type granites. The

associated volcanic rocks are mostly andesite, dacite and rhyolite, suggestive of the

derivation of the more felsic magmas by fractional crystallisation of olivine, pyroxene,

162

plagioclase, Fe-Ti oxides and amphibole mineral assemblages from basaltic parental

magmas (e.g., Wilson, 1989). The Si02 content is high and mostly ranges from 62 to

76 wt% with an average of 67.80 wt% for all analyses (Table 6.1). High content of Si02

is consistent with low-temperature characteristics of magmas generated in continental

regions (Hess, 1989). The weakly metaluminous to weakly peraluminous features of the

most plutons in the northeastern CJP support low-temperature characteristic, whereas

granites from the island arcs are high-temperature and predominantly strongly

metaluminous (Maniar and Piccoli, 1989).

The Nb-Y diagram (Fig. 7.4) facilitates &scrimination of the tectonic environment of

'granitic magmas' (Pearce et al, 1984; Forster et al, 1997). The plutonic rocks of the

northeastern CJP plot in the 'volcanic arc and syn-collisional' (VAG + syn-COLG)

granite field because of their relatively low content of Y and Nb. The Bornavard

granitoid is slightly higher in Y content, and plot at the edge of the within-plate (WP)

field. A very similar distribution is observed in Figure 7.5, the Rb vs (Y + Nb), which

confirms the arc affinities of the granitoid rocks of the northeastern CJP, although this

diagram is less reliably interpreted because of the possibility of Rb mobility. The

position of the Kuh Mish intrusions in the lowest part of the VAG + syn-COLG field is

typical of immature arcs of the continental margin (e.g., Forster et al, 1997) that have

relatively low degrees of the crustal influence. This is consistent with positive ENd values

of the Kuh Mish intrusions. The Kuh Mish intrusions are relatively higher in Cr and Ni

compared with the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids and have similar situation in Rb

vs. (Rb + Nb) plot as for the Cordilleran I-type granites (e.g., Forster et al, 1997). The

Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids have negative £Nd values (Table 5.1), supporting the

I-type characteristic of granites from continental margins (Hess, 1989). The position of

163

the most samples from the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids in the upper most part of

the VAG field is typically representative of arc rocks from an ancient continental

margin. The Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids are strongly enriched in highly

incompatible trace elements than the Kuh Mish intrusions, suggesting that the

continental crust has had an important role in their magma genesis. Some samples from

the Kashmar ganitoid are higher in Rb (-200 ppm) and plot very close to the Syn-COLG

boundary (Fig. 7.5) but there is not overlap with the Syn-COLG field that indicates no

incorporation of pelitic rocks in the melting process, consisting with typical I-type

characteristics of the Kashmar granitoid. Collectively, plutonic rocks of the northeastern

CIP occupy a similar area on the Rb vs (Y + Nb) diagram as the Cretaceous granitoids

of eastern Eurasian margin (e.g., Nakajima, 1996).

164

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSIONS

8.1 CONCLUSIONS

A majority of the Iranian granites are either surrounded by contact-aureoles and are

therefore contact-aureole types or intrude into related volcanic rocks and are therefore

subvolcanic types. The contact-aureole granites of Iran are mostly Jurassic to

Cretaceous in age and typically occur in the S-SMZ. Both contact-aureole and

subvolcanic types are common in the CJP and the U-DVB. The subvolcanic granites of

the CJP and U-DVB are associated with basalt and, most commonly, andesite. The

volcanic-plutonic associations of the CJP and the U-DVB represent extensive Tertiary

magmatism in Iran.

The current study presents the first Rb/Sr isotopic data on biotite-whole rock pairs for

the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids (Table 3.1). Rb/Sr isotopic data on biotite-whole

rock pairs clearly distinguish at least two different plutonic episodes for the Bornavard

granitoid. Granodiorite pluton, the major representative of the early intrusive episode,

yielded ages of 152.8±1.3 and 145.6±1.3Ma, and indicates that the oldest plutonic

activity in the Taknar Zone occurred during the Late Jurassic. Granite pluton,

representative of the late intrusive episode, yielded ages of 123.8±1 and 111.8±1.1 Ma,

that indicate Early Cretaceous plutonic activity. The Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous

ages of the Bornavard granitoid are related to the Middle to Late Cimmerian Orogeny,

recognised in Iran by intrusion of several contact-aureole granites in the S-SMZ and

CIP. The Rb/Sr ages of the Bornavard granitoid are similar to isotopic ages for several

contact-aureole granites that occur in northeastern CJP; for example, K/Ar ages of

165

146±3 and 120±3Ma for biotites from the Mashhad Granite (Table 2.1). Also, Rb/Sr

ages of 152.8±1.3 and 111.8±1.1 Ma of the Bornavard granitoid are in agreement with

K/Ar ages for biotite from the Torbat-e-Jam and Airakan Granites (153+5 and

113±8Ma, respectively), all indicative of Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous plutonic

activity in the northeastern CJP. Furthermore, the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous

ages of the contact-aureole granites of the northeastern CJP are consistent with the time

of extensive plutonic activity in the Middle East (e.g., Laws and Wilson, 1997). Before

the present study, the granites and granodiorites of the Bornavard granitoid were

compared with Precambrian and Tertiary granites of Iran, respectively (Section 3.3.2.2).

These comparisons were based solely on petrography and limited stratigraphic

relationships. The Rb/Sr data from the present study indicate that the earlier

assumptions are incorrect.

The granite pluton from the Bornavard granitoid intrudes the Taknar Rhyolite. The

Taknar Rhyolite has been affected by hydrothermal alteration and low-grade regional

metamorphism that occurred between 250 and 190 Ma (Crawford, 1977; Muller and

Walter, 1983). The hydrothermal alteration is confirmed by a low content of K20 in

biotite and high values of ASI due to the presence of abundant sericite in rhyolite

samples. However, low content of Zr and total REE in samples from the Taknar

Rhyolite indicate strongly fractionation. According to Rb/Sr dating on biotite-whole

rock pairs, the oldest age of the Bornavard granitoid is 152.8±1.3 Ma (Table 3.1), which

is significantly younger than the age of regional metamorphism of the Taknar Rhyolite.

Differences in age, mineralogy (Section 4.5.1) and chemical data (Section 5.4.1)

between the Taknar Rhyolite and the Bornavard granitoid indicate that they are not

genetically related.

166

Rb/Sr isotopic data on biotite-whole rock pairs from different plutons of the Kashmar

granitoid (Table 3.1) suggest Middle-Late Eocene plutonic activity in the northeastern

CIP. The isotopic ages of the Kashmar granitoid show a narrow range from 43.5±0.4 to

42.4±0.4Ma that indicates typical synchronous plutonic activity in the northeastern

CIP. These ages are very similar to a K/Ar age (43.7±1.7 Ma) determined from biotite

in the host volcanic rocks and reported by Bernhardt (1983). The Middle-Late Eocene

age of the Kashmar granitoid is consistent with the peak of the calcalkaline magmatism

that occurred in the CJP during the Eocene (e.g., Darvichzadeh, 1992).

Microprobe analyses show that in the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, the

plagioclase grains have compositions between Anso-u and Ari44-2, respectively. In the

Kashmar granitoid most plagioclase grains are typically normally-zoned and the

compositions of most cores and rims are An50.3o and An3o-i8, respectively. There is some

similarity in anorthite content of plagioclase crystals from granodiorite (An^-is) and

granite (An50-i4) plutons of the Kashmar granitoid, indicating that they are genetically

related. In the Kuh Mish intrusions, plagioclase grains from gabbro show a composition

of An90-99 and these are the most calcic plagioclase compositions observed in the present

study.

Analyses of ferromagnesian minerals show that magnesio-hornblende, biotite, ilmenite,

titanomagnetite and magnetite are the only mafic minerals occurring in the granitoid

rocks of the northeastern CIP. Magnesio-hornblendes are homogeneous, low in Ti02,

A1203 (Allv <1 a.f.u.) and high in FeO and MgO contents that indicate crystallisation

occurred at a low temperature and high f02 (e.g., Hammarstrom and Zen, 1986;

167

Anderson and Smith, 1995). The magnesio-hornblendes have been variably converted

to biotite which is indicative of normal magmatic reactions. When magnesio-hornblende

co-exists with biotite, the biotite is lower in Mg/(Mg + Fe), because it contains a higher

total Fe as FeO content than magnesio-hornblende, and suggests an increase in/02 after

amphibole crystallisation. When magnesio-hornblende is absent, biotite is significantly

lower in Mg/(Mg + Fe) and shows the typical pleochroic scheme for biotite in oxidised

I-type granites (e.g., biotite in granite from the Bornavard granitoid). Fractionation

factors for MgO, FeO and Ti02 for magnesio-hornblende suggest that crystallisation

occurred at moderate to low temperatures, but under variable crustal pressures up to a

maximum of 3 kbar (Figs 4.3 and 4.14).

According to the chemical classification of micas (Gribble, 1988), only three analyses

of mica in alkali feldspar granite from the Kashmar granitoid are phlogopite in

composition, whereas other analyses of mica from plutonic rocks of the northeastern

CJP have Mg/(Mg + Fe) values ranging from 0.63 to 0.13 indicating biotite

composition. Analysed biotites from granitoid rocks of northeastern CJP are

homogeneous and titaniferous (Ti02 = 1.20-4.90 wt%). They are high in K20 content

which indicates that the biotites are fresh. The biotite grains from the Kashmar granitoid

and Kuh Mish intrusions are low in A1VI (all <0.5 a.f.u.), a feature typical of biotites

from I-type granites. In the Bornavard granitoid, however, biotite is slightly higher in

A1VI (mostly >0.5 a.f.u.), possibly because it co-exists with small amount of secondary

muscovite that can be the result of subsolidus alteration (e.g., Harrison, 1990).

Microprobe analyses of Fe-Ti oxides in granitoid rocks of northeastern CJP suggest that

magnetite and titanomagnetite are the most common Fe-Ti oxides that accompany

1-68

hornblende and biotite. In heterogeneous grains, titanomagnetite is usually encountered

in magnetite cores, emphasising increasingjfG2 after hornblende crystallisation. Ilmenite

without magnetite occurs only in tonalite and some samples of granodiorite from the

Bornavard granitoid. The ilmenite grains in the tonalite and granodiorite have rounded

edges and show alteration to fine-grained titanite, features attributed to evolution of I-

type magmas towards higher/02 (Petrik and Broska, 1994) and consistent with lack of

any S-type characteristics in the tonalite and granodiorite.

Chemical data show that the granitoid rocks of northeastern CJP are generally high in

Na20, total Fe as Fe203, Ba, Sr, Mn and V, and low in P205, Ti02, Rb, Pb, Sn, Cu, Ni

and Cr contents. High contents of Na20, Ba and Sr indicate that the source rocks were

not previously weathered (Chappell and White, 1992; Chappell et al, 2000). This

characteristic is consistent with mineralogical and chemical data that suggest an I-type

source for the granitoid rocks of northeastern CJP. However, the low contents of Rb and

most transition metals indicate that the igneous sources were previously fractionated or

possibly low in these elements. The high content of total Fe as Fe203 is an intrinsic

feature of the I-type magmas (Chappell et al, 2000) and indicates that magmas of the

northeastern CIP evolved at high degrees of an oxidation condition. This is consistent

with higher modal abundances of magnetite compared with other Fe-Ti oxides in most

rock types of the present study. The association of magnetite and titanite supports high

degrees of f02 in I-type granites. The ASI values are mostly less than one (Fig. 6.5),

with averages of 0.97 for Kashmar, 0.95 for Bornavard and 0.92 for Kuh Mish,

emphasising the metaluminous nature of I-type granitoids of the northeastern CJP.

169 •

The Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids form a major plutonic suite of the Taknar Zone.

They are similar in many petrological and some isotopic characteristics. Granite and

granodiorite are the most abundant rock types of the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids.

In both granitoids, particularly for felsic rocks (Si02 >63 wt%), concentrations of most

major and trace elements show regular trends towards higher Si02 contents (Figs 6.1

and 6.2). They show a similar distribution on histograms of ASI frequency (Fig. 6.5).

Microprobe data confirm that magnesio-hornblende, biotite and Fe-Ti oxides are the

only ferromagnesian minerals of the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids. Plagioclase, K-

feldspar, hornblende and biotite show characteristics of minerals crystallising at low

temperature and high/02 under normal magmatic conditions. These characteristics are

invoked to assign the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids into a 'simple suite' that

corresponds to low temperature I-type granites of Chappell et al. (1998).

The Kuh Mish intrusions are isotopically and chemically different from the Kashmar

and Bornavard granitoids. They are lower in Ba, Rb, Sr, Pb, Th, U and REE

abundances, but higher in Cr, Ni and V contents. These characteristics are consistent

with low initial 87Sr/86Sr and high £Nd values of the Kuh Mish intrusions. The absence of

microgranular enclaves and zircon grains in samples from the Kuh Mish intrusions

suggest that magmas of the Kuh Mish intrusions were higher in temperature than the

Kashmar and Bornavard magmas. The Kuh Mish intrusions, therefore, define a different

magmatic suite in the northeastern CIP.

In the Bornavard granitoid, the role of fractional crystallisation is indicated in

compositional variation of granodiorite samples (Sections 5.3.2.2 and 7.1.3). On Harker

plots (Figs 5.5 and 5.7), with increasing Si02 contents in the granodiorite, a negative

170

correlation occurs for Ti02, total Fe as Fe203, M n O , M g O , CaO, Ba, Rb, Zr, Ce and Y

contents. In particular, Ba, Zr and Zn show an inflexion at Si02 = -69 wt%, indicative

of fractional crystallisation. Furthermore, a negative correlation of Si02 with REE, such

as Ce and Y, indicate typical fractional crystallisation of low temperature I-type granites

(e.g., Chappell et al, 1998).

In the Bornavard granitoid, the youngest pluton is granite of Early Cretaceous age. The

granite samples are quartzofeldspathic (Si02 = 74.84-76.04 wt%), similar in mineralogy

and the contents of most major and trace elements. On the ternary plot of normative Q-

Ab-Or (Fig. 6.4), the granite samples are clustered near the center of the triangle but do

not fall precisely on the position of the 'minimum-temperature' melt of Tuttle and

Bowen (1958). In the case of the 'minimum-melt' composition, due to the

homogenisation of the partial melt, all samples of a pluton would be expected to be

similar in initial 87Sr/86Sr values. The granite samples, however, have high and varied

initial 87Sr/86Sr values (0.73622-0.75008), indicating that the granite is not a 'minimum-

melt'. These features indicate that fractionation in a magma, derived from older

continental crust, is more likely a process in generation of the granite from Bornavard

granitoid. High contents of Na20 and a limited range in ENd values (-4.5 and -5.20) of

the granite samples reduce the possibility of hydrothermal alteration for the generation

of high initial 87Sr/86Sr values.

In the Kashmar granitoid, with increasing Si02 contents in tonalite samples, significant

compositional variation for most major and trace elements does not occur. The tonalite

is rich in microgranular enclaves. It seems that the presence of a considerable amount of

microgranular enclaves as restite (Section 6.4) resulted in the limited fractionation of

171

the tonalitic m a g m a (e.g., Wyborn et al, 1987). In granodiorite and granite with

increasing silica, the microgranular enclaves reduce in size and abundance. The

enclaves are absent from alkali feldspar granite. On Harker plots, the granodiorite and

granite show typical linear trends for most major and trace element contents. As

mineralogical and chemical features of plutons of the Kashmar granitoid show

characteristics of low temperature I-type magmas, fractional crystallisation is not the

only possible process for generation of the linear trends. According to Figure 7.2,

compositional variation of the Kashmar granitoid may be explained by restite

fractionation (Section 7.1.4). This model explains the limited range of the initial

Sr/ Sr and ENd values of the Kashmar granitoids.

The Kashmar granitoid has low initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.70471-0.70569) and sNd (-0.70 to -

1.86) values (Table 5.1 and Fig. 7.3). These values are consistent with Sr-Nd isotopic

features of I-type granites originating from infra-crustal source rocks. The age (43.5-

42.4 Ma), initial 87Sr/86Sr and ENd values of the Kashmar granitoid show a very limited

range, indicating typical synchronous plutonism and the generation of magmas from

compositionally similar source rocks. Variation in chemical composition of these

magmas resulted from fractional crystallisation and restite separation.

The Bornavard granitoid exhibits a broad spectrum of isotopic characteristics with high

initial 87Sr/86Sr values ranging from 0.70757 to 0.75008 and low negative £Nd values

ranging from -1.41 to -5.20 (Table 5.1). These data indicate that magmas of the

Bornavard granitoid were generated from isotopically-evolved continental crust.

Significant enrichment in initial 87Sr/86Sr values may indicate that magmas of the

R7

Bornavard granitoid were extensively contaminated with radiogenic Sr ( Sr) derived

172

from older felsic rocks of the continental crust or that the magmas were produced by

partial melting of old felsic rocks of the continental crust.

The Kuh Mish intrusions are very low in initial (at 42.8 Ma) 87Sr/86Sr values (0.70386-

0.70475) and very high in £Nd values (+8.02 to +6.30). The primitive isotopic signatures

of the Kuh Mish intrusions indicate that mantle is the only source for their generation.

Similarity in Sr-Nd isotopic data between the Kuh Mish intrusions indicates that they

are genetically related. However, gabbro is significantly higher in Cr, Ni and Sc

contents, and lower in most incompatible elements than granodiorite samples,

suggesting that chemical differences may be the result of fractional crystallisation of

mantle-derived magma.

On rock/primordial mantle-normalised spider diagrams (Figs 5.2, 5.6 and 5.13), I-type

granitoids of northeastern CJP show enrichment in most LFSE and LREE but relative

depletion in HFSE, compared with primordial mantle-normalised values. This is

characteristic of subduction-related magmas, consistent with subduction of the Neo-

Tethys Oceanic crust beneath the CJP during the Late Mesozoic and Tertiary.

Enrichment in HFSE and depletion in LFSE (particularly Nb, Ti, U and Hf) contents for

the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids, compared with the Kuh Mish intrusions, are

consistent with crustal sources of the Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids. Distinct

negative anomalies in Ba with respect to the adjacent Rb and Th indicate that the

Kashmar and Bornavard granitoids were emplaced in continental margins (e.g., Sewell

and Campbell, 1997). Conversely, primitive isotopic features and small variations

between LFSE and HFSE in the Kuh Mish intrusions indicate the possibly an island arc

environment (e.g., Price et al, 1999).

173

Sr-Nd isotopic data show that granitoids of the Taknar Zone originated from crustal

igneous rocks, but Middle-Late Eocene granitoids are less isotopically-evolved than

Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous granitoids. In the Sabzevar Zone, Middle-Late

Eocene rocks are the most isotopically primitive rocks of the northeastern CJP.

Explanation for a trend towards more isotopically primitive magmatism in younger

magmas is in agreement with a 'basification' model (Section 7.1.8). This model

suggests that the continental crust in northeastern CIP became more mafic with time by

repeated injection of basaltic and andesitic magmas derived from subduction of the

Neo-Tethys Oceanic crust beneath the CIP.

The granitoid rocks of northeastern CIP are low in the contents of Rb, Y and Nb. Using

discrimination diagrams of Nb-Y and Rb versus (Y + Nb) for tectonic environments

(Figs 7.4 and 7.5), these rocks plot in the 'volcanic arc + syn-collisional' granite field of

Pearce et al. (1984) and Forster et al. (1997). The position of the Kuh Mish intrusions in

the lowermost part of the VAG + syn-COLG field is consistent with their low initial

87Sr/86Sr and strongly positive ENd values and indicates that these intrusions are possibly

related to island arc environments. The Kuh Mish intrusions are compositionally similar

to the I-type tonalitic association in the American Cordillera and in particular, to the

western Pemnsular Ranges Batholith.

174

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O a 3 3

S'*I

o

H o

i I. O

.4

3 a.

03

f£ o

r 3" rc o

a rt>

in tr ro"

a.

trt 3 rp

c P

ce

3

o a

n o a o s tu

o

r O

O

2 0 4 '

Figure 2.3 Representative regional-aureole granites of Iran.

TURKMENIYA

ARABIAN PLATFORM

Figure 2.4 Representative contact-aureole granites of Iran.

2 0 6

Figure 2.5 Representative subvolcanic granites of Iran.

207

57" 45'

V V V V v" V V V V 57" 50'

35*25'

*T 35° 20'

Qt Quaternary deposits (alluvium fans and terraces)

V V V

+ + +

f r r •

' r r r

/ / / .,/ / /

W I ' l l

Limestone \ (Late Cretaceous)

Andesite and basaltic rocks (Cretaceous)

Bornavard Granitoid

Taknar Rhyolite

Metavolcanic rocks

Dolomite (Late Palaeozoic - Early Mesozoic)

Sample Sites: 1 = R15948,2 = R15949, 3 = R15950,4 = R15951, 5 = R15952

Figure 3.1 Generalized geological map of east of the Taknar Zone, northeastern Central

Iran Plate (after Valipour, 1992).

208

< < < -H H H || ||

e. vo vo jrj Jd WVO U> £ Ul . " " vo D WtO i-» © o

CO S3

I-CO

VO

II

Ul VO

o

\0 W Ui J* Wi vo VO V J M H

• o *. (0- -CO to 00 -

II w <* " u> & II II O II

8KK£S (0 M Ui £ M

i, VO JX

Iw ^ t- II

2 II II w

LO

i*M • C Wi Ui »vo u.i N 0> to . ^ 00

Ul

W

II &

to —. vo W vj h-

II 11

^ # hr-

II to h-

11 n II 8

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\ \ s \ s \ \ \

a

a K -I

—• 2. rH — » 2.

a. a. h- ?

VO

o 8

o

o

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» 1 ^ s1 n a

n

8 .* •i

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E

o

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0 i o

+ +

+

+

o

o c a to

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3.

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<-<!

s o 3"

T 3 to '-<

Q s jp m s-1 •3=2

^2 8. (••3S.

JJ H o\

Ul in

0.6

0.5

0

Age=42.8±0.2Ma Initial = 0.70548±0.00003 M S W D = 5.3

X

80 160 240 320 400

87Rb/86Sr

Figure 3.3 Rb/Sr whole rock isochron diagram for granodiorite, granite and alkali

feldspar granite from the Kashmar granitoid. M S W D = Mean Squares of Weighted

Deviates, used as a measure of the goodness of fit of the isochron.

210

57" 45' 57" 50'

v v v v v v v yn/ v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v yj / j v v v v v v . v v v v v v v ^ -n^^yf/j

0 • fi 0 o o

/- w « v V V V V V o SABZEVAR ZONE ^

- v v v v v v v v v / J v v o ax £x \ y a / v v v v v v v /°\v v_ v v v v v^v

V V V V V V V V V / / V

v v v v v v v v v v V V V V V V V V V V V v v v v v v v v v v V v V V V V v

57" 55' ' '""'I

58° 00'

?//,i£iii

uncVi Fau«

Anabad

o c>

Babolhakain

o o

Bardaskau

: 35° 25'

- 35° 20'

'To Kashmar -»ji^. j£>

•+ + >| Bornavard granitoid (Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous) I Qt I Quaternary deposits

f j 1 i\ Taknar Rhyolite

11 11\ Metavolcanic rocks

o o | Volcano-sedimentary rocks (Eocene)

I i ' j Limestone (Cretaceous)

"1 Late Palaeozoic - Early Mesozoic sedimentary rocks V V | Andesile and basaltic rocks (Cretaceous)

• Sample Sites: 1 = R15938, 2 = R15939, 3 = R15940,4 = R15941, 5 = R15942, 6 = R15943, 7 = R15944, 8 = R15945, 9 = R15946,10 = R15947,11 = R15953,12 = R15954,13 = R15955

Figure 3.4 Geological map of the Bornavard area (after Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1976).

211

QUARTZ

+ Tonalite

x Granodiorite

* Granite

• Alkali feldspar granite

K-FELDSPAR PLAGIOCLASE

Figure 4.1 'Modal compositions (quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase) of the Kashmar



Streckeisen, 1991). Albite

100

100 "A A A A A A A A A

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 in Anorthite Orthoclase

Figure 4.2 Plagioclase composition from the Kashmar granitoid.

212

~ 0.3^ 3

«, 0.25 -

o> 1 0.2-a E 0.15-(0

2 0.1-55

1 0.05 -o 'i2 0 -

1 kbar

^& » VJ i •

0 0.5 1

Total Al in amphibole (a.f.u.)

3 kbar

•

1.5

Figure 4.3 Diagram of Ti versus total Al for magnesio hornblende from the Kashmar

granitoid, with pressure contours determined according to Johnson and Rutherford

(1989a).

2.7 -

1* -

2.3 -

Al" 2.1 1.9 -

1.7 H

— -~: ~ ' " I

3

j ; \ 3

\ # ij

\

• 1

—I — I 1 1 1 1 I I I

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0,9 1

Annite Mg/(Mg+Fe) Phlogopite

Figure 4.4 Composition of biotite crystals from the Kashmar granitoid. The boundary

between phlogopite and annite is proposed at Mg/(Mg + Fe) = 0.7 (Gribble, 1988).

10 12 14 16 18 20

MgO (wt%)

Figure 4.5 Plot of M g O versus A1203 from biotite of the Kashmar granitoid.

Discriminant lines are after Abdel-Rahman (1994). A = Anorogenic, P = Peraluminous

and C = Calcalkaline orogenic.

f 80" I 60-o o 50 -o JZ <* 4U "1

0.4

• |* $ * •

1 1

0.5 0.6

Mg/(Mg + Fe)

i

0.7 0.8

Figure 4.6 Relationship between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and whole rock Si02 contents for biotite

from the Kashmar granitoid.

214

4 -i

<r 3 -3

0)

"" 1 " 0

0.4

^^^^^*WMh^teJ8. "w

1 >

0.5 0.6

Mg/(Mg + Fe)

1

i

1 1

• j

i

t

0.7

! i

0.8

Figure 4.7 Diagram showing negative correlation between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and total Fe

(a.f.u.) from biotite of the Kashmar granitoid.

Figure 4.8 Diagram showing negative correlation between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and Ti (a.f.u.)

in biotite from the Kashmar granitoid.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Number of analyses

• Biotite Ll Hornblende

Figure 4.9 Comparison of Mg/(Mg + Fe) between coexisting hornblende and biotite from

the Kashmar granitoid.

Albite

100

\ A A A A A A A A A" 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Anorthite Orthoclase

Figure 4.10 Composition of K-feldspar crystals from the Kashmar granitoid.

QUARTZ

+ Tonalite

x Granodiorite

* Granite

K-FELDSPAR PLAGIOCLASE

Figure 4.11 Modal compositions (quartz, K-feldspar., plagioclase) of the Bornavard



Streckeisen, 1991). Albite

100

100

A A A A A A A A 7\ 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Anorthite Orthoclase

Figure 4.12 Anorthite-Albite-Orthoclase triangle plot for plagioclase composition from

the Bornavard granitoid.

Albite

100

100 Anorthite

100

VX A A" A A A A A A" 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Orthoclase

Figure 4.13 Anorthite-Albite-Orthoclase triangle diagram showing the composition of K-

feldspar crystals in granite from the Bornavard granitoid.

0.25 -

_ 0.2 -

5 0.15 -

r o.i-0.05 -

0 -

1 kbar 3 kbar

# #

w

•# 1 1

Jpl-

! I

0 0.5 1 1.5

Total Al (a.f.u.)

Figure 4.14 Diagram of Ti (a.f.u.) versus total Al (a.f.u.) for magnesio hornblende from

the Bornavard granitoid, with pressure contours determined according to Johnson and

Rutherford (1989a).

-a _

£ 2.5 -(0

1 c 1 . 3 > i t l

0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Annite Mg/(Mg + Fe)

i

0.8 1

Phlogopite

Figure 4.15 Composition of biotite crystals from the Bornavard granitoid.

Figure 4.16 Negative correlation between Mg/(Mg + Fe) and total Fe (a.f.u.) for biotite

crystals from the Bornavard granitoid. 15 -

13

£ • * •

o B

+

O 7 K d CO

2 5 t~-

< I

I

i l l . ' - 1 - ' . I - I . I - ' • ' • ' • ' • '

' 3 V ' ,4',1 ' ' A ' 'Jo S3 ' 57 ' 6» 6 5 6 9 7 3 45 49

I ' ULTRABASIC 45 BASIC 52 INTERMEDIATE "63 ACID

... I i I • I ' I i I'l 73 77

SiOz wl%.

Figure 4.17 Total alkali contents versus Si02 (wt%) classification (TAS) for the Taknar

Rhyolite (fields after Le Maitre, 1989 and Le Bas and Streckeisen, 1991).

219

' Qt Quaternary deposits

|Q Oi Volcano-sedimentary rocks (Eocene);

[-»• 4- ] Kuh Mish intrusions (Middle-Late Eocene)

'' i ' I Limestone (Late Cretaceous)

v v[ Andesite and basaltic rocks (Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary)

• Sample Sites: 1 = R15926, 2 = R15927, 3 = R15928, 4 = R15929, 5 = R15930, 6 = R15931, 7 = R15932, 8 = R15933, 9 = R15934, 10 = R15935, 11 = R15936, 12 = R15937, 13 = R15956

Figure 4.18 Simplified geological map of the Kuh Mish area (after Eftekhar-Nezhad, 1976 and Sahandi, 1989).

* Gabbro x Quartz monzodiorite * Granodiorite

K-FELP5FAR PLAGIOCLASE

Figure 4.19 Modal compositions (quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase) of the Kuh Mish

intrusions. Fields are based on classification of igneous rocks, proposed by the IUGS


Streckeisen, 1991). Ca2Si20B (Wo)

100-

100

"A A A A A A — " " A A A 7 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Mg2S2D6 (En) Fe28iZ06 (Fs)

Figure 4.20 Composition of clinopyroxene in gabbro from the Kuh Mish intrusions.

Alblle

O Gabbro • Granodiorite

100

"A A A A A A A A . A 100 90 80 70 60 50 • 40 30 20 10

Anorfhlle Orthoclase

Figure 4.21 Composition of plagioclase crystals in gabbro and granodiorite from the Kuh

Mish intrusions.

221

•n 0-3 r

9, 0,2 I * 0.1

- i — i — i — r - i — i — r = j f — i — i — i — i — j — i — i — i — i — | — i — i — r - i — i — i — r - ;

t * fo£ ##

* *

O

o 8

O U

O bO

2

o <L>

l**H

o (N

3

o

4

2 5 4 .3

6 4 2 4 2

0.12 0. 08 0.04

8

4

1 6 1 4 1 2

0.8

0 . 4

4-+ +

+ + ****m * * •

•

-dr ++

X *

* * •

fir%-

+ + '^*

+ +

* * r-ip| nryn

+ + * #*** ' ' i i ! i i i — i — I — i — ; — i — L .

l i i i i M i i > • J I L

i i i t

UL J L dni. ran i

t

!_ | "I I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 M M l N ' ^ ^ $

+ + X * # *

#

np, +=f^-

+ + **^** * #

D D I 1 I I I

# + + 1 1 1 1

x *** * * * DD Of

i ' I l _

55 60 , I , • • • I i i — i — i — I — i — " — i — 1 — 3

65 70 75 Si02 (wt%)

Figure 5.1 Harker diagrams for the Kashmar granitoid (oxides, wt%). Symbols: Tonalite

(+), Granodiorite (x), Granite (*) and Alkali feldspar granite (•).

•M

c D

0

V L 0

E L

CL

\

u 0

- 4

E 3

2

= 1

Rb Th K La Sr P Ti Na

Figure 5.2 Multi-element patterns (spider diagrams) for the Kashmar granitoid. The

normalised values are from M c Donough et al (1991). Symbols as Figure 5.1.

D

JZ

C N

2

>

u 00

N

>-

00

JQ

O

16

'.12

30 20 10

50 40 20

800

400

200

1 00

1 2 8 4

200

100

30

20

200

200

100

" i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I -i i i i i I i i i d n i T O i i '

600 r m 400

200

T — I — I — r r - ] — i — i — i — i — | — i — i — i — r

t ++ X "J I I I I I I — I — 1 — 1 — ] — I — I — I — 1 —

rfr ^ c

]•,

+ jfu •+ x

tW ?V "TP TJ^fffh,

* f • D •

+ + * *

t X iit

X ir

* * • a

+ X ...... 7;

+ ' +

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# a WUr

+ +

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*

* *

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x* ^

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+ x * L ? J

x x

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.* *"' x • *

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+ | i i i | j i i i i | i i i i [ 1 1 i i 1 i i i i ; i i i, i i i

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M I I M I iD

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X*

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1 1 1

D D

®

a MM

* a D

4-4-

< • • i I • • • • l • • i • i i i t fi, ,i

55 75 60 65 . 70 Si02 (wt%) -

Figure 5.3 Harker diagrams for trace elements abundances of the Kashmar granitoid

(oxides, wt% and traces, ppm). Symbols as Figure 5.1.

CD

•D

C O

O

CJ

J*

u o

1 00

50

20

1 0

La Eu Tb Ho Lu

O

9 U o

if

o

o

4 r

0,8 h £ 0,4

I I M

Ce... .• Nd Sm Gd . Yb Figure 5.4 Rare earth element patterns for granodiorite, granite and alkali feldspar

granite from the Kashmar granitoid. The normalised values are from Taylor and

Mc Lennan (1985). Symbols as Figure 5.1.

t;'l M I1 [ I i I l'| I I I I |l I I ! | I I II | I M I

2

8 4

6 4 2

0.08 r x X

*

+ x* x

v|Wfab

+

44-

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•¥•

+

x X

XX x

I ' l l I I — I — 1 _ I I I I I I I I I I I • I I I ' I I I I I I — I — I

50 55 60 65 70 75 Si02(wt%)

Figure 5.5 Harker diagrams for the Bornavard granitoid (oxides, wt%). Symbols:

Tonalite (+), Granodiorite (x) and Granite (*).

4-1

c 0

TJ

L CL

u 0 H.

100 =

10 =

1

100

10 =

1

100

10 =

1 E

Rb Th K La Sr P Ti Na

Figure 5.6 Multi-element patterns (spider diagrams) for the Bornavard granitoid. The

normalised values are from M c Donough et al (1991). Symbols as Figure 5.5.

_)

.c f -

c IS)

u LO

3 2 1

8 5

20 10

120 80 40

1200 800 400 200 100 30

20

: i i i i | i i' r-i—i—I--I r1

4-

'J 1 I4J

^ 400 N 200

>-

L.

10

a: .

60 40 20

160 80

120 80 40

a 800 CD 400 t

H r-

4#-

_ i 1 i _ r 1 1 1 1

A-

£

4=N-

4-

4-

4-

4-

+

1 .1...1. 1 .1 ' ' ' 1 —I—T 1" I "I I T T I

4-

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4-£+

1 ,141 I. i 1 1 1 l.i 1 4

~ 1 1—1—1—1—1—r

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x •4-4-

x

X

X

X XX

X*

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I I I I I I l"'l I

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+x-X

I I I ! • [ • • ! • !•

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X

I ' l l I, ,1., (• I ,x

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x *

-£4-4-X m

X - #

X

4-4-4

! ' i i ) W - 4 • •' ••' 1 1 1 1 | I 1 1 1

1*1 I iff

X

X

%

4*H

(X [ I, I I.I I L

50 55 60 . 65 Si02 (wt%)

70 75

Figure 5.7 Harker diagrams for trace elements abundances of the Bornavard granitoid

(oxides, wt% and traces, ppm). Symbols as Figure 5.5.

Q)-

•o

c o

JZ

O O

o o

- 3

: 2

- 1

Ce Nd Sm Gd Figure 5.8 Rare earth element patterns for tonalite, granodiorite and granite from the

Bornavard granitoid. The normalised values are from Taylor and Mc Lennan (1985).

Symbols as Figure 5.5.

0,75

« 0,74 CO vo BO

£ 0.73 73 •iH ••rH

& 0 .72

0. 71

0. 70

- r - i — i — 1 — | — i — i — i — i — [ • i i i i [ i t i i | i i i i i . ' ' ' » t ' ' r~r

X

# X

X

•a + +n 4-4-

x

dr U _ I — I — L I • , , • I • • • • I i i i i I i i r I 1 I I ' ••'

4 .1 I I I I

0 55 60 65 70 75 Si02 (wt%)

Figure 5.9 Plot of initial 87Sr/86Sr versus Si02 (wt%) for igneous rocks of the

northeastern CIP. Symbols: Kashmar (+), Bornavard (x), Taknar (*) and Kuh Mish (D).

<D

T5

O

£

CL

O o LY

100 r

30 -

10 r

3 -

1 r

Rb Th K. La S'r P • Ti Na

Figure 5.10 Multi-element patterns (spider diagrams) for the Taknar Rhyolite,

northeastern CIP. The normalised values are from Mc Donough et al. (1991).

v

C o JZ

O CJ

u o LY

1 00

50

20

10

5

i i i I

/ i i

i i

i i

-

— i —

La C

— i ' —

e N d

i i i i

• i

S Eu

m G Tb

d

i i

i Ho

i i i i

-

^ ^ _ , i , i -

i — i — i —

Y Lu

b

Figure 5.11 Rare earth element pattern for the Taknar Rhyolite, northeastern CIP. The

normalised values are from Taylor and Mc Lennan (1985).

a 80 r 40 i

M I I | l)[ I I | I I J I | I I I I | l I H | I I I I | I M I .

800 *3-

>

o

9 P-O 6fj

300 200 100

4 2

16 a

8

j i

s-

r4-

4 r

o

o

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0.16

0 .08

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1 6 14

7*-

"M-

^

t_l I I L

X X

X

t-H-X x

X

* X

x xx

X x X

4-x-ir x

^>H-4-x X

X

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X *

++

*

I I I I

X *

X

_1_ i i r i

X *

x *

X *

*

4^4-4

*

I I 11 T

,**

* ^ # # *

:*. ) |* Vl*. I *

r-r-r

\*\*\*ft\ 1 t

*

rm *

* * %

• .*r. i * • i i i i • i i i i i i i i i — L _ J — i — i — i — i

50 55 -60 65 70 75 Si02(wt%)

Figure 5.12 Harker diagrams for Gabbro (+), quartz monzodiorite (x) and granodiorite

(*) from the Kuh Mish area, northeastern CJP (oxides, w t % and traces ppm).

QJ

C G

TJ i_

O

£

Q.

o 0 LY

= 3

2

Rb Th K La Sr

Figure 5.13 Multi-element patterns (spider diagrams) for gabbro (+), quartz monzodiorite

(x) and granodiorite (*) from the Kuh Mish area, northeastern CIP. The normalised

values are from Mc Donough et al. (1991).

tu

TJ C

o JZ

o CJ

J* u o C£

Figure 5.14 Rare earth element patterns for gabbro (+) and granodiorite (*) from the Kuh

Mish area, northeastern CIP. The normalised values are from Taylor and McLennan

(1985).

_ p I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

%

s o u

o

8 r 4 =•

*a 10

8 4

o 3

1 6 14 12

0,3

* • 0 . 1

x

i r * i ~

D J

D *

D

"- D l"t.l ti^flWlEflrp^

n n*P x •

X+ + D +^ffN--Hu. x. #*• xflJJqQ]

X • JCff"" ''

x^^cf

"+ Mil ij?t

r X D

"Q_i—i—i—I i_i i Ql i_

+*&

50 5F .,, i .... i ..... i . T ^ - H l ^ ^ j i_

•a 60. 65 70 75 Si02 (wt%)

Figure 6.1 Plot of major elements against Si02 contents for plutonic rocks of the

northeastern CIP. (oxides, wt%). Symbols: Kashmar granitoid (+), Bornavard granitoid

(x) and Kuh Mish intrusions (D).

>-

03

800 C

3 0 0 i- ' > 200 r x

1 oo a

1 ' V I 'ill luy

60 r 40 I 20 40 20

33-

a-20 10 80

o 40

tl l l*l

"dr D7 HH-f

•n + • ^

44^-

CT P"ft[

"i i i | i i i i ] i i i i ] i i i i | i i i r

I 1 I 1 1 I R I I 1 Ml I

x++° + * "4-fl^K x ++ +^=fo"^-

+-* ,• 1 1 1 I 1 i,l I t

K+f +Xp%+#f x ^ ^ + f f

i i [qi i9| i i i i ffifft | iii

,+ , . HdfH-W=t: « + £ 4^ +

tq no1 X [qqqq^g

+»c.

i Tj i |X, | ,q D a J I I u

X + + + 4^V^

x x+X4- + * in , ,p t , , •, , ipdlrm in •

50 55 60 65 70 75

Si02(wt%)

Figure 6.2 Plot of trace elements abundances against Si02 contents for plutonic rocks of

the northeastern CIP. (oxides wt%, traces, ppm, symbols as Figure 6.1).

. 1 | | I | | I i I | I. I I I \ 1 I I I | I I I1 I ) I I M | .1 I I I | I I I I j 1 I I I | I I I I -

0 s

2

6 ¥ o a & " • f t

O < U

' 75 70 65 60 55 50

3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1 ,5 1 ,0 0 . 5

X i P a

a

.1 n 1111111 D i ji i M 1111 I 111 Et

a

X

r Metaluminous

L Peralkaline F . . i . I • . i . I I I I I I I I. I t I I I I I I I I,.

0.6 0.8 1.0

ASI

4+

Peraluminous

P

#

(b)

(a)

. 1 1 . i . . . • 1 1 1 • • i • • • •••i

1 .2 1.4

Figure 6.3 (a) Aluminum Saturation Index (ASI) and (b) Si02 contents versus ASI values

for igneous rocks of the northeastern CJP. The boundary between metaluminous and

peraluminous at ASI = 1.1 proposed by Chappell and White (1974) because they

recognised more generally that very felsic I-type granites may be weakly peraluminous

(Chappell, 1998b). Symbols: Kashmar granitoid (+), Bornavard granitoid (x), Kuh Mish

intrusions (C) and Taknar Rhyolite (*).

Q

Ab

0.5 kb 3.0 kb

ii u -S. Or

Figure 6.4 Ternary plot of normative Q-Ab-Or for granite from the. Bornavard granitoid.

The curves for water-saturated liquids in equilibrium with quartz and K-feldspar at 0.5

and 3.0 kb are from Tuttle and Bowen (1958). The position of •minimum-melt'

compositions of Tuttle and Bowen (1958) are shown by a cross (+) on each curve.

2 -

c

16

8

M I I | i i . i | i i i . | I I I I | I I I I | ) I I I | I M I I I I I I | I I { I [ | i | |

4 - I I I I | I I I I I l l l l l l l l I I I I 1 I I I I 1 1 I I I I I 1 I I

_ 4

±

11 n [i 111 11 11

ll H IL

i i t i i i i i i i f . i i i i i . / i i i t < i i i i i i < f i f i i i 1 1 1 1 » t i

0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 Aluminum Saturation Index (ASI)

Figure 6.5 Histograms of ASI frequency for igneous rocks of the northeastern CIP.

Numbers in the right side of the histograms indicate 1 = Kashmar granitoid, 2 =

Bornavard granitoid, 3 = Taknar Rhyolite and 4 = Kuh Mish intrusions.

Igneous A C F (Molecular%) •

Al203-K26-Na20

Plagioclase /Peraluminous

CaO F e O + M g O

Figure 7.1 A C F diagram for plutonic rocks of the northeastern CIP. Plagioclase-(FeO +

M g O ) line defines ASI (aluminum saturation index) = 1, which divides peraluminous and

metaluminous granitoids (Chappell and White, 1992).

o

VI

OS (D P-,

•5

8 -

6 -

4 -

2 -

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-

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-

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+ N

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. . | 1 . 1 1

-

—

--,.

-

-

1,1,1 1 1 w 1,

55 •70 75 60 . 65 Si02(wt%)

Figure 7.2 Harker diagram for total Fe as Fe203 in the Kashmar granitoid. The diagram

represents the partial melting of the source rock (S) to produce restite (R) and a liquid as

'minimum-melt' (M) composition (Chappell et al., 1987). The magma at its source

consists of (R+M) and varying degrees of separation of R from M generated a range of

magma and rock compositions, illustrated by granodiorite (x), granite (*) and alkali

feldspar granite (G).

10

£Nd °

-10

• •

1 ,

,1

, 1

• * x *

X

X

crust

1 —

mantle

,

X X i

x 1 1 i

— , _ ^ 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.76

Initial Sr/^Sr

+ Kashmar x Bornavard n Kuh Mish

Figure 7.3 Diagram showing initial 87Sr/86Sr versus eNd values for Kashmar granitoid (+),

Bornavard granitoid (x) and Kuh Mish intrusions (D). The boundary between mantle and

crust (SN<J = 0) is from Rollinson (1993).

£ Q-

O.

Z

1 0.00

30 0

100

30

10 t

3 :

VAG 4 Syn-COLG

a • i a i i i i m i 100 1000

Y ppm

Figure 7.4 The Nb-Y discrimination diagram for granitoid rocks of the northeastern CIP.

The fields (Pearce et al, 1984; Forster et al, 1997) show volcanic-arc granites (VAG),

syn-collisional granites (Syn-COLG), within-plate granites ( W P G ) and ocean-ridge

granites (ORG). The broken line is the field boundary for O R G from anomalous ridges.

Symbols: Kashmar granitoid (4), Bornavard granitoid (x) and Kuh Mish intrusions {•).

1 l I l l 11| 1 — r — T T 1 1 M I I ll|

I a • ' '' " a1 ' ' '' I I I I I I 1 1 1

10 - 100 (Y 4- Nb) ppm

1000

Figure 7.5 The R b versus (Y + Nb) discrimination diagram for granitoid rocks of the

northeastern CIP. The fields and symbols are as Figure 7.4.

Xable 2.1 Isotopic age data for some Iranian granitoids and volcanic rocks

Locality Lithology

Regional-Aureole Granitoids (CIP) Chapedony

Doran

granite

granite

Contact-Aureole Granitoids (CIP)

Mashhad

Shirkuh

Airakan

Torbat-e-Jam

Sangan

cjuartz diorite

granite granite

granite

granite granite

granite

Material dated

whole rock

biotite-whole rock

biotite

biotite K-feldspar

whole rock

biotite biotite

biotite

Contact-Aureole Granitoids (SSMZ)

Hamadan pegmatite

pegmatite gabbro

gabbro

granodiorite

granodiorite

Subvolcanic Granitoids (U-DVB)

Natanz

Karkas

Jebal-e-Barez

gabbro

granite granodiorite granodiorite

granite

Volcanic Rocks (CIP) Kashmar

Gonabad

Bejestan

dacite

dacite

andesite

andesite

Volcanic Rocks (U-DVB)

Shahrbabak

Aghda Islamic Penin<n -ikJiUU.JJLV*' 1 W J J J i j L

Abbreviations:

trachyte tephriphonolite

quartz monzonite

dacite trachyandesite

ila trachyte

CIP = Central Irai

muscovite-whole rock

muscovite biotite-whole rock

biotite

biotite-whole rock

biotite

biotite-whole rock

biotite-whole rock whole rock biotite

biotite

hornblende

biotite

whole rock

whole rock

albite K-feldspar

i hornblende

biotite

hornblende

sanidine

Method

Rb/Sr .

Rb/Sr

K/Ar

K/Ar K/Ar

Rb/Sr

K/Ar K/Ar

K/Ar

Rb/Sr

K/Ar Rb/Sr

K/Ar

Rb/Sr

K/Ar

Rb/Sr

Rb/Sr Rb/Sr K/Ar

K/Ar

K/Ar

K/Ar

K/Ar

K/Ar

Ar/Ar Ar/Ar

Ar/Ar

K/Ar

K/Ar

K/Ar

Age (2a)

541-550 175±5

146±3

120±3 186-159

165±8 113±9 153±5

38.4+1

104±3

82.8±3

88.5 89.6±3

68+2

63.8±2.5

33.5±1.2 25.5±0.5

78 38-33

24+0.1

57.2±3.7 43.7+1.7

61±2

54+2

37.5±1.4 22.8±3.2

16.9±0.2 16.4±1

15.7+1 •

6.5+1

i Plate; S-SMZ = Sanandaj-Sirjan Metamorphic

Ref.

(A) (B)

(Q (C) (D) (D) (D) ' (E) (F)

(G) (G) (G) (G) (G) (G)

(H) (H) (D) (D) 0)

(J) (J) (K) CK)

/t \

(L) (L) (L) (M) (M) (M)

Zone; U-DVB =

Urumiyeh-Dokhtar Volcanic Belt. References: (A) = Haghipour (1978); (B) = Crawford (1977); ( Q Alberti et al. (1973); (D) = Reyre and Mohafez (1972); (E) = Aghanabati (1993); (fl[ == Ternet et al (1990); (G) = Valizadeh and Cantagtel (1975); <H) = Berberian (1981); (T) = C W i et al (1977); (J) = Bernhardt

(1983); (K) = Bina et al. (1986); (L) = Hassanzadeh (1993); (M) = Moradian (1997).

46 I

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Table 6.1 Compilation ot mean whole rock major and trace element data for I-, S- and A-type granitoids (oxides, wt% and traces, ppm). For rocks of the current study, total Fe is assumed as Fe„0, Locality

No. of samples Granite-type Si02

Ti02

A1203

FeA FeO MnO MgO CaO Na20

K20

P2O5 ASI

KASH 29

I-type 66.80

0.47

14.89

3.94

n.a. 0.06 1.45 2.97

3.81

3.55

0.12

0.97 Trace elements (ppm)

Ba Rb Sr Pb Th U Zr Nb Y La Ce Sc V Cr Mn Ni Cu Zn Sn Ga

494 97 249 8 13 3 175 10 24 25 50 9 71 8

,507 2 10 32 <5 15

BOR 13

I-type 69.84

0.44

13.11

3.84

n.a.

0.05 1.99 2.72

3.95

2.63

0.08 0.95

516 66 90 10 15 2 234 10 48 30 67 17 . 48 15 425 11 9 42 <5 16

TAK 5

I-type 76.41

0.14

12.01

2.21

n.a. 0.03

I 0.4 1.02

3.10

3.92

0.04

1.12

802 107 50 8 20 3 134 9 41 27 58 4 4 2 210 2 8 110 <5 15

KUH 13

I-type 64.68

0.36

14.34

5.03

n.a. 0.08 3.13 5.56

3.46

0.92

0.07 0.92

140 15 154 2 2 1 57 2 15 7 9 24 117 74 735 26 29 38 J <5 12

JOBTK 60

I-type 67.80

0.41

14.15

4.01

n.a.

0.06 1.84 3.31

3.71

2.81

0.09 0.97

448 73 177 7 12 2 159 8 29 22 45 14 70 23 514 9 14 42 <5 15

NATAN 26

I-type

61.65

0.69

16.37

2.07

3.40 0.12 3.00 6.05

3.44

1.93

0.08 0.87

n.a. 63 285 n.a. n.a. n.a. 100 10 26 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

MASH 18

S-type

71.45

0.08

16.39

0.35

0.44 0.07 0.24 1.50

3.73

5.61

0.12

1.10

242 269 134 44 6 2 25 19 7 n.a. n.a. 2 27 26 n.a. 9 6 31 n.a. 19

LFB 1074 I-type 69.50

0.41

14.21

1.01 2.22 0.07 1.38 3.07

3.16

3.48

0.11 0.985

519 164 235 19 20 5 150 11 31 31 66 13 57 20 n.a. 8 9 48 6 16

LFB 704

S-type 70.91

0.44

14.00

0.52

2.59 0.06 1.24 1.88

2.51

4.09

0.15 1.179

440 245 112 27 19 5 157 13 32 27 61 11 49 30 n.a. 11 9 59 j 10 18

LFB 43

A-type 73.47

0.30

12.88

0.90

1.63 0.06 0.30 1.06

3.50

4.62

0.07 n.a.

547 188 96 27 24 5 322 26 71 55 130 11 9 2

n.a. 2 5 95 8 22

PRB 323

I-type 64.63

0.65

15.94

1.20

3.19 0.08 2.15 5.10 3.62

1.95

0.13 n.a.

641 60 375 10 7.2 1.5 139 6.7 19 16 35 14 85 47 587 13 10 76 n.a. 18.3

WPRB 174

I-type . 63.41

0.64

15.70

1.55

3.60 0.09 2.71 5.70

3.45

1.69

0.10 n.a.

451 49 268 8 6 1.4 130 5.1 24 12 28 19 115 67 704 18 16 66 n.a. 16.4

EPRB 149

I-type 66.05

0.65

16.23

0.78

2.71 0.06 1.49 4.41

3.82

2.26

0.15 n.a.

863 73 501 12 8.6 .1.7 150 8.6 12 20 43 8 50 24 451 6 3 88 n.a. 20.5

Abbreviations and the source of data: KASH = Kashmar granitoid; BOR = Bornavard granitoid; TAK = Taknar

Rhyolite; K U H = Kuh Mish intrusions; KBTK = the average of 60 analyses in this study, from Kashmar,

Bornavard, Taknar and Kuh Mish regions; NATAN = Natanz intrusive rocks that are subvolcanic and form part

of the U-DVB in Iran (Berberian, 1981); MASH = Mashhad Granite that is the largest contact-aureole granite in

northeastern Central Iran Plate (Iranmanesh and Sethna, 1998); LFB = Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia (Chappell and

White, 1992); PRB = Peninsular Ranges Batholith, USA (Silver and Chappell, 1988); WPRB = Western

Peninsular Ranges Batholith; EPRB = Eastern Peninsular Ranges Batholith. For easy compilation, the column

data for KBTK (all analyses of this study) is bold.

240

APPENDIX 1

ANALYTICAL METHODS

1.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION

With one of the main aims of the thesis being completion of the granite data-base for the

Kashmar, Bornavard, and Kuh Mish areas, granite sampling were undertaken from

several traverses across the granitoid bodies. To ensure something approaching

representative sampling of all intrusions at least three samples were selected in more

detail from each variety at different locality. All samples were microscopically studied

and modally analysed; the general homogeneity of bodies reduced selected samples to

60 choices that govern both external and internal variability, and the validity of this

approach.

Granite samples were collected on field trip to Iran in 1994 by author and Dr. Paul F.

Carr. The samples were taken by sledge hammer as to use only fresh, internal rock, and

free of imperfections e.g. enclaves, viens, etc., and were of hand size. The samples were

individually put into plastic bags, then wrapped in paper or cloth pieces, and transported

in suitable boxes for shipment to Wollongong.

1.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION

Samples were first cut by saw and carefully removed the weathered parts (although rare)

and obtained rock slabs; then were broken down by hammer to small rock fragments.

All rock fragments were washed and dryed in room temperature. Using a hydraulic rock

241

spliter (with tungsten-carbide plates), the rock fragments were split into small pieces

roughly <1 cm3. This aggregate was milled in partial for 1 to 3 minutes by a tungsten-

carbide mill (TEMA) embarked upon a shaking machine, to result at least 500 g of fine

powder for each sample. Then the resulting powder was homogenised and bagged. A

representative sample was taken from this powder used for analytical processes such as

major oxides, trace and rare earth elements, and isotope determination. After preparation

of each sample, the hydraulic spliter was brushed then cleaned up by acetone. The

TEMA was washed with hot water, and followed by washing with acetone.

Additionally, where the rocks were somewhat geochemically different from the previous

sample (e.g. abundance of hydrous minerals), the TEMA was also cleaned by milling

roughly 100 gm of clean sandbeach.

1.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS

Variety of modern and suitable sample preparation (Saheurs and Wilson, 1993) and

laboratory methods of analysis (Potts, 1993) were employed during this study for

analysing of samples on whole rock powders, separated minerals and thin section, these

being:

- X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) for whole rock major and trace element

analyses,

- Instrumental Nuetron Activation Analysis (INAA) for trace and rare

earth elements (REE),

- Total volatile contents or "loss on ignition" (LOI) determination,

- Isotope determinations (Rb, Sr, Nd) and

- Wave lenght dispersive electron microprobe analysis of minerals.

242

1.3.1 WHOLE ROCK, MAJOR AND TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSES

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry was performed on the whole rock powders

using both fused glass disks for major elements (using a SIEMENS SRS300 XRF) and

pressed powder pellets for trace elements (using automated Phillips PW1450

spectrometer) at the Australian National University, following the methods of Norrish

and Hutton (1969) and Norrish and Chappell (1977). Major and trace element

abundances were determined for 60 representative samples. Other trace elements (REE,

Sc, Cr, Sb, Hf, Th, and U) were determined on 20 representative samples by

Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA). Cobalt, tantalum and wolfram are

not reported due to enrichment as a result of contamination during powder preparation

using tungsten-carbide mill.

1.3.2 TOTAL VOLATILE DETERMINATION

Total volatile or lose on ignition (LOI) were determined gravimetrically at the

University of Wollongong. For each sample approximately 0.5 gm of powder was

accurately weighed into a crucible, that had been previously washed, heated and cleaned

by acetone. Crucible and sample were placed into a furnace at 1000°C for 12 hours.

Then, samples took out from the furnace and cooled at the room temperature, then

accurately weighed after five minutes cooling in a desiccator. The decrease in sample

weight is due to loss of volatiles, and is therefore a direct measure of all volatiles

including H20+, H20", C02. The volatile contents reported as LOI which obtained from

100 x weight lost/weight of sample.

1.3.3 ISOTOPE DETERMINATION (Rb, Sr and Nd)

After careful microscopic study on thin sections, 8 samples with the most freshest

243

biotite were selected for Rb/Sr age dating on biotite-whole rock pair. Samples were

washed and dried in room temperature, then they were broken up into pieces with a size

of 5-10 mm by a tungsten-carbide splitter. Samples were further ground to a grain size

of less than 500 urn by tungsten-carbide ring mill. The powder was washed with tab

water and slowly dried. The individual grain-size fractions were separated using a

magnetic separator tuned up by electric current of 0.8 A and 20° inclination. Dry

shaking (by hand) on white paper was very effective for the initial enrichment of small

biotite flakes. A purity of >99% could be attained only by handpicking under

microscope. To remove mineral inclusions (e.g. apatite), the hand-picked biotites were

ground in an opal mortar, then washed by alcohol. As a final step, biotite grains were

carefully controlled under microscope. At last all biotite fractions were washed by

acetone and distilled water. For each sample, about 0.1 mg of purified biotite was

dissolved in teflon capsule, mixed with a Rb/Sr spike, by using a mixture of HN03 and

HF acids. Analytical processes followed by isotope dilution method. Rb and Sr were

separated and concentrated for mass spectrometric analysis using standard ion-exchange

procetures at School of Geosciences, University of Wollongong, by Dr. P. F. Carr.

Also, a representative subset of 20 whole rock powders (0.1 mg) were analysed for Rb,

Sr and Nd isotope ratios, at School of Geosciences, University of Wollongong and

CSIRO, Sydney by Dr. P. F. Carr.

Isotopic analyses undertaken on a VG 354 mass spectrometer in CSIRO, Sydney.

Replicate analyses of SRM 987 gave 86Sr/88Sr = 0.710251 ± 28 (external precision at

2rj, n = 17) and the JM-Nd standard gave 146Nd/144Nd = 0.511111 ± 12 (external

precision at 2a, n = 17). 87Sr/86Sr normalised to 86Sr/88Sr = 0.1194; 2a analytical

uncertainty for 87Sr/86Sr is ± -0.00005.143Nd/144Nd normalised to 146Nd/144Nd = 0.7219;

244

2a analytical uncertainty for £Nd is ± -0.5 units. Ages, 87Rb/86Sr, 147Sm/144Nd, SN<I, and

initial ratios (87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd), were calculated by the programs CIS and X =

1.42 xlOâ"1. The MSWD, 2a uncertainty in age and 87Sr/86Sr (initial) were calculated

by standard percents of 0.8 and 0.008, respectively for X (87Rb/86Sr) and Y (87Sr/86Sr)

axes.

1.3.4 M I C R O P R O B E M I N E R A L A N A L Y S I S

Mineral analyses reported in this work were undertaken on the CAMECA SX50

electron microprobe fitted with 5 wavelength dispersive spectrometers (WDS) at the

School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University. The WDS was operated using an

accelerating voltage of 15 kV and a beam current of 20 nA with 10 pm beam size. The

count times are 30 seconds on peak, 30 seconds on background for Si, Ti, Al, Cr, Fe,

Mn, Mg, Ca, Ni, 10 seconds on peak, 10 seconds on background for Na and K.

Typical natural mineral standards were run for each element program include Si, Al, Na-

albite, Ti-rutile, Cr-chromite, Fe-hematite, Mn-spessartine, Mg-forsterite, Ca-

wollastonite, K-orthoclase and synthetic mineral standard includes Ni-Ni-olivine.

Correction proceture is based on the Cameca PAP method. Lower levels of detection

(wt% oxide) are Si-0.04; Ti-0.03; Al-0.02; Cr-0.05; Fe-0.05; Mn-0.05; Mg-0.04; Ca-

0.03; Na-0.04; K-0.04; Ni-0.06.

Precision (rsd at wt% in brackets) for elements include Si-0.21 (50 wt%); Ti-1.72 (1.0

wt%); Al-0.29 (20 wt%); Cr-3.46 (1 wt%); Fe-0.94 (10 wt%); Mn-3.18 (1 wt%); Mg-

0.46 (10 wt%); Ca-0.55 (10 wt%); Na-0.94 (10 wt%); K-0.96 (10 wt%); Ni-3.22 (1

245

wt%).

Structural formulae for amphibole analyses were calculated on the basis of 23 oxygens

(assumed anhydrous) with site allocation as suggested by Robinson et al. (1982, p.5-6).

Ferric iron contents were estimated by utilizing assumptions of crystal-chemical

limitations on cation substitution and total cation assumptions as outlined by Robinson

et al. (1982, p.6-9). In this case the predominant option used was total cations exclusive

of K, Na and Ca calculated to 13. This succeeded in successful atomic formulae for all

analyses. Amphibole nomenclature follows the recommendations of Leake (1978) and

Deer et al. (1997).

About 20 analyses have been done on a certain mineral from every sample (including

cores and rims). For each sample, representative analyses of a particular mineral were

selected and listed in Appendix 3.

246

APPENDIX 2

MODAL MINERALOGY AND C. I. P. W. NORMS

ABBREVIATIONS USED

Rocks: A.F.G. = Alkali feldspar granite Grd. = Granodiorite Q.M.D. = Quartz monzodiorite

For each sample, the modal mineral contents were determined by recognition of 500 spots under Research Microscope (Lietz Orthoplan), equiped by a digital point counter.

C. I. P. W. Norms:

Q = Quartz C = Corundum Or = Orthoclase Ab - Albite An = Anorthite Di = Diopside Hy = Hypersthene 01 = Olivine Mi = Montmorillonite 7Z = niite Ap = Apatite Diff. Index = Differentiation Index C. I. = Colour Index Norm Plag. = Normative Plagioclase Composition = 100 An/(An+Ab)

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APPENDIX 3

ELECTRON MICROPROBE ANALYSES

A B B R E V I A T I O N S U S E D

Spot: R = Rim C = Core

The number located on the left side of spot (e.g. 1-R or 1-C) indicates number of grain. The number located on the right side of spot (e.g. R-l or C-l) indicates number of analyses.

Rocks: (3rd = Granodiorite A.F.G. = Alkali feldspar granite Tona. = Tonalite

Minerals: Mag. = Magnetite Titmag. = Titanomagnetite Hmen. = Ilmenite Plag. = Plagioclase K-feld.= K-feldspar P = Phenocryst G = Groundmass

The letters m and r, respectively define mineral and rock where they are subscripted.

CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

For hornblende analyses Fe3+ estimated using 13CNK normalisation from Robinson (1982), and Mg* = Mg/(Mg + Fe2+). "

For biotite analyses total Fe is assumed as FeO contents.

For clinopyroxene analyses Fe* = total Fe + Mn (Deer et al., 1992). End members were calculated based on En = 100Mg/(Ca + Fe* + Mg); W o = 100Ca/(Ca + Fe* + Mg) and Fs = 100Fe*/(Ca + Fe* + Mg).

TABLE ORGANISATION

In each table, rock types are listed according to decreasing in modal contents of plagioclase e.g. tonalite, granodiorite, Granite, etc. Also, for each rock-type, tables start with analyses containing the lowest Si02 content of the whole-rock and continue towards the highest Si02 content.

253

KASHMAR GRAMTOID:

Appendix 3.1 Plagioclase (84 analyses) Appendix 3.2 Hornblende (22 analyses) Appendix 3.3 Biotite (24 analyses) Appendix 3.4 Fe-Ti oxides (22 analyses) Appendix 3.5 K-feldspar (3 6 analyses)

BORNAVARD GRANITOID:

Appendix 3.6 Plagioclase (44 analyses) Appendix 3.7 K-feldspar (12 analyses) Appendix 3.8 Hornblende (24 analyses) Appendix 3.9 Biotite (24 analyses) Appendix 3.10 Fe-Ti oxides (16 analyses), allanite (4 analyses)

TAKNAR RHYOLITE:

Appendix 3.11 Feldspars (8 analyses), Appendix 3.11 Biotite (2 analyses) and Appendix 3.11 Fe-Ti oxides (2 analyses)

KUH MISH INTRUSIONS:

Appendix 3.12 Clinopyroxene (6 analyses) Appendix 3.13 Plagioclase (21 analyses) Appendix 3.14 Hornblende (16 analyses) Appendix 3.15 Biotite (8 analyses) and Appendix 3.15 Fe-Ti oxides (4 analyses)

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261

Appendix 3.2 Mineral chemistry and structural formulae of hornblende (23 oxygens) from Kashmar granitoid (oxides, wt%).

Sample No. Rock Name

Rock Si02

Spot

Si02 Ti02

AI203

MgO CaO MnO FeO Na20 K20 Total

Si Ti Al Mg Ca Mn Fe Na K Total

A1IV

Al71

Fe3+

Fe2+

Ca(M3) Fe(M4) Ca(M4) Na(M4) Na(A) K(A)

Mg* Fe/(Fe+Mg)

MgO/FeO MgO^MgO, FeOJFeOr Ti02m/Ti02r

Mg* = Mg/(Mg + FeH, R15908 R15908 Grd. 62.30 1-R

47.43 1.32 6.51 12.35 10.81 0.69 16.71 1.16 0.58

97.56

6.924 0.144 1.120 2.687 1.690 0.085 2.039 0.329 0.107 15.125

1.076 0.044 0.930 1.109 0.000 0.000 1.690 0.310

0.019 0.107

0.71 0.43 0.74 6.40 3.49 2.10

Grd. 62.30 1-C

45.71 1.75 7.17 11.17 11.21 0.68 17.56 1.43 0.76

97.44

6.800 0.196 1.257 2.476 1.787 0.085 2.185 0.412 0.144 15.342

1.200 0.057 0.623 1.562 0.000 0.000 1.787 0.213 0.199 0.144

0.61 0.47 0.64 5.79 3.67 2.78

R15908 Grd. 62.30 2-R

45.36 1.84 7.39 12.30 11.20 0.39 16.31 1.48 0.82

97.09

6.720 0.205 1.290 2.716 1.778 0.049 2.021 0.424 0.149 15.352

1.280 0.010 0.729 1.292 0.000 0.000 1.778 0.222 0.202 0.149

0.68 0.43

0.75 6.37 3.41 2.92

R15908 Grd. 62.30 2-C

44.56 2.37 8.41 12.95 11.22 0.24 14.54 1.92 0.60

96.81

6.588 0.264 1.465 2.854 1.777 0.031 1.798 0.551 0.114 15.442

1.412 0.053 0.612 1.186 0.000 0.000 1.777 0.223 0.328 0.114

0.71 0.39 0.89 6.71 3.04 3.76

R15908 Grd. 62.30 3-R

45.43 1.71 7.20 11.48 11.03 0.59 17.09 1.25 0.79

96.57

6.780 0.192 1.267 2.554 1.764 0.074 2.134 0.361 0.150 15.276

1.220 0.047 0.748 1.386 0.000 0.000 1.764 0.236 0.125 0.150

0.65 0.46 0.67 5.95 3.57 2.71

R15908 Grd. 62.30 3-C 45.96 1.71 7.11 12.04 11.10 0.40 16.77 1.33 0.72 97.14

6.795 0.190 1.239 2.653 1.758 0.050 2.073 0.381 0.136 15.275

1.205 0.034 0.758 1.315 0.000 0.000 1.758 0.242 0.139 0.136

0.67 0.44

0.72 6.24 3.50 2.71

R15910 Granite 63.42 1-C-l

49.97 0.63 4.43 15.05 11.70 0.39 13.35 0.86 0.42 96.83

7.251 0.069 0.756 3.254 1.819 0.048 1.620 0.243 0.077 15.137

0.749 0.007 0.650 0.970 0.000 0.000 1.819 0.181 0.062 0.077

0.77 0.33 1.13 6.38 2.75 1.07

R15910 Granite 63.42 l-C-2

52.36 0.13 2.35 13.92 11.90 0.60 15.39 0.42 0.13 97.20

7.619 0.014 0.403 3.018 1.855 0.074 1.873 0.118 0.026 15.000

0.381 0.022 0.475 1.370 0.000 0.027 1.855 0.118 0.000 0.026

0.68 0.38 0.90 5.90 3.17 0.22

262

Appendix 3.2 (Continued):

Sample No. Rock Name Rock Si02 Spot

SiCb Ti02 A1203 MgO CaO MnO FeO Na20 K20 Total


Af Af" Fe3+

Fe2+


Mg* Fe/(Fe+Mg) MgO/FeO MgO m/MgO f

FeOm/FeOr

Ti02n/Ti02r

R15910 Granite 63.42 2-R 48.45 1.23 5.51 14.23 11.41 0.45 14.00 1.19 0.54 97.01

7.064 0.135 0.946 3.092 1.782 0.055 1.707 0.335 0.101 15.217

0.936 0.010 0.658 1.049 0.000 0.000 1.782 0.218 0.117 0.101

0.75 0.36 1.02 6.03 2.89 2.09

R15910 Granite 63.42 2-C 49.20 1.00 5.08

14.42 11.14 0.55 13.85 1.10 0.50

96.84

7.147 0.109 0.870 3.123 1.733 0.068 1.683 0.309 0.093 15.135

0.853 0.017 0.748 0.935 0.000 0.000 1.733 0.267 0.042 0.093

0.75 0.35 1.04 6.11 2.86 1.70

R15918 Granite 65.33 1-R-l

46.13 1.41 6.61 10.64 10.86 0.46 18.93 1.18 0.69 96.91

6.888 0.158 1.163 2.368 1.738 0.059 2.364 0.343 0.131 15.212

1.112 0.051 0.795 1.569 0.000 0.000 1.737 0.263 0.080 0.131

0.60 0.50 0.56 6.45 4.71 2.88

R15918 Granite 65.33 l-R-2

47.43 0.69 5.74

10.61 10.56 0.62 19.76 0.99 0.51 96.91

7.041 0.076 1.005 2.346 1.679 0.077 2.453 0.284 0.096 15.057

0.959 0.046 0.917 1.499 0.000 0.037 1.679

' 0.284 0.000 0.096

0.61 0.51 0.54 6.43 4.92 1.40

R15918 Granite 65.33 1-C 45.74 1.76 7.56 11.63 11.14 0.36 16.94 1.37 0.76

97.28

6.774 0.195 1.320 2.567 1.768 0.045 2.097 0.392 0.144 15.303

1.226 0.094 0.670 1.427 0.000 0.000 1.768 0.232 0.160 0.144

0.64 0.45 0.69 7.05 4.21 3.59

R15918 Granite 65.33 2-R 46.58 1.12 6.49

10.59 10.79 0.88 18.83 1.01 0.69 96.98

6.933 0.126 1.138 2.349 1.722 0.111 2.344 0.292 0.130 15.145

1.067 0.071 0.876 1.468 0.000 0.000 1.722 0.278 0.014 0.130

0.62 0.50 0.56 6.42 4.68 2.29

R15918 Granite 65.33 2-C 45.85 1.59 7.12

10.45 10.88 0.69 18.53 1.15 0.81

97.07

6.843 0.179 1.253 2.326 1.740 0.087 2.312 0.333 0.154 15.227

1.157 0.096 0.736 1.576 0.000 0.000 1.740 0.260 0.073 0.154

0.60 0.50

0.56 6.33 4.61 3.24

R15909 Granite 71.81 1-R 47.18 1.09 5.74

12.62 11.03 0.85 16.41 1.44 0.57

96.93

6.968 0.121 1.000 2.779 1.745 0.107 2.026 0.410 0.110 15.266

1.000 0.000 0.810 1.216 0.000 0.000 1.745 0.255 0.155 0.110

0.70 0.42

0.77 18.04 8.21 4.19

263

Appendix 3.2 (Continued)

Sample No. Rock Name Rock Si02 Spot

Si02 Ti02 A1203 MgO CaO MnO FeO Na20 K20 Total


Alw

AF Fe3+

Fe2+


Mg* Fe/(Fe+Mg) MgO/FeO MgO m/MgO r

FeOm/FeOr

Ti02m/Ti02r

R15909 Granite 71.81 1-C 48.97 1.11 4.67 13.74 10.83 0.88 14.90 1.17 0.51 96.78

7.155 0.122 0.803 2.991 1.695 0.108 1.821 0.331 0.095 15.121

0.803 0.000 0.827 0.994 0.000 0.000 1.695 0.305 0.026 0.095

0.75 0.40 0.92

19.62 7.45 4.28

R15909 Granite 71.81 2-R 47.59 1.21 5.67 12.60 10.86 0.69 16.08 1.46 0.61

96.77

7.030 0.134 0.987 2.775 1.718 0.087 1.987 0.418 0.115 15.251

0.970 0.017 0.716 1.271 0.000 0.000 1.718 0.282 0.136 0.115

0.69 0.42 0.78 18.00 8.04 4.65

R15909 Granite 71.81 2-C 48.27 1.13 5.74 13.06 11.23 0.59 15.49 1.45 0.52 97.48

7.066 0.123 0.990 2.850 1.762 0.073 1.897 0.413 0.098 15.272

0.934 0.056 0.599 1.298 0.000 0.000 1.762 0.238 0.175 0.098

0.69 0.40 0.84 18.66 7.75 4.35

R15909 Granite 71.81 3-R-l

52.09 0.48 2.85 14.72 12.20 0.33 13.84 0.56 0.25

97.32

7.557 0.052 0.487 3.184 1.896 0.041 1.679 0.158 0.046 15.100

0.443 0.044 0.299 1.380 0.000 0.000 1.896 0.104 0.054 0.046

0.70 0.34 1.06

21.03 6.92 1.83

R15909 Granite 71.81 3-R-2

53.05 0.16 1.89

15.61 12.24 0.43 13.00 0.46 0.15 96.99

7.671 0.018 0.323 3.364 1.896 0.053 1.572 0.128 0.028 15.053

0.323 0.000 0.349 1.223 0.000 0.000 1.896 0.104 0.024 0.028

0.73 0.32

1.20 22.30

6.50 0.62

R15909 Granite 71.81 3-C 53.05 0.17 1.74

15.71 12.23 0.43 13.14 0.46 0.15 97.08

7.664 0.018 0.296 3.382 1.893 0.053 1.587 0.130 0.027 15.050

0.296 0.000 0.397 1.190 0.000 0.000 1.893 0.107 0.023 0.027

0.74

0.32

1.20 22.44

6.57 0.64

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Appendix 3.8 Mineral chemistry and structural formulae for hornblende (23 oxygens) from Bornavard granitoid (oxides, wt%). M g * = Mg/(Mg + Fe2*). Sample No. Rock Name Rock Si02 Spot

SiOs Ti02 A1203 MgO

CaO MnO

FeO Na20

K20 Total


Alw

Fe34 *\ 1

Fe2+



FeOm/FeOr

Ti02m/Ti02r

R15945 Tona. 58.09 1-R

46.41 1.18 6.34 10.76 11.57 0.43 18.53 0.74 0.68 96.64

6.961 0.133 1.121 2.406 1.860 0.054 2.325 0.216 0.129 15.205

1.039 0.082 0.630 1.695 0.000 0.000 1.860 0.140 0.076 0.129

0.59 0.49 0.58 2.45 2.25

1.22

R15945 Tona 58.09

1-C 48.71 0.85 4.75 12.15 11.72 0.38 17.34 0.59 0.44

96.93

7.210 0.094 0.828 2.680 1.858 0.047 2.146 0.168 0.084 15.115

0.790 0.038 0.622 1.524 0.000 0.000 1,858 0.142 0.026 0.084

0.64 0.44 0.70 2.76 2.10

0.88

R15945 Tona. 58.09 2-R 45.93 1.74 7.09 11.91 11.12 0.24 16.59 1.39 0.67

96.68

6.830 0.195 1.243 2.639 1.771 0.030 2.063 0.401 0.127 15.299

1.170 0.073 0.637 1.426 0.000 0.000 1.771 0.229 0.172 0.127

0.65 0.44

0.72 2.71 2.01 1.79

R15945 Tona. 58.09 2-C 46.34 1.71 7.21 12.55 11.22 0.27 15.71 1.25 0.66

96.92

6.830 0.189 1.254 2.758 1.772 0.034 1.936 0.358 0.123 15.254

1.170 0.084 0.681 1.255 0.000 0.000 1.772 0.228 0.130 0.123

0.69 0.41

0.80 2.85 1.90 1.76

R15945 Tona. 58.09 3-R 45.78 0.89 7.13 10.20 11.80 0.40 19.30 0.78 0.73

97.01

6.878 0.101 1.262 2.285 1.900 0.050 2.424 0.226 0.139 15.265

1.122 0.140 0.615 1.809 0.000 0.000 1.900 0.100 0.126 0.139

0.56 0.51 0.53 2.32 2.34 0.92

R15945 Tona. 58.09 3-C 47.36 1.08 5.46 11.39 11.52 0.43 18.16 0.66 0.56 96.62

7.066 0.121 0.961 2.533 1.841 0.054 2.265 0.192 0.107 15.140

0.934 0.027 0.684 1.581 0.000 0.000 1.841 0.159 0.033 0.107

0.62 0.47 0.63 2.59 2.20 1.11

R15953 Grd. 69.45 1-R 44.45 1.57 6.85 9.26

10.42 0.46

20.38 0.88 0.76

95.03

6.804 0.181 1.236 2.112 1.708 0.060 2.609 0.261 0.149 15.120

1.196 0.040 0.946 1.645 0.000 0.000 1.708 0.261 0.000 0.149

0.56 0.55 0.45 6.43 8.25 2.53

R15953 Grd. 69.45 1-C 43.89 1.53 6.92 9.25 10.49 0.54

20.95 1.28 0.80

95.65

6.716 0.177 1.247 2.109 1.719 0.070 2.680 0.381 0.157 15.256

1.247 0.000 0.993 1.687 0.000 0.000 1.719 0.281 0.100 0.157

0.56 0.56 0.44 6.42 8.48 2.47

277


Sample No. Rock Name Rock Si02

Spot

Si02 Ti02

A1A MgO CaO MnO FeO Na20 K20 Total


Al™ Al* Fe3+

Fe2+



FeOm/FeOr

Ti02m/Ti02r

R15953 Grd. 69.45 2-R 44.86 1.52 7.13 9.75 10.86 0.44 19.54 0.85 0.80

95.75

6.808 0.174 1.275 2.206 1.765 0.057 2.480 0.249 0.155 15.169

1.192 0.083 0.827 1.653 0.000 0.000 1.765 0.235 0.014 0.155

0.57 0.53 0.50 7.68 6.41 2.45

R15953 Grd. 69.45 2-C 44.67 1.53 6.81 9.45 10.27 0.48 21.03 1.00 0.83

96.07

6.758 0.175 1.213 2.131 1.664 0.061 2.661 0.293 0.160 15.115

1.213 0.000 1.034 L627 0.000 0.000 1.664 0.293 0.000 0.160

0.57 0.56 0.45 7.44 6.90 2.47

R15953 Grd. 69.45 3-R 44.48 1.53 6.68 9.90 10.58 0.33 18.87 1.17 0.77

94.31

6.858 0.177 1.214 2.275 1.748 0.043 2.433 0.351 0.152 15.251

1.142 0.072 0.717 1.716 0.000 0.000 1.748 0.252 0.099 0.152

0.57 0.52 0.52 7.80 6.19 2.47

R15953 Grd. 69.45 3-C 45.00 1.56 6.64 10.22 10.62 0.24 19.67 1.22 0.79

95.96

6.811 0.178 1.184 2.307 1.722 0.031 2.490 0.359 0.152 15.234

1.184 0.000 0.881 1.609 0.000 0.000 1.722 0.278 0.081 0.152

0.59 0.52 0.52 8.05 6.45 2.52

R15953 Grd. 69.45 4-R 41.46 0.31 11.98 7.01 11.67 0.41

20.70 1.18 0.54

95.26

6.422 0.037 2.188 1.618 1.936 0.053 2.682 0.354 0.107 15.397

1.578 0.610 0.563 2.119 0.000 0.000 1.936 0.064 0.290 0.107

0.43 0.62 0.34 5.52 6.79 0.50

R15953 Grd. 69.45 4-C 45.15 0.32 8.19 9.87 11.77 0.37 17.82 0.93 0.21

94.63

6.907 0.037 1.476 2.251 1.930 0.049 2.280 0.276 0.042 15.248

1.093 0.383 0.458 1.822 0.000 0.000 1.930 0.070 0.206 0.042

0.55 0.50

0.55 7.77 5.84

0.52

R15943 Grd. 71.32 1-R 52.70 0.01 1.19

12.62 12.50 0.16

17.99 0.13 0.07

97.37

7.777 0.001 0.207 2.776 1.977 0.020 2.220 0.037 0.014 15.029

0.207 0.000 0.230 1.990 0.000 0.000 1.977 0.023 0.014 0.014

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0.70 8.76 7.28

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R15943 Grd. 71.32 1-C 52.34 0.14 2.98 14.49 12.23 0.31 14.36 0.35 0.08

97.28

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0.425 0.083 0.404 1.334 0.000 0.000 1.896 0.097 0.000 0.015

0.70

0.36

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0.26

278


Sample No. Rock Name RockSi02 Spot

Si02 Ti02 A1203 MgO CaO MnO FeO Na20 K20 Total


AF Al* Fe3+

Fe2+


Mg* Fe/(Fe+Mg) MgO/FeO MgOffl/MgOr FeOm/FeOr » - Jiy a* ^ â- j

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R15943 Grd. 71.32 2-R 47.57 0.26 7.77 11.37 12.30 0.32 15.99 0.83 0.23

96.64

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0.934 0.426 0.248 1.738 0.000 0.000 1.958 0.042 0.196 0.044

0.59 0.44 0.71 7.90 6.47 0.48

R15943 Grd. 71.32 2-C 49.35 0.48 5.27 12.58 12.09 0.29 15.92 0.57 0.35

96.90

7.272 0.054 0.915 2.761 1.908 0.037 1.961 0.163 0.066 15.137

0.728 0.187 0.388 1.573 0.000 0.000 1.908 0.092 0.071 0.066

0.64 0.42 0.79 8.74 6.45 0.89

R15943 Grd. 71.32 3-R 44.30 0.69 9.69 9.01 11.62 0.37 20.04 1.35 0.39

97.46

6.639 0.078 1.712 2.012 1.865 0.047 2.512 0.392 0.075 15.332

1.361 0.351 0.657 1.855 0.000 0.000 1.865 0.135 0.257 0.075

0.52 0.56 0.45 6.26

8.11 1.28

R15943 Grd. 71.32 3-C 48.67 1.06 4.86 11.78 11.56 0.28 18.01 0.61 0.53 97.36

7.185 0.117 0.847 2.591 1.829 0.036 2.224 0.175 0.101 15.105

0.815 0.032 0.615 1.609 0.000 0.000 1.829 0.171 0.004 0.101

0.62 0.46 0.65 8.18 7.29 1.96

R15943 Grd. 71.32 4-R 49.92 0.72 4.09 12.51 11.54 0.32 17.41 0.55 0.41

97.47

7.312 0.080 0.706 2.732 1.811 0.039 2.132 0.158 0.076 15.046

0.688 0.018 0.652 1.480 0.000 0.000 1.811 0.158 0.000 0.076

0.65 0.44 0.72 8.69 7.05 1.33

R15943 Grd. 71.32 4-C 51.28 0.13 4.28 13.61 12.48 0.27 14.97 0.44 0.20

97.66

7.451 0.015 0.732 2.949 1.942 0.034 1.819 0.125 0.038 15.105

0.549 0.183 0.289 1.530 0.000 0.000 1.942 0.058 0.067 0.038

0.66 0.38

0.91 9.45 6.06

0.24

R15943 Grd. 71.32 5-R 46.33 1.50 6.68

10.66 11.26 0.36 19.38 0.81 0.83

97.81

6.865 0.167 1.166 2.354 1.787 0.046 2.402 0.233 0.157

15.177

1.135 0.031 0.770 1.632 0.000

0.000 1.787 0.213 0.020 0.157

0.59

0.51

0.55 7.40 7.85

2.78

R15943 Grd. 71.32 5-C 50.38 0.12 4.84 12.73 12.33 0.24 16.25 0.45 0.25

97.59

7.364 0.014 0.833 2.774 1.931 0.029 1.986 0.129 0.046 15.106

0.636 0.197 0.374 1.612 0.000

0.000 1.931 0.069 0.060 0.046

0.63

0.42

0.78 8.84 6.58

0.22

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Appendix 3.12 Mineral chemistry and structural formulae of clinopyroxene (6 oxygens) in gabbro from Kuh Mish intrusions. According to Deer et al. (1992) Fe* = total Fe + Mn; En = lOOMg / (Ca + Fe* + Mg), W o = lOOCa / (Ca + Fe* + Mg) and Fs = lOOFe* / (Ca + Fe* + Mg). Oxides, wr%.

Sample No. R15929 R15929 R15929 R15929 R15929 R15929 RockSi02 45.75 45.75 45.75 45.75 45.75 45.75 Spot 1-R-l l-R-2 1-C 2-R-l 2-R-2 2-C

Si02 Ti02 A1203 Cr203 MgO CaO MnO FeO NiO Na20 K20 Total

Si Ti Al Cr Mg Ca Mn Fe Ni Na K Total

Fe*

En Wo Fs

50.57 0.48 6.99 0.22 18.21 14.46 0.01 5.33 0.08 1.09 0.02

97.46

1.865 0.013 0.304 0.006 1.001 0.571 0.000 0.164 0.002 0.078 0.001 4.005

0.164

57.66 32.89 9.45

51.93 0.35 3.23 0.26 16.56 21.13 0.16 4.88 0.06 0.42 0.06

99.04

1.918 0.010 0.140 0.008 0.912 0.836 0.005 0.151 0.002 0.030 0.003 4.015

0.156

47.90 43.91 8.19

52.83 0.26 2.45 0.26 15.92 23.85 0.08 4.39 0.13 0.15 0.00

100.32

1.933 0.007 0.106 0.007 0.868 0.935 0.002 0.134 0.004 0.011 0.000 4.007

0.136

44.77 48.22 7.01

53.15 0.11 1.84 0.28 15.98 24.18 0.14 3.66 0.00 0.23 0.00

99.57

1.954 0.003 0.080 0.008 0.876 0.953 0.004 0.112 0.000 0.016 0.000 4.006

0.116

45.04 49.00 5.96

52.58 0.31 2.93 0.26 16.06 22.10 0.12 4.34 0.09 0.38 0.00

99.17

1.937 0.009 0.127 0.008 0.881 0.872 0.004 0.134 0.003 0.027 0.000 4.002

0.138

46.59 46.11 7.30

51.63 0.26 3.31 0.25 16.35 22.48 0.13 4.19 0.01 0.28 0.00

98.89

1.911 0.007 0.144 0.007 0.902 0.891 0.004 0.130 0.000 0.020 0.000 4.016

0.134

46.81 46.24 6.95

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287

Appendix 3.14 Mineral chemistry and structural formulae of hornblende (23 oxygens) in granodiorite from Kuh Mish intrusions (oxides, wt%). M g * = Mg/(Mg + Fe2+).

Locality Sample No.

Rock Si02

Spot

Si02

Ti02

A1203



Al17

Af1

Fe3" Fe2+



FeOm/FeOr

Ti02m/Ti02r

Namin R15926 63.93 1-R 46.63 0.69 6.52 12.05 11.67 0.67 15.93 0.75 0.49

95.40

6.994 0.078 1.152 2.693 1.874 0.086 1.997 0.219 0.094 15.187

1.006 0.146 0.643 1.354 0.000 0.000 1.874 0.126 0.093 0.094

0.67 0.43 0.76 5.02 2.81 1.32

Namin R15926 63.93 1-C-l

45.75 0.80 7.28 11.50 11.56 0.69 16.59 0.79 0.53

95.49

6.872 0.091 1.289 2.576 1.861 0.089 2.084 0.231 0.100 15.193

1.128 0.161 0.730 1.354 0.000 0.000 1.861 0.139 0.092 0.100

0.66 0.45 0.69 4.79 2.93 1.57

Namin R15926 63.93 l-C-2

48.15 1.16 5.69 14.64 11.32 0.44 12.86 0.90 0.30

95.46

7.059 0.129 0.982 3.198 1.777 0.055 1.577 0.256 0.055 15.088

0.941 0.041 0.777 0.800 0.000 0.000 1.777 0.223 0.033 0.055

0.80 0.33 1.14 6.10 2.27 2.27

Namin R15926 63.93 2-R 44.36 0.36 11.20 9.02 11.28 0.57 16.54 1.73 0.72

95.78

6.738 0.041 2.005 2.043 1.836 0.073 2.101 0.509 0.140 15.486

1.262 0.743 0.114 1.987 0.000 0.000 1.836 0.164 0.345 0.140

0.51 0.51 0.55 3.76 2.92 0.71

Namin R15926 63.93 2-C-l

46.81 1.39 6.10 13.62 11.06 0.38 14.13 1.00 0.31

94.80

6.956 0.155 1.069 3.016 1.761 0.047 1.756 0.290 0.059 15.109

1.044 0.025 0.844 0.912 0.000 0.000 1.761 0.239 0.051 0.059

0.77 0.37 0.96 5.68

2.50 2.73

Namin R15926 63.93 2-C-2

48.02 1.40 5.80 15.00 11.14 0.37 12.74 0.98 0.30

95.75

6.996 0.153 0.995 3.258 1.740 0.045 1.552 0.277 0.056 15.072

0.995 0.000 0.896 0.656 0.000 0.000 1.740 0.260 0.017 0.056

0.83 0.32

1.18 6.25

2.25 2.75

Namin R15926 63.93 3-R-l

46.62 0.42 8.00

10.76 11.45 0.54 16.82 0.81 0.61

96.03

6.972 0.047 1.410 2.399 1.834 0.068 2.103 0.235 0.118

15.186

1.028 0.382 0.533 1.570 0.000 0.000 1.834 0.166 0.069 0.118

0.60 0.47

0.64 4.48

2.97 0.82

Namin R15926 63.93 3-R-2

47.98 1.06 5.45 13.51 10.41 0.81 14.80 1.03 0.35

95.40

7.056 0.117 0.945 2.960 1.640 0.102 1.820 0.293 0.067 15.000

0.944 0.001 1.069 0.684 0.000 0.067 1.640 0.293 0.000 0.067

0.80

0.38

0.91 5.63

2.61 2.08

288

Appendix 3.14

Locality Sample No. Rock Si02

Spot

Si02 Ti02

A1203



Al17

Al71

Fe3+

Fe2+


Mg* Fe/(Fe+Mg) MgO/FeO MgO m /MgO r

FeOffl/FeOr Ti02ffl/Ti02r

(Continue

Namin R15926 63.93 3-C

47.65 1.43 5.87 12.76 11.00 0.66 15.42 0.98 0.34

96.11

7.030 0.158 1.021 2.806 1.738 0.082 1.902 0.281 0.065 15.083

0.970 0.051 0.783 1.119 0.000 0.000 1.738

0.262 0.019 0.065

0.71 0.40

0.83 5.32 2.72 2.80

d):

Narnin R15926 63.93 4-C

48.96 0.84 4.71 13.71 11.43 0.65 14.28 0.55 0.27

95.40

7.227 0.093 0.819 3.017 1.807 0.082 1.763 0.158 0.051 15.017

0.773 0.046 0.716 1.012 0.000 0.035 1.807 0.158 0.000 0.051

0.74 0.37 0.96

5.71 2.52 1.65

Darin R15927 71.58 1-R

46.92 1.33 6.00 11.23 10.18 0.60 18.75 1.77 0.33

97.11

6.937 0.148 1.045 2.476 1.613 0.075 2.319 0.506 0.063 15.182

1.045 0.000 0.990 1.329 0.000 0.000 1.613 0.387 0.119 0.063

0.65 0.48 0.60 9.85 5.12 3.69

Darin

R15927 71.58 1-C

47.17 1.36 6.36 12.28 10.55 0.46 16.92 1.79 0.30

97.19

6.926 0.151

1.100 2.688 1.660 0.057 2.078 0.509 0.056 15.225

1.074 0.026 0.861 1.217 0.000 0.000 1.660 0.340 0.169 0.056

0.69 0.44 0.73 10.77 4.62 3.78

Darin R15927 71.58 2-R 48.09 0.97 4.78 11.50 9.94 0.70 18.38 1.46 0.45

96.27

7.140 0.109 0.835 2.546 1.581 0.088 2.282 0.420 0.086 15.087

0.835 0.000 0.999 1.283 0.000 0.000 1.581 0.419 0.001 0.086

0.66 0.47 0.63 10.09 5.02 2.69

Darin R15927 71.58 2-C 45.97 1.29 5.82 11.88 10.45 0.57 17.67 1.79 0.31

95.75

6.889 0.145 1.029 2.654 1.678 0.071 2.213 0.520 0.060 15.259

1.029 0.000 0.965 1.248 0.000 0.000 1.678 0.322 0.198 0.060

0.68 0.45 0.67 10.42 4.83 3.58

Darin R15927 71.58 3-R 47.48 1.10 5.27

11.12 9.91 0.61 19.01 1.64 0.41

96.55

7.054 0.122 0.923 2.463 1.577 0.076 2.361 0.472 0.077 15.125

0.923 0.000 1.024 1.337 0.000 0.000 1.577 0.423 0.049 0.077

0.65 0.49 0.58 9.75 5.19 3.06

Darin R15927 71.58 3-C 47.32 1.33 6.03 12.00 10.35 0.53 17.53 1.70 0.34

97.13

6.958 0.147 1.043 2.630 1.631 0.067 2.156 0.484 0.064 15.180

1.042 0.001 0.935 1.221 0.000 0.000 1.631 0.369 0.115 0.064

0.68 0.45 0.68 10.53 4.79 3.69

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290

APPENDIX 4

WHOLE ROCK GEOCHEMICAL DATA

ABBREVIATIONS USED

Grd. = Granodiorite A.F.G. = Alkali feldspar granite Qtz = Quartz ASI = Aluminum Saturation Index

Trace elements with decimal places were obtained by instrumental neutron activation analyses (INAA) while the others were obtained by XRF.

Appendix 4.1 Whole rock geochemical data from the Kashmar granitoid (oxides, wt% and traces, ppm).

Sample No. Rock name

Si02

Ti02 Al203 Fez03

MnO MgO CaO NazO

K20

P205

LOI Rest Total

Ba Rb Sr Pb Th U Zr Nb Y La Ce Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Ho Yb Lu Sc V Cr Mn Ni Cu Zn Sn Ga As Sb Cs Hf

Total REE Eu/Eu* LaN/YbN

LaN Rb/Sr Rb/Ba

KzO/Na20

ASI

R15911 Tonalite

54.18

0.73

17.04

7.69

0.11 2.97 7.58

3.48

1.36

0.17

3.46 0.15

98.92

210 59 366 6 4 1

98 6

22 22 40 --. . . . . . .

188 18

925 2 60 50 5 18 5

m

„

m

m

.

59.95

0.16 0.28

0.39

0.81

R15924 Tonalite

54.35

0.80

16.80

9.50 0.10 4.27 4.18 4.81

2.04

0.20

2.60 0.15

99.80

295 72 315 4 3 2

84 4

20 14 25 . -. . . . . . .

220 8

815 6

<2 50 5 19 6 „

_ _

_ _

.

38.15

0.23 0.24

0.42

0.95

R15907 Tonalite

59.01

0.81

16.04

7.63

0.1 2.76 4.26

4.15

2.87

0.21

1.62 0.19

99.65

505 55 363 8 11 2

144 8 33 26 60 --. --. -•

•

190 2

825 <2 50 34 <5 18 4 . . .

.

.

•

70.84

0.15 0.11

0.69

0.91

R15912 Tonalite

59.79

0.91

16.50

6.76

0.14 2.11 5.13

4.33

2.26

0.33

0.93 0.17 99.36

455 45 367 4 5 1

156 10 31 24 55 --. ------

144 4

1070 <2 4 56 5 18 2 . . -

--

-

65.40

0.12 0.10

0.52

0.87

R15908 Grd.

62.30

0.63

16.02

5.33

0.09 1.93 4.51

3.81

2.75

0.18

1.03 0.17

98.75

515 59 342 6

5.30 0.90 198 8

22 17.40 36.50 17.40 4.00 1.11 3.60 0.54 0.75 2.10 0.34 13.00

96 16.5j 740j 4 2 38 <5 18 2

0.8 0.9 4.8

83.74 0.88

5.60

47.41

0.17

0.11 0.72

0.92

R15959 Grd.

63.36

0.60

16.07

4.98

0.07 1.81 3.16 4.06

3.72

0.19

2.22 0.19

100.43

660 78 341 6 10 2

216 12 27 24 55 ---------

82 6

510 <2 8 40 <5 17 7 ---

---

65.4

0.23 0.12

0.25

0.98

R15902 Grd.

64.00

0.55

15.71

4.28

0.07 1.44 3.98 3.84

3.24

0.16

1.46 0.19

98.92

630 72 324 6 14 3

222 12 31 32 65 ---------

66 6

560 <2 2 32 <5 17 3 ---

-

-

87.19

0.22 0.11 0.84

0.92

R15925 Grd.

64.28

0.58

16.20

4.52

0.06 1.50 3.50 4.62

2.87

0.18 1.19 0.18

99.68

635 58 343 4 10 3

216 10 27 28 55 ---------

70 6

470 <2 16 24 <5 17 5 ---

---

76.29

0.17 0.09

0.62 0.95

R15904 Grd.

66.35

0.49

15.29

3.87

0.06 1.32 3.06

3.96

3.50

0.14 0.97 0.19 99.2

690 88 310 4 12 3

210 10 26 28 50 ---------

56 6

535 <2 4 26 <5 16 6 ---

---

76.29

0.28 0.13

0.88 0.96

R15915 Grd.

66.41

0.46

15.22

3.90

0.06 1.41 3.23

3.89

2.83

0.13 1.62 0.16

99.32

595 62 273 8

10.80 3.10 180 8 22

21.50 42.50 17.60 3.90 0.87 3.60 0.62 0.95 2.40 0.38 9.60 62

10.2 480 <2 2 34 <5 15j 5j

0.75 2.6 4.6

94.32 0.70

| 6.05

58.58

0.23 0.10

0.73 0.99

R15901 Grd.

66.76

0.51

15.32

3.93

0.03 1.80 2.01 5.33

2.27

0.15

1.15 0.13

99.39

365 56 256 4 10 3

192 10 21 24 50 ---------

58 6

210 <2 <2 18

L_ < 5

16 2 .---

•

-•

65.40

0.22 0.15

0.43 1.03

R15917 Grd.

67.47

0.43

15.23

3.75

0.05 1.28 3.04

3.82

3.19

0.12

1.48 0.16

100.02

530 88 282 10 10 2

172 8 19 24 40 ------

. ---

58 8

375 2 2 30 <5 15 6 ---

•

65.40

0.31 0.17

0.84 0.99


Sample No.

Rock name Si02

Ti02

Al203

Fe203

MnO MgO CaO NaaO

K20

P205

LOI Rest Total

Ba Rb Sr Pb Th '

U Zr Nb Y La Ce Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Ho Yb Lu Sc V Cr Mn Ni Cu Zn Sn Ga As Sb Cs Hf

Total R E E Eu/Eu*

LaN/YbN LaN Rb/Sr Rb/Ba K20/Na20

ASI

R15910

Granite

63.42

0.59

15.37

5.39

0.10 2.36 4.71 3.34

3.39

0.17

1.37 0.17

100.38

440 103 315 14

10.70 1.80 180 8 23

22.00 45.50

20.00 4.20 0.93 3.80 0.65 0.95 2.15 0.35 14.30 108 20 775 4

28 62 <5 16 5

0.9 5.0 4.9

80.55 0.69

6.91

59.95

0.33 0.23

1.01

0.87

R15903 Granite

64.63

0.56

14.82

4.94

0.08 2.15 4.31 3.15

3.66

0.14

0.94 0.17

99.55

475 111 283 14 12 2

176 8 21 24 50 -

R15918 Dranite

65.33

0.49

15.53

4.47

0.08 1.65 3.37

3.70

3.23

0.14

1.61 0.17

99.77

515 88 288 8

10.10 2.30 174 8 22

22.00 44.00 18.20

__-} 4.00 -------

102 22 658 6 30 50 <5 15 4 -> -

---

65.40

0.39 0.23

1.16

0.87

0.87 3.70 0.65 0.90 2.30 0.37 10.90

78 12.40 635 2 20 32 <5 17 2

0.7 2.7 4.6

96.99 0.68

6.46

59.95

0.31 0.17

0.87

0.99

R15957

Granite

66.34

0.46

15.31

3.76

0.10 1.40 2.87

3.95

3.78

0.12

1.66 0.18

99.93

590 104 292 10 10 2

206 10 20 26 45 ---------

62 6

805 <2 8

48 <5 15 14 ---

---

70.84

0.36 0.18

0.96

0.97

R15958 Granite

66.44

0.45

15.24

3.86

0.08 1.39 3.39

3.83

3.21

0.12

1.77 0.16 99.94

530 80 269 12

10.9 1.5 170 8

22 25.00 50.00 20.50 3.40 0.94 3.00 0.50 0.65 2.35 0.39 9.70 58

9.00 665 <2 12 46 <5 16 4

0.6 1.2 9.4

106.73 0.88

7.19

68.12

0.30 0.15

0.84

0.96

R15906 Granite

66.67

0.54

15.89

2.88

0.02 1.43 1.33

4.68

3.39

0.12

2.26 0.18

99.39

745 61 214 2 12 5

214 12 31 30 65 ---------

64 6

. 175 <2 4 16 <5 16 2 ---

---

81.74

0.29 0.08

0.72

1.15

R15923 Granite

66.97

0.43

15.48

3.69

0.09 1.44 2.90

3.93

3.31

0.13

1.44 0.17

99.98

540 81 295 10 10 2

204 8 20 24 45 ---------

62 10

725 2 2 62 <5 16 4 ---

---

65.40

0.27 0.15

0.84

1.01

R15921 Granite

66.99

0.45

15.16

3.76

0.08 1.28 2.74

3.66

3.91

0.13

1.47 0.16

99.79

500 115 281 10 11 2

192 10 22 22 50 -•

• -

. ----p

56 6

645 <2 4 38 <5 16 8 ---

-

-

59.95

0.41 0.23

1.07

1.00

R15922

Granite

67.49

0.41

15.09

3.52

0.07 1.11 2.92

3.56

3.82

0.10

0.92 0.18

99.19

585 105 253 14 13 2

250 10 24 22 45 --•

------

52 10

615 <2 6

46 <5 16 2 ---

---

59.95

0.42 0.18

1.07

0.98

R15905 R15913 Granite

70.24

0.34

13.9

2.77

0.06 0.93 2.35

3.25

4.47

0.08

0.83 0.16

99.38

590 144 206 16 17 4

178 10 20 24 50 ---------

44 6

470 <2 16 38 <5 13 3 ---

---

65.40

0.7 0.24 1.38

0.96

Granite

71.69

0.27

13.61

2.29

0.02 0.77 2.05

3.06

4.58

0.06

1.13 0.14

99.67

545 129 191 6

20 4

140 10 22 18 25 -. -------

32 6

200 <2 2 12 <5 13 3 ---

---

49.05

0.68 0.24 1.50

0.99

R15909

Granite

71.81

0.26

13.77

2.22

0.03 0.70 2.04

3.10

4.62

0.06

2.04 0.15

100.80

580 145 188 10

17.6 4.6 148 8 16

24.50 45.50 15.80 3.30 0.57 3.30 0.55 0.80 1.90 0.29 4.70 30

5.10 280 <2 4 22 <5 13 2

0.4 5.0 4.0

96.51 0.52 8.71

66.76

0.77 0.25 1.49

0.99


Sample No. Rock name Si02

Ti02 Al203

Fe203

MnO MgO CaO

Na20

K20

P2O5

LOI Rest

Total


Total REE

Eu/Eu*

Laf/YbN

LaN Rb/Sr

Rb/Ba

K20/Na20

ASI

R15920 A.F.G.

74.63

0.17

12.73

1.22

0.02

0.17 0.45

3.75

4.93

0.01

1.14

0.13

99.35

555 120 51 12 16 2

164 14 26 30 75 --

-

-

-

-

--

-

4 <2 200 <2 <2 14 <5 12 1 -

-

-

-

-

-

81.74

2.35

0.22

1.31

1.03

R15916 A.F.G.

75.43

0.24

12.31

0.94

0.O1

0.15 0.87

2.61

5.88

0.02

1.64

0.13

100.23

490 172 72 8 19 3

168 10 20 26 45 --

--

-

-

-

--

12 <2 110 <2 <2 6 <5 11 2 -

-

-

-

-

-

70.84

2.39 0.35

2.25

1.01

R15900 A.F.G.

76.75

0.19

11.79

0.97

0.01

0.30 0.51

2.85

5.61

0.02

0.74

0.09

99.83

170 200 50 8 30 5.6 134 14 31

31.00

68.00

27.50

5.00 0.30

5.10

0.95 1.30

3.60

0.53

4.30

8 2 85 <2 <2 8 <5 11 4

0,45

3.30

4.90

143.28

0.18

5.82

84.47

4.00

1.18

1.97

1.01

R15914 A.F.G.

76.97

0.15

11.70

0.74

0.01

0.14 0.43

2.63

5.59

0.01

1.76

0.08 100.21

140 207

. 36 12 31 3.4 112 10 20

32.00

64.00

23.50 4.30

0.27

3.60 0.69

0.85

2.50

0.35 3.30

4 1.2 85 <2 <2 4 <5 11 4

0.50

4.40

. 4.00

132.06

0.20

8.65

87.19

5.75

1.48

2.13

1.05

R15919

A.F.G.

77.06

0.17

12.52

0.61

0.01

0.09 0.48

5.26

2.60

0.03

1.70

0.09

100.62

245 65 57 6 17 2

172 14 32 24 60 --

-

-

-

-

--

6 <2 60 <2 <2 4 <5 12 2 -

-

-

-

-

-

65.40

1.14

0.27 0.49

1.01

Appendix 4.2 Whole rock geochemical data from the fornavard granitoid (oxides, wt% and traces, ppm).

Sample No. Rock name SiOz Ti02

Al203 Fe203 MnO MgO CaO Na20

K20

P2O5

LOI Rest

Total


Total REE

Eu/Eu*

LaN/YbN

Law Rb/Sr

Rb/Ba

K20/Na20

ASl

R15944

Tonalite

48.64

0.93

15.43

10.28

0.16

7.92

10.72

2.59

0.27

0.10

2.33

0.16

99.53

70 6

167 12 2 <1 48 <2 19 8 10 -• • -----.

240 288 1300

80 70 106 <5 15 <1 • _

m

-

—

a

21.80

0.04

0.09

0.10

0.64

R15945

Tonalite

58.09

0.97

13.35

8.25

0.14 4.40

7-36

3.59

0.60

0.13

2.05

0.15

99.08

85 12 149 36

6.90

1.00

208 6 48

19.50

45.00

27.00

5.00

1.62

6.00

1.03

1.40

3.75

0.74

34.00

148 124

1100

36 22 122 5 17 2

0.15

1.50

6.40

-111.04

0.90

3.51

53.13

0.08

0.14

0.17

0.67

R15946

Granodiorite

63.18

0.82

15.01

6.60

0.09 1.52

3.56

3.73

2.44

0.25

1.60

0.18

98.98

535 129 145 6

10.80

1.40

272 10 39

29.00

61.00

30.00

5.60

1.83

5.90

0.96

1.25

3.80

0.63

16.40

88 16 720 6 10 68 <5 20 3

0.45

3.60

6.40

139.97

0.97

5.16

79.02

0.89

0.24

0.65

0.98

R15947

Granodiorite

68.85

0.54

13.58

4.87

0.04

0.66

2.49

4.03

2.46

0.11

1.53

0.20

99.36

810 70 109 10

6.10

1.30

448 8 38

24.50

53.00

27.50

6.10

2.19

5.90

0.92

1.20

3.80

0.65

17.00

26 6

340 <2 2 38 <5 18 2

0.30

2.00

8.10

125.76

1.10

4.36

66.76

0.64

0.09

0.61

0.98

R15953

Granodiorite

69.45

0.62

14.75

3.05

0.05 1.27

3.74

5.30

0.53

0.15

1.00

0.12

100.03

150 23 168 8

11.70

2.60

312 12 69

16.40

44.00

29.00

7.70

2.20

8.90

1.49

2.20

7.40

1.16 17.00

48 11 415 6 <2 42 5 17 4

0.60

1.20

9.40

120.45

0.81

1.50

44.69

0.14

0.15

0.1C

0.92

R15943

Granodiorite

71.32

0.54

13.18

2.47

0.06 1.44

2.84

6.18

0.25

.0.09

1.05

0.08

99.50

55 8

121 12

15.60

1.90

142 8 26

18.00

47.00

27.00

6.00

1.19

5.50

0.84

L 1.00

2.50

0.38

16.20

50 28 445 18 12 40 <5 12 13

0.20

0.10

4.90

109.41

0.62

4.87

49.05

0.07

0.15

0.04

0.841

Sample No. Rock name Si02

Ti02 Al203 Fe203 MnO MgO CaO NazO

K20 P205

LOI Rest Total


Total R E E Eu/Eu*

LaN/YbN

LaN Rb/Sr Rb/Ba K20/Na20

ASI

R15936 Granite

74.84

0-19

12.04

2.28

0.02 0.14 0.72 3.47

3.99

0.02

1.24 0.16

99.11

680 95

^ 39 6

19.20 2.10 230 12 57

46.00 96.00 44.50 8.00 1.25 9.00 1.38 1.65 5.40 0.87

11.80 2 4

130 <2 <2 18 <5 17 2

0.20 0.80 7.20

214.05 0.45

5.76

125.34

2.44 0.14

1.15

1.06

FJ1595E 1 Granite

75.24

0.18

11.98

2.61

0.03

0.3 , 0.46

3.64

3.65

0.03

1.41 0.15

99.68

660 59 48 6

; 20.00 ' 4.00 226 12

1 56 42

' 95 -

1

1

-

;

-

-

1

i <2 ' <2 i 305

<2 i <2 | 22

<5 ! 16

1 i I

i

1114.44

! 1.23 ' 0.09

1.00

; 1.11

R1594C Granite

75.4C

0.19

12.25

2.10

0.02 0.15 0.87 3.62

3.93

0.03

2.19 0.16

100.91

735 97 54 6

18.60 2.50 234 10 59

31.50 76.00 41.00 8.10 1.20 9.00 1.43 1.80 6.30 0.98 11.50 <2 3.3 165 <2 <2 18 <5 17 2

0.35 1.10 7.60

176.81 0.43

3.38

85.83

1.80 0.13

1.09

1.04

R1595-1 ! Granite

75.55

0.2C

12.13

2.24

0.03 0.23 0.77 3.64

3.98

0.04

0.87 0.17

99.85

815 100 45 4

19.00 4.00 240 14 53 38 90 -

"

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4 <2 200 <2 2 20 <5 16 2 -

-

-

-

-

-

103.54

2.22" 0.12

1.09

1.04

•• HI 5942 R15939 R15941 i liranite Granite Granite » 75.5S

' 0.1 £

12.3E

1.37

0.01 0.25 0.81 3.88

3.69

0.03

1.07 0.14 99.38

580 54 48 6

20.00 3.00 226 12 48 38 90 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

.-

6 <2 145 <2 2 16 <5 16 3 -

-

-

-

-

-

103.54

1.13 •0.09

0.95

1.04

> 75.78 76.04

I 0.16

» i2.ie

1.84

O.C 0.13 0.26 3.87

4.35

0.03

0.89 0.17

99.66

890 79 38 2

19.00 4.00 226 12 52 34 75 -

-

-

-

,

-

-

-

-

<2 <2 40 <2 <2 6 <5 16 2 -

-

-

-

-

-

92.64

2.08 0.09

1.12

1.05

I 0.19

i 12.29

1.99

0.03 0.17 0.73 3.75

3.96

0.03

0.81 0.16

100.15

645 128 39 8

21.00 3.00 234 12 59

42.00 93.00 44.00 9.30 1.15 9.40 1.48 1.85 6.00 0.98 11.80

4 2.9 220 <2 <2 26 <5 17 2

0.40 2.00 7.80

209.16 0.37

4.73

114.44

3.28 0.20 1.07

1.04

w 296 ^ ^ ^ ^ ~

Appendix 4.3 Whole rock geochemical data from the Taknar Rhyolite (oxides, wt% and traces, ppm).

Sample No. Rock name SiOz Ti02

Al203

Fe203

MnO MgO CaO Na20

K20 P205

LOI Rest Total


Total REE Eu/Eu*

Laj«(/YbN

LaN Rb/Sr Rb/Ba K20/Na20

ASI

R15952 Rhyolite

75.75

0.13

12.10

2.10

0.00 0.22 0.13

2.84

5.35

0.03

0.91 0.14

99.70

795 119 38 6 20 3

124 8 37 12 25 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4 <2 20 <2 <2 6 <5 14 1 -

-

-

-

-

-

32.70

3.13 0.15

1.88

1.13

R15950 Rhyolite

75.96

0.16

12.64

1.57

0.01

0.45 0.23

3.81

3.78

0.03

1.33 0.23

100.20

1020 91 93 12 23 3

144 10 34 40 80 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

6 <2 100 <2 2

404 10 16 5 -

-

-

-

-

-

108.99

0.98 0.09

0.99

1.17

R15951 Rhyolite

76.07

0.14

12.37

1.58

0.01

0.25 0.18

4.88

3.31

0.03

0.63 0.12

99.57

545 76 45

6.00 19.80 2.6 138 8 49

28.50 63.00 28.00 6.10 0.54 6.90 1.16 1.45 4.80 0.73 4.00

4 3 60 <2 <2 8 <5 15 2

0.50 0.50 4.90

84.48 0.25

4.01

77.66

1.69 0.14

0.68

1.04

R15948 Rhyolite

76.39

0.14

12.03

1.71

0.05 0.45 0.35

3.60

3.83

0.04

1.03 0.17

99.79

945 130 63 12 17 4

132 8 41 18 45 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

6 <2 375 <2 <2 68 <5 16 <1 -

-

-

-

-

-

49.05

2.06 0.14

1.06

1.12

R15949 Rhyolite

77.90

0.14

10.91

4.07

0.06 0.64 0.13

0.37

3.32

0.06

2.27 0.15

100.02

705 120 12 6 19 4

130 10 44 36 75 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2 <2 495 <2 34 64 5 14 2 -

-

-

-

M

"

98.09

10.00 0.17 8.97

2.46|

Appendix 4.4 Whole rock geochemical data from the Kuh Mish intrusions,(oxides, wt% and traces, ppm).

Sample Nq.

Rock name Si02

Ti02

Al203

Fe203 MnO MgO CaO Na20

K20

P205

LOI Rest Total

Ba Rb Sr Pb Th U Zr Nb Y La i Ce Nd i Sm Eu Gd Tb i

Ho Yb

Lu Sc * V Cr Mn Ni Cu Zn Sn Ga As Sb ! Cs S Hf !

Total REE Eu/Eu* LaN/YbN

LaN j

Rb/Sr Rb/Ba K20/Na20

R15929 Gabbro

45.75

0.13

17.23

4.19

0.07 11.81 16.60

0.68

0.07

0.01

2.83 0.20

99.57

3 1

108 <2

<0.1 <0.1

2 <2 3

0.10 0.50 0.96 0.50 0.14 0.75 0.18 0.30 0.43 0.07

41.00 104 805 665 242 122 22 <5 9 1

1.60 <0.1 0.10

3.93 0.70

0.16

0.27

0.00 0.33 0.10

. R15932 Qtz monzodiorite

51.85

1.08

14.99

11.77 0.17

4.30 8.01

3.15

0.62

0.18

3.19 0.14 99.45

125 10 191 <2 <1 <1 62 2 22 6 15 ---------

316 6

1480 14 100 90 <5 16 <1 ---

--

-

16.35

0.05 0.08 0.20

.. .-. _, , 0.73

R15930 Qtz monzodiorite

53.18

0.56

15.63 9.59 0.17

5.99 6.84

3.93

0.62

0.09

3.07 0.12

99.79

85 8

228 <2 1

<1 40 <2 14 8 10

• -

. -------

272 62

1490 26 6 56 <5 13 <1 ---

--

-

21.80

0.04 0.09 0.16

0.80


54.37

0.31

15.96 8.92 0.14

. 6.16 8.43

2.80

0.57

0.03

2.18 0.12 99.99

165 9

166 <2 <1 <1 20 <2 6 4 <5 ---------

280 22

1270

26 72 64 <5 13 <1 ---

---

10.90

0.05 0.05 0.20

0.78


60.71

0.41

14.57 7.12 0.13

3.77 6.95

2.99

0.80

0.09

1.54 0.09

99.17

135 14 133 <2 1 <1 40 <2 15 4 5 ---------

182 14

1170

14 16 64 <5 13 1 ---

---

10.90

0.11 0.10 0.27

0.79

298


Sample No.

Rock name Si02

Ti02

A1203

Fe203

MnO MgO CaO Na20

K20

P2o5 LOI Rest

Total


Total REE

Eu/Eu*

LaN/YbN

LaN J, Rb/Sr Rb/Ba KzO/NazO

R15926 Grd.

63.93

0.51

15.00

5.66

0.11 2.40 5.08

3.31

1,66

0.10

1.50 0.11 99.37

215 29 242 2

2.60 0.90 86 <2 19

6.60 15.10 9.00 2.30 0.70 2.90 0.50 0.65 2.05 0.35 18.90 132 <1 940 4 30 42 <5 14 <1

1.15 0.5 2.9

40.15 0.83

2.18

17.98

0.12 0.13 0.50 A A J

R15936 Grd.

70.66

0.30

13.92

3.37

0.07 1.02 3.78

4.02

0.48

0.07

1.94 0.06 99.69

105 5

160 2 2 <1 56 <2 18 10 5 -------

• -

-

50 4

575 <2 2 34 <5 12 <1 ---

-

-

27.25

0.03 0.05 0.12 nn9

R15927 Grd.

71.58

0.36

13.59

3.66 0.04 1.14 5.10

3.08

0.14

0.07

1.23 0.07

100.06

35 1

249 <2

1.10 0.50 110 <2 24

5.80 14.00 8.60 2.10 0.67 2.40 0.44

. 0.70 2.55 0.44 11.70

54 2.8 320 <2 <2 12 <5 12 2

0.65 0.40 3.20

37.7 0.91

1.54

15.80

0.00 0.03 0.05

0.94

R15937 Grd.

72.59

0.24

13.03

2.99

0.04 0.66 2.85

3.87

0.95

0.06

1.58 0.07 98.93

210 13 174 <2 2 <1 52 <2 19 6 10 ---------

20 2

360 <2 6 24 <5 12 <1 ---

--

-

16.35

0.07 0.06 0.25

1.04

R15933 Grd.

73.30

0.24;

13.20

2.32

0.04

0.99

3.01i

3.73

1.62

0.05

1.29 0.07 99.86

220 32 97 <2 2 <1 60 <2 13 8 10 ---------

40 12 360 4 4 22 <5 11 <1 ---

---

21.80

0.33 0.15 0.43

0.99

R15928 Grd.

73.34

0.22

13.12

2.36

0.04 0.94 2.77

3.70

1.54

0.04

1.76 0.07 99.90

210 27 95 <2 2 <1 62 <2 12 8 10 -----

• -

---

38 12 375 2 16 22 <5 11 3 ---

---

21.80

0.28 0.13 0.42

1.03

R15935 Grd.

73.58

0.25

13.58

2.16 0.04 1.08 1.26

5.63

0.43

0.04

1.56 0.03 99.64

35 5 89 <2 1 <1 56 <2 18 6 10 ---------

16 <2 355 <2 <2 16 <5 10 <1 ---

. -• -

16.35

0.06 0.14 0.08

1.13

R15931 Grd.

75.96

0.15

12.52

1.33 0.02 0.37 1.58

4.05

2.48

0.03

0.79 0.07 99.35

270 38 60 4 2 <1 94 <2 15 12 10 ---------

12 4

195 <2 4 14 <5 10 2 -

, *•

•

32.70

0.63 0.14 0.61

1.25

L^y

Cat. No.| Field No.

R15900

R15901

R15902

R15903

R15904

R15905

R15906

R15907

R15908

R15909

R15910

R15911 R15912

R15913

R15914

R15915

R15916

R15917

R15918

R15919

R15920

R15921

R15922

R15923

R15924

R15925

R15926

R15927

R15928

R15929

R15930

R15931

R15932

R15933

R15934

R15935

R15936

R15937

R15938

R15939

R15940

R15941

R15942

R15943

R15944

R15945

R15946

R15947

R15948

1-GAR-2

1-GAR-3

1-KES-7

1-KES-6

1-KES-5

1-kES-2

1-KES-4

1-KES-3

2-KA-8

1-KA-2

1-KA-1

3-KA-1

2-KA-7

2-KA-4

2-KA-2

2-KA-1

2-KA-6

1-QP-6

1-QP-4

1-BAH-1

1-NY-3

1-FO-5

1-FO-2

1-BQ-4

1-AZ-3

1-AZ-1

1-NAM-1

1-DAR-1

1-KUM-1

2-KUM-1

2-KUM-3

3-KUM-1

3-KUM-2

3-KUM-4

3-KUM-5

3-KUM-7

3-KUM-8

3-KUM-10

BOR

2-BOR-4

1-BOR-2

3-BOR-4

SAR-11

1-BOR-3

1-BOR-5

3-BOR-1

3-BOR-3

BOR-1

1-BOR-1

ANU No.

PCW112 PCW113 PCW114 PCW115 PCW116 PCW117 PCW118 PCW119 PCW120 PCW121 PCW122 PCW123 PCW124 PCW125 PCW126 PCW127 PCW128 PCW129 PCW130 PCW131 PCW132 PCW133 PCW134 PCW135 PCW136 PCW137 PCW138 PCW139 PCW140 PCW141 PCW142 PCW143 PCW144 PCW145 PCW146 PCW147 PCW148 PCW149 PCW150 PCW151 PCW152 PCW153 PCW154 PCW155 PCW156 PCW157 PCW158 PCW159 PCW160

Description

A.F.G.

Granodiorite

Granodiorite

Granite

Granodiorite

Granite

Granite

Tonalite

Granodiorite

Granite

Granite

Tonalite

Tonalite

Granite

A.F.G.

Granodiorite

A.F.G.

Granodiorite

Granite

A.F.G.

A.F.G.

Granite

Granite

Granite

Tonalite

Granodiorite

Granodiorite

Granodiorite

Granodiorite

Gabbro Qtz Monzodiorite

Granodiorite

Qtz Monzodiorite

Granodiorite

Qtz Monzodiorite

Granodiorite

Granodiorite

Granodiorite

Granite

Granite

Granite

Granite

Granite

Granodiorite

Tonalite

Tonalite

Granodiorite

Granodiorite

Rhyolite

Locality

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Kuh Mish

Bornavard

Bornavard

Bornavard

Bornavard

Bornavard

Bornavard

Bornavard

Bornavard

Bornavard

Bornavard

Taknar

Age 43.5 M a

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 M a

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 M a

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.4 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 M a

42.8 M a

42.8 Ma

42.8 M a

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.5 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

Tertiary

123.8 M a

117.8 Ma

117.8 Ma

111.8 Ma

117.8 Ma

149.2 Ma

149.2 Ma

149.2 Ma

145.6 Ma

152.8 Ma

Mesozoic

Longtitude

58° 20' 55" E

58° 21'00" E

58° 22' 38" E

58° 23' 49" E

58° 24 11" E

58° 24' 37" E

58° 24' 40" E

58° 24' 53" E

58° 26'15" E

58° 27' 30" E

58° 27' 42" E

58° 27' 42" E

58° 27' 53" E

58° 28' 00" E

58° 28' 05" E

58° 29' 28" E

58° 32' 30" E

58° 37' 08" E

58° 38' 07" E

58° 40' 28" E

58° 42' 30" E

58° 44' 07" E

58° 46'15" E

58° 49'12" E

58° 51'30" E

58° 52' 20" E 57° 19'50" E

57° 26' 20" E

57° 39' 00" E 57°37'10"E

57° 37' 50" E

57° 40' 00" E

57° 37' 50" E

57° 41'00" E

57° 44 10" E

57° 42'10" E

57°37'10"E

57° 42' 10" E

57° 50' 47" E

57° 52' 40" E

57° 50' 50" E

57° 46' 50" E

57° 55' 40" E

57° 55'12" E

57° 53' 05" E

57° 51'05" E

57° 48' 33" E

57° 52' 34" E

57° 52' 30" E

Latitude

35° 19'48" N

35° 20' 27" N

35° 20" 42" N

35° 20' 27" N

35° 20' 00" N

35° 19'00" N

35° 19'45" N

35° 19'30" N

35° 20' 45" N

35° 21'36" N

35° 21'00" N

35° 18'28" N

35° 20'10" N

35° 19'45" N

35° 19'21 "N

35° 18'36" N

35° 18' 21" N

35° 18'51" N

35° 20' 00" N

35° 17' 36" N

35° 18'30" N

35° 18' 54" N

35° 18" 00" N

35° 18'32" N

35° 19'20" N

35° 17'33" N

36° 07' 20" N

35° 59' 30" N

35° 53' 00" N

35° 53' 00" N

35° 51* 50" N

35° 54' 50" N

35° 54* 30" N

35° 53' 30" N

35° 53' 10" N

35° 54' 00" N

35° 54" 20" N

35° 52' 50" N

35° 22' 45" N

35° 22' 40" N

35° 22' 35" N

35° 22'15" N

35° 24' 45" N

35° 23' 30" N

35° 23' 35" N

35° 23' 40" N

35° 22' 55" N

35° 23'15" N

35° 22' 00" N

300

R15949

R15950

R15951

R15952

R15953

R15954

R15955

R15956

R15957

R15958

R15959

TAK-b

TAK-4

TAK-6a

TAK-7

1-B-1

2-BOR-1

TAK-1

3-KUM-6

1-FO-4

1-BQ-3

1-AZ-4

PCW161

PCW162

PCW163

PCW164

PCW165

PCW166

PCW167

PCW168

PCW169

PCW170

PCW171

Rhyolite

Rhyolite

Rhyolite

Rhyolite

Granodiorite

Granite

Granite

Qtz Monzodiorite

Granite

Granite

Granodiorite

Taknar

Taknar

Taknar

Taknar

Bornavard

Bornavard

Bornavard

Kuh Mish

Kashmar

Kashmar

Kashmar

Mesozoic

Mesozoic

Mesozoic

Mesozoic

149.2 Ma

117.8 Ma

117.8 Ma

Tertiary

42.8 Ma

42.8 Ma

42 .8 Ma

57° 48' 42" E

57°45'10"E

57° 45' 25" E

57° 47' 20" E

57° 51'05" E

57° 49' 08" E

57° 47' 38" E

57° 42' 00" E

58°46'15"E

58° 49' 12" E

58° 51'30" E

35° 22' 00" N

35° 21' 15" N

35° 22' 55" N

35°21'45"N

35° 23" 00" N

35° 23' 40" N

35° 22'10" N

35° 53' 20" N

35° 17'55" N

35° 18'32" N

35° 19'21" N

Abbreviations: Cat. Catalogue Number, Gar = Garmab, KES = Kesrineh, KA = Kashmar, QP = Quch Plang, BAH = Baharieh, NY = Nay, FO = Forsheh, BQ = Baq Qaleh, AZ = Azqand, NAM = Namin, DAR = Darin, KUM = Kuh Mish, BOR = Bornavard, SAR = Sarborj, TAK = Taknar, B = Bijvard, ANU = Australian National University, PCW = Paul Carr Wolongong, A.F.G. = Alkali feldspar granite, QTZ = quartz monzodiorite

Documents

2000 Geochemistry and geochronology of I-type granitoid