Global Change and Infectious Disease—Biology 173 Fall 2017 Professor Fred Cohan

Date Subject

1 Tu, Sep 5

The Age of Humans, as seen by pathogens A new geological epoch—caused by global warming and many other human impacts. Americans’ inattention to environmental protection, either to protect nature or even our own health (Hacker and Pierson 2016), pp. 45-55, 70-74, 288-291†. Infectious disease as the back door to rediscovering interest in protecting the environment. Tour of the ways that human impacts on the environment are bringing us pathogens. Why challenges from pathogens will never end. Developing technological weapons against pathogens. Even better, an updated “socialism of the microbe” that takes into account environmental impacts on our exposure to pathogens (Cohan 2017), Prologue•.

2 Th, Sep 7

Primer on ecology and evolution of infectious diseases. Diversity of pathogens (Sherman 2006), Ch. 1*, (Wolfe 2011), Ch. 1*; proteins and DNA (Klug 2006), pp. 5-7†; natural selection (Futuyma 2005), pp. 247-252†; evolutionary trees (Sadava et al. 2014)†; calculation of the time of origin of smallpox using a molecular clock (Babkin and Babkina 2015)†.

Part I: Collateral damage from the Age of Humans: How we get sick from disturbing the world’s creatures

Food procurement: hunting (Chapter 1) •

3 Tu, Sep 12

Hunting as a source of pathogens in our history. Human-caused mass extinctions—an early beginning to the Age of Humans. Human-caused extinctions in pre-history and their ecological impacts. Hunting as a super-highway of infection (Wolfe 2011), Chapter 2†, (Walsh 2011)†, especially as pathogens and parasites make infected individuals more likely to be consumed (McAuliffe 2016), Chapter 4†, (Barford 2013, Ingram et al. 2013)†. The chronic and latent diseases of hunter-gatherers. Sources of our most ancient pathogens (Salemi et al. 2000, Ehlers et al. 2010, Wertheim et al. 2014, Underdown et al. 2017)†. Diverse sources of our pathogens as our hunting propelled us across the world. Mitigating role of cooking in pathogen acquisition (Cohan 2017), Chapter 1, pp. 8-11•.

4 Th, Sep 14

Bushmeat hunting and modern plagues. Acquiring HIV through bushmeat hunting (Quammen 2012), Part VIII*. Digression on phylogeny and molecular clocks with application to HIV (Mindell 2006), Ch. 3*, (Worobey et al. 2008), Figs. 1-2†. The HIV-like viruses lurking out there (Peeters et al. 2002)†. The dangers of HIV-infected people handling bushmeat (LeBreton et al. 2007)*. SARS reached us through bushmeat (Yip et al. 2009)†. Potential for future SARS-like human infections (Menachery et al. 2015)† (Cohan 2017), Chapter 1, pp. 11-12•. Why it is so hard to break the bushmeat habit (Phillip 2014)†. Class discussion on addressing the bushmeat risk.

Food: Agriculture

5 Tu, Sep 19

Agricultural animals brought us the deadliest of our diseases and they haven’t stopped. The early, non-infectious costs of agriculture to human health (Raichlen et al. 2017), and then infections to boot (Diamond 1987)†. Phylogenetic approaches to identifying the livestock sources of smallpox, measles, pertussis, and other pathogens (Drexler et al. 2012)† (Pearce-Duvet 2006)†. The difficulty in finding the reservoir sources of our pathogens. Explaining the asymmetry of pathogen burden between the Old and New

Worlds at the time of Columbus (Diamond 1997), Ch. 11*. How high population density and interconnectedness of human populations sustains “childhood diseases” (Cliff and Haggett 1995)† (Cohan 2017), Chapter 2, p.17• Livestock as a modern conduit of bat diseases to humanity: MERS (Reusken et al. 2016)† (Anthony et al. 2017)†, Hendra, and Nipah (Clayton 2017)† (Cohan 2017), Chapter 1, pp. 12-15•.

6 Th, Sep 21

Agricultural animals as a conduit of vector-borne contagion. Livestock as a source of the mosquito-borne Rift Valley Fever (Golnar et al. 2014)† (Bird and K. McElroy 2016)† (Grossi-Soyster and LaBeaud 2017)† (Cohan 2017), Chapter 1, pp. 15-16•. Infectious disease impacts of high-density living Infections from rats, including Bubonic Plague (Firth et al. 2014)†, (Himsworth et al. 2013)†. Infection from robins, the super-spreader of West Nile in cities and suburbs (Kilpatrick 2011)†, (Cohan 2017), Chapter 2, pp. 20-22•. Vaccination and the war against the agriculture-derived childhood diseases. How vaccination has broken the cycle of infection for the childhood diseases (DeBold and Friedman 2015)*. Herd immunity—extending protection beyond those vaccinated (Fine et al. 2011)†. Anti-vaxxer movement as a public health danger (Colgrove 2016, Phadke et al. 2016)†(Faherty 2017)†. Politics of vaccination refusal (Livesay 2017, Sun 2017)†. Class discussion on finding a way to reach herd immunity through vaccination despite objections from the anti-vaxxer movement.

Land use (Chapter 2)

7 Tu, Sep 26

Infectious disease impacts of high-density living—waterborne disease The unsanitary consequences of high-density living and waterborne diseases. Waterborne diseases in history: the Plague of Athens (Thucydides 1972), p. 151-156† (actually much earlier than 1972, of course); (Papagrigorakis et al. 2006)† and beyond. The emergence of cholera (McNeil 2017)† (Gilbert 2017)† (Mutreja et al. 2011)† and the origins of epidemiology and microbiology (Shiode et al. 2015)†. Separating one person’s feces from another’s drinking water: secure water and sanitation as public health works (Tomes 1998) (Chapter). Fecal-oral disease that is not water-borne: contaminated food sources and poor hygiene by food handlers. (Cohan 2017), Chapter 2, pp.17-19•.

8 Th, Sep 28

Waterborne diseases in the developing world Water-borne diseases of the developing world today: lack of secure water (Batterman et al. 2009)† (Alagidede and Alagidede 2016)† and lack of antibiotics to cure bacterial water-borne infections (Mendelson et al. 2015)†. Costs of water-borne disease in the developing world today (McGuire 2010) (two chapters)†. The astounding lack of sanitation in much of the developing world. The case of Haiti’s Cholera epidemic: how it got started (UN 2011, Eppinger et al. 2014)† and poor progress toward fixing it (Farmer et al. 2011, Farmer and Ivers 2012)†. Why investing in a developing country’s health may help the US, even if spread of their diseases is unlikely (Dzau et al. 2017)†. Class discussion on preventing water-borne disease in the developing world.

Review session for Exam 1, Monday, October 2, 8-10 PM, in Exley 150

Tu, Oct 3

Exam 1 on Lectures 1-8, Tuesday, October 3, in class

9 Th, Oct 5

Effects of reduced biodiversity on zoonotic infectious disease. The most efficient transmitters of West Nile Virus live in disturbed, species-poor habitats (Ostfeld 2009)†. Forest fragmentation and the subsequent low diversity of mammals have exacerbated Lyme Disease (Keesing et al. 2010)†. Other effects of human footprint on

Lyme Disease, through invasive barberry (Williams et al. 2017)† and extirpation of red foxes (Hofmeester et al. 2017)†. Hantavirus is most frequent in low-diversity forests (Dizney and Ruedas 2009)†. Declines of crows following WNV are greatest in low-diversity areas (Koenig et al. 2010)†. Why low-diversity habitats should generally produce greater rates of infection (Keesing et al. 2010)†, (Cohan 2017), Chapter 2, pp. 22-24•. Human encroachment on natural lands exposes humans to environmental pathogens Valley Fever, a pathogen found in semi-arid soils, is exacerbated by the turning of native soils through agriculture and construction of new housing and giant solar arrays (Brown et al. 2013).

10 Tu, Oct 10

Human encroachment on natural lands brings zoonotic pathogens closer to humans. Deforestation has brought bats closer to human villages, and may be a recurrent cause of new Ebola outbreaks (Wallace et al. 2016, Rulli et al. 2017)†. Predicting what wild species and what wildlands are most likely to be the source of a new zoonotic epidemic (Olival et al. 2017)†, (Jackson and Charleston 2004)† (Clark et al. 2000)†. How viral richness varies across animal taxa. Anthroponoses Anthroponoses (zoonoses in reverse) (Mayr 1989)†, (Quammen 2012), Ch. 10†, (Solomon 2013)†, (Messenger et al. 2014)†. (Cohan 2017), Chapter 2, pp. 24-25•. Discussion on possible regulation of human encroachment in order to minimize spillovers.

Trade and transport (Chapter 3)

11 Th, Oct 12

Infectious diseases of ancient times. How Hollywood has helped us to imagine worldwide plague (Lipkin 2011)†. The effects of ancient diseases on social development (Morris 2010), Chs. 3, 6*. The Hittite Plague and the end of the Bronze Age in the Near East (Trevisanato 2007)† (Norrie 2016), Ch. 4†, (Morris 2010), pages 215-220†. The Plague of Athens (Thucydides 1972)† (really earlier than 1972!). Increasing trade and spread of disease and the demise of the Roman Empire; in particular, malaria (Sherman 2006), Ch. 3†, the Antonine and Cyprian plagues (Sabbatini and Fiorino 2009, Harper 2015)†, and Justianian’s Plague (Sherman 2006), Ch. 3†. (Cohan 2017), Chapter 3, pp. 26-29•.

12 Tu, Oct 17

The return of Bubonic Plague in the 14th and 19th centuries The Black Death, its geographic origins (Morelli et al. 2010), Figs. 1-2†, and the ecological changes underlying its return to Europe (Stenseth et al. 2006)†; evidence that Plague recurrently entered Europe from Central Asia for centuries (Schmid et al. 2015)†; the environments preferred by Plague (Neerinckx et al. 2010)†. Worldwide spread of Plague in the Third Pandemic. Identification of the pathogen and its mode of transmission. (Cohan 2017), Chapter 3, pp. 29-30•.

ESSAY 1 IS DUE IN CLASS—NOVEMBER 2

13 Th, Oct 19

The origins of Smallpox. Archaeological and early historical evidence for the origins of Smallpox. Phylogenetic approaches to dating and identifying the geographical and animal origins of Smallpox. Eurasian childhood diseases and the holocaust of Native Americans. Disease acquisitions over millennia in the Old World were compressed into decades in the New World. The magnitude of death and destruction in the New World. Could severe, acute diseases have been sustained in the New World if they had been present in pre-Columbian times? Evidence: spontaneous spread of the Old World’s severe, acute diseases in the 16th century and archaeological evidence for distant trade routes before Columbus. (Cohan

2017), Chapter 3, pp. 30-32•.

Tu, Oct 24

Fall Break

14 Th, Oct 26

Global travel and transport of novel infections today Increasing transport of undesirable plants, animals, and pathogens since Columbus. Globalization of animal and plant diseases. Samplers, spreaders, and super-spreaders (Gladwell 2000), Ch. 1*, (Cleaveland et al. 2007)†. Global spread of novel (or recurring) infections, those that were ultimately contained (SARS, MERS, and Ebola) (Walker and Whitty 2015) †, one that is out of control (West Nile), one where our luck totally ran out (HIV) (Faria et al. 2014)†. Predicting where a virus might spread next. (Cohan 2017), Chapter 3, pp. 32-39•.

Energy Consumption (Chapter 4)

15 Tu, Oct 31

Climate change and geographical change in vector-borne diseases Evidence that the world is warming, and why (Dingzhong Andrew Sun blog: http://das.research.wesleyan.edu/2017/09/05/glasshouse-and-greenhouse-effect/). Severe changes in precipitation. Sea level rise. Changes in the geographical distributions and phenology of animals and plants. Species and population extinctions. Introduction to vector-borne contagions. Why most vector-borne pathogens and parasites have a limited range of vectors. Symptoms and transmission of the mosquito-borne diseases Malaria, Zika, Yellow Fever, Dengue, West Nile, and Chikungunya, as well as the tick-borne diseases Lyme Disease, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, and Ehrlichiosis. Poleward and upward spread of various vector-borne diseases (Luber et al. 2014), Section on “Disease carried by vectors”*: Malaria (Siraj et al. 2014)†, Blue Tongue Virus (Purse et al. 2005)†, Chikungunya, Dengue (Campbell et al. 2015), Rift Valley Fever (Gould and Higgs 2009)†, Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus (Lindgren and Gustafson 2001)†. (Cohan 2017), Chapter 4, pp. 40-43•. A student pick from Sophie Araya on the infectious disease threats (water-borne and mosquito-borne) caused by Hurricane Harvey in Houston: http://www.newsweek.com/hurricane-harvey-infectious-diseases-flood-water-bacteria-viruses-656093

16 Th, Nov 2

Ecological Niche Modeling and the challenge of predicting future disease distributions Ecological Niche Modeling (Peterson et al. 2002)† and predicting the future spread of vector-borne (Peterson 2009, Suk and Semenza 2014)† and reservoir-based (Daszak et al. 2013)† diseases; challenges of predicting a pathogen’s future range when vectors can evolve to tolerate warmer climates (Egizi et al. 2015)†; differences among subclades of a pathogen species (Francisella) in preferred environments (Nakazawa et al. 2010); predictions of greater food poisoning in a warmed world (Kovats et al. 2004)†, but perhaps less influenza (Lowen et al. 2007)†. Analysis of eight groups of parasites shows much potential for extinction of parasites (Carlson et al. 2017). (Cohan 2017), Chapter 4, pp. 43-47•. Essay 1 due in class November 2 (on paper)

Review session for Exam 2, Monday, November 6, 8-10 PM, in Exley 150

Exam 2 on Lectures 9-16, Tuesday November 7, in class

17 Th, Nov 9

Neglected Tropical Diseases and the prospect of their travels to the developed world River Blindness, Elephantiasis, Trachoma, Schistosomiasis, Guinea Worm Disease, and others. (Cohan 2017), Chapter 4, pp. 44-45•.

18

Tu, Nov 14

Precipitation change and infectious disease Infectious disease consequences of superstorms and floods: waterborne infections, mosquito-borne infections, and infections from rats that move into human habitations. Infectious disease consequences of droughts: Chikungunya in East Africa abetted by cisterns during drought; disappearance of fish predators of mosquitoes; closer proximity of mosquitoes and birds during drought; drought and the Meningitis Belt of Africa. (Cohan 2017), Chapter 4, pp 48-49•.

Health Care (Chapter 5, not yet written)

19

Th, Nov 16

The miracle of antibiotics, followed by their abuse and decline The miracle (Levy 1992), Chs. 1-2*; evolution of antibiotic resistance (Groopman 2012)*; the challenge of curbing abuse in human medicine (Fleming-Dutra et al. 2016, Kan et al. 2016)†; abuse of antibiotics in agriculture (Harrison et al. 2013)†; ubiquity of antibiotic resistance genes in the environment and in our gut bacteria (Dantas and Sommer 2014)†. Killer bacteria are back, with no antibiotics to stop them.

20 Tu, Nov 21

The new diseases created by antibiotic therapy A healthy microbiome as defense against gut infection (Grady 2013)†, (Kelly 2013)†, (Buffie and Pamer 2013)†: Clostridium difficile (aka “C diff”) infection is possible in humans only following antibiotic therapy. Many modern non-communicable diseases fostered by antibiotic therapy: obesity, depression, allergies, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome (Blaser 2014), Ch. 8*, (Specter 2012)†, (Gordon 2012)†.

Th, Nov 23

Thanksgiving!

One plague after another—the unending collateral damage from the Age of Humans (Chapter 6, not yet written)

21

Tu, Nov 28

Unending exposure to novel pathogens Our environmental impacts will continue to expose us to novel pathogens: bushmeat hunting, livestock picking up diseases from bats and rodents, destruction of habitats bringing us closer to unfamiliar animal species, reducing biodiversity, local exposures to novel diseases exacerbated by global travel. Evolution of novel human pathogens Novel pathogens evolve to become better adapted to transmission within humans. Evolutionary stages toward becoming a human pathogen (Woolhouse and Gaunt 2007)*, (Woolhouse et al. 2005)*; how infection in alternative “bridge” hosts can foster evolution toward a new host (Allison et al. 2012)†; how immunosuppressed humans may act as a bridge (LeBreton et al. 2007)†; role of changes in existing genes (Streicker et al. 2012)† versus horizontal acquisition of novel genes (Veyrier et al. 2009)†.

DECEMBER 7: ESSAY 2 IS DUE IN CLASS (ON PAPER)

22 Th, Nov 30

Evolution of established pathogens to accommodate changes in host ecology Waterborne diseases adapt to secured water supplies. Sexually transmitted diseases adapt to changes in the frequency of unprotected sex: evolution of increased and decreased virulence in HIV (Ariën et al. 2007)*, (Ariën et al. 2005)†; evolution of lower virulence in syphilis in its first century in Europe (Knell 2004)*. Mosquito-borne diseases (may) adapt to changes in human exposure to mosquitoes (Ewald 1993)*. Increased virulence in several mosquito-borne pathogens: West Nile (Kilpatrick 2011)† (Duggal et al. 2014)†, Chikungunya (Powers and Logue 2007)†, and Zika (Fauci and Morens 2016)†; (Rubin et al. 2016)†; (Mlakar et al. 2016)†; (Smith and Mackenzie 2016)†; (Cao-Lormeau 2016)†; (Tang et al.

2016)†.

Part II: Fixing the collateral damage of the Age of Humans

23 Tu, Dec 5

Technological solutions (Chapter 6, not yet written) Already-existing solutions: secured water supplies, vaccines, and antibiotics. Solutions under development: Killing bacteria through phage therapy and through combination drug therapies; molecular technology for improved vaccines; genetic engineering approaches to eradicating mosquito species; population biology approaches to identify potential pathogens that have not yet caused human disease.

24 Th, Dec 7

Ethical solutions (Chapter 7 and Epilogue, not yet written) How the Germ Theory of Disease led to two disparate views on infected people: the communitarian “socialism of the microbe” versus vilification of infected people as dangers and burdens to society. Socialism of the microbe (curing and preventing others’ infections because if you don’t, they’ll become your own) led to an ethic of keeping one’s germs to oneself and toward government taking responsibility for creating public health infrastructure and researching and curing infections. Vilification led to reduced investment in treating infectious disease and to reduced international aid toward health infrastructure. An updated socialism of the microbe will go beyond treating infections to include addressing environmental impacts that bring humans infectious disease, here and abroad. Continuing threats of novel and recurring infectious diseases as the back door to finding the better angels of our nature, promoting our own safety from contagions by protecting the environment. DECEMBER 7: ESSAY 2 IS DUE IN CLASS (ON PAPER)

Review session—Tuesday, December 12, 8-10 PM, in 150 Exley Science Center

Final exam— Wednesday, December 13, 9:00 AM-12:00 PM, in 150 Exley Science Center (our classroom). (Date not guaranteed by the Registrar yet.)

* Required reading † Recommended reading •Textbook for class (required reading!): Plagues of our Success: How Human Domination of the Planet is Making Us Sick, by F. M. Cohan It is unfinished but covers the first ¾ of the course. The book is available as a course pack, at a cost of $2.50 to cover copying. Students may order the course pack by logging into your WesPortal and selecting Course Pack, listed under Courses. There are no returns, refunds, or exchanges for dropped courses. Course packs are delivered to student Wes Boxes and billed to your student account. Students typically receive them within three business days of placing your order. Billing occurs toward the end of the semester. Students will receive an email prior to billing so that you may review the charges.

Office hours In our office hours and in our weekly review sessions, you are welcome to ask questions about

lectures, class discussions, readings, and other issues relating to the course material. Note that there will also be a review session the evening before each exam.

Fred Cohan (Professor) Office hours: Fridays 1:15-2:00 in my office (Shanklin 207), and by appointment Weekly review sessions: Fridays, 2:15-3:15, in Exley 121 fcohan@wesleyan.edu x3482 Andrew Dingzhong Sun (Graduate teaching assistant) Office hours: Tuesdays 4-5, Shanklin 208 dsun@wesleyan.edu Jerry Lee (Graduate teaching assistant) Office hours: Thursdays 3-4, Shanklin 208

Jlee16@wesleyan.edu Nicole DelGaudio (Undergraduate course assistant) Office hours: Wednesdays 4-5, Shanklin 208 ndelgaudio@wesleyan.edu Taylor Forman (Undergraduate course assistant) Office hours: Fridays 3-4, Shanklin 208 tforman@wesleyan.edu Bella Wiener (Undergraduate course assistant) Office hours: Thursday 12-1, Shanklin 208 bwiener@wesleyan.edu Course requirements We will have two exams during our lecture period, on October 3 and November 7. These exams will be principally short answer, multiple-choice, and fill-in-blank questions. The exams will be based on lecture material, class discussions, and required readings.

Our comprehensive final exam (covering material from the whole semester) will be on the registrar-assigned date. (Our best guess at the moment, not guaranteed yet, is Wednesday, December 13, 9:00 AM-12:00 PM.) This exam will include questions in the format of our three in-class exams, plus essay questions.

Two short essays will be due on November 2 and December 7. Each essay will answer a question dealing with lecture material, class discussions, or assigned readings. The essays must be typed and submitted in class as a paper copy. Detailed instructions for each essay are provided on the class web site under “Essay assignments.” You must work in pairs on each essay.

You are encouraged to participate in class discussions. Reading assignments will be posted on our class’s WesFiles web site. (We will not use Moodle,

except as a vehicle for me to send an email to the whole class.) Access to the site has been provided by email, and will be sent out again.

Here are the credits for each assignment:

Exam 1 150 points

Essay 1 150 points

Exam 2 150 points

Essay 2 150 points

Final exam 250 points

Participation (through discussion contributions) 50 points

Policy on accommodations for disabilities Wesleyan University is committed to ensuring that all qualified students with disabilities are afforded an equal opportunity to participate in and benefit from its programs and services. To receive accommodations, a student must have a documented disability as defined by Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the ADA Amendments Act of 2008, and provide documentation of the disability. Since accommodations may require early planning and generally are not provided retroactively, please contact Accessibility Services as soon as possible. If you believe that you need accommodations for a disability, please contact Dean Patey in Accessibility Services (accessibility@wesleyan.edu ), located in North College, Room 021, or call 860/685-5581 for an appointment to discuss your needs and the process for requesting accommodations. Revised October 12, 2017 Readings Alagidede, P., and A. N. Alagidede. 2016. The public health effects of water and sanitation in selected

West African countries. Public Health 130:59-63. Allison, A. B., C. E. Harbison, I. Pagan, K. M. Stucker, J. T. Kaelber, J. D. Brown, M. G. Ruder, M. K. Keel, E.

J. Dubovi, E. C. Holmes, and C. R. Parrish. 2012. Role of multiple hosts in the cross-species transmission and emergence of a pandemic parvovirus. J Virol 86:865-872.

Anthony, S. J., K. Gilardi, V. D. Menachery, T. Goldstein, B. Ssebide, R. Mbabazi, I. Navarrete-Macias, E. Liang, H. Wells, A. Hicks, A. Petrosov, D. K. Byarugaba, K. Debbink, K. H. Dinnon, T. Scobey, S. H. Randell, B. L. Yount, M. Cranfield, C. K. Johnson, R. S. Baric, W. I. Lipkin, and J. A. Mazet. 2017. Further Evidence for Bats as the Evolutionary Source of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus. MBio 8.

Ariën, K. K., R. M. Troyer, Y. Gali, R. L. Colebunders, E. J. Arts, and G. Vanham. 2005. Replicative fitness of historical and recent HIV-1 isolates suggests HIV-1 attenuation over time. AIDS 19:1555-1564.

Ariën, K. K., G. Vanham, and E. J. Arts. 2007. Is HIV-1 evolving to a less virulent form in humans? Nat Rev Microbiol 5:141-151.

Babkin, I. V., and I. N. Babkina. 2015. The origin of the variola virus. Viruses 7:1100-1112. Barford, E. 2013. Parasite makes mice lose fear of cats permanently Nature. Batterman, S., J. Eisenberg, R. Hardin, M. E. Kruk, M. C. Lemos, A. M. Michalak, B. Mukherjee, E. Renne,

H. Stein, C. Watkins, and M. L. Wilson. 2009. Sustainable control of water-related infectious diseases: a review and proposal for interdisciplinary health-based systems research. Environ Health Perspect 117:1023-1032.

Bird, B., and A. K. McElroy. 2016. Rift Valley fever virus: Unanswered questions.

Blaser, M. J. 2014. Missing Microbes: How the Overuse of Antibiotics Is Fueling Our Modern Plagues. Henry Holt and Co., New York.

Brown, J., K. Benedict, B. J. Park, and G. R. Thompson, 3rd. 2013. Coccidioidomycosis: epidemiology. Clin Epidemiol 5:185-197.

Buffie, C. G., and E. G. Pamer. 2013. Microbiota-mediated colonization resistance against intestinal pathogens. Nat Rev Immunol 13:790-801.

Campbell, L. P., C. Luther, D. Moo-Llanes, J. M. Ramsey, R. Danis-Lozano, and A. T. Peterson. 2015. Climate change influences on global distributions of dengue and chikungunya virus vectors. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 370.

Cao-Lormeau, V. M. 2016. Guillain-Barré Syndrome outbreak associated with Zika virus infection in French Polynesia: a case-control study. The Lancet.

Carlson, C. J., K. R. Burgio, E. R. Dougherty, A. J. Phillips, V. M. Bueno, C. F. Clements, G. Castaldo, T. A. Dallas, C. A. Cizauskas, G. S. Cumming, J. Dona, N. C. Harris, R. Jovani, S. Mironov, O. C. Muellerklein, H. C. Proctor, and W. M. Getz. 2017. Parasite biodiversity faces extinction and redistribution in a changing climate. Sci Adv 3:e1602422.

Clark, M. A., N. A. Moran, P. Baumann, and J. J. Wernegreen. 2000. Cospeciation between bacterial endosymbionts (Buchnera) and a recent radiation of aphids (Uroleucon) and pitfalls of testing for phylogenetic congruence. Evolution 54:517-525.

Clayton, B. A. 2017. Nipah virus: transmission of a zoonotic paramyxovirus. Curr Opin Virol 22:97-104. Cleaveland, S., D. T. Haydon, and L. Taylor. 2007. Overviews of pathogen emergence: Which pathogens,

when, and why?in J. E. Childs, J. S. Mackenzie, and J. A. Richt, editors. Wildlife and Emerging Zoonotic Diseases: The Biology, Circumstances and Consequences of Cross-Species Transmission. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

Cliff, A. D., and P. Haggett. 1995. The epidemiological significance of islands. Health and Place 1:199-209. Cohan, F. M. 2017. Plagues of our Success: How Human Domination of the Planet is Making Us Sick. Colgrove, J. 2016. Vaccine Refusal Revisited — The Limits of Public Health Persuasion and Coercion New

England Journal of Medicine 375:1316-1317. Dantas, G., and M. O. A. Sommer. 2014. How to fight back against antibiotic resistance. American

Scientist 42:44-51. Daszak, P., C. Zambrana-Torrelio, T. L. Bogich, M. Fernandez, J. H. Epstein, K. A. Murray, and H. Hamilton.

2013. Interdisciplinary approaches to understanding disease emergence: The past, present, and future drivers of Nipah virus emergence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110:3681-3688.

DeBold, T., and D. Friedman. 2015. Battling Infectious Diseases in the 20th Century: The Impact of Vaccines. Wall Street Journal.

Diamond, J. 1987. The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race. Discover. Diamond, J. 1997. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. Norton, New York. Dizney, L. J., and L. A. Ruedas. 2009. Increased host species diversity and decreased prevalence of Sin

Nombre virus. Emerg Infect Dis 15:1012-1018. Drexler, J. F., V. M. Corman, M. A. Müller, G. D. Maganga, P. Vallo, T. Binger, F. Gloza-Rausch, V. M.

Cottontail, A. Rasche, S. Yordanov, A. Seebens, M. Knörnschild, S. Oppong, Y. A. Sarkodie, C. Pongombo, A. N. Lukashev, J. Schmidt-Chanasit, A. Stöcker, A. J. B. Carneiro, S. Erbar, A. Maisner, F. Fronhoffs, R. Buettner, E. K. V. Kalko, T. Kruppa, C. R. Franke, R. Kallies, E. R. N. Yandoko, G. Herrler, C. Reusken, A. Hassanin, D. H. Krüger, S. Matthee, R. G. Ulrich, E. M. Leroy, and C. Drosten. 2012. Bats host major mammalian paramyxoviruses. 3:796.

Duggal, N. K., A. Bosco-Lauth, R. A. Bowen, S. S. Wheeler, W. K. Reisen, T. A. Felix, B. R. Mann, H. Romo, D. M. Swetnam, A. D. Barrett, and A. C. Brault. 2014. Evidence for co-evolution of West Nile Virus and house sparrows in North America. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8:e3262.

Dzau, V. J., V. Fuster, J. Frazer, and M. Snair. 2017. Investing in Global Health for Our Future. New England Journal of Medicine 377:1292-1296.

Egizi, A., N. H. Fefferman, and D. M. Fonseca. 2015. Evidence that implicit assumptions of 'no evolution' of disease vectors in changing environments can be violated on a rapid timescale. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 370.

Ehlers, B., K. Spieß, F. Leendertz, M. Peeters, C. Boesch, D. Gatherer, and D. J. McGeoch. 2010. Lymphocryptovirus phylogeny and the origins of Epstein–Barr virus. Journal of General Virology 91:630-642.

Eppinger, M., T. Pearson, S. S. Koenig, O. Pearson, N. Hicks, S. Agrawal, F. Sanjar, K. Galens, S. Daugherty, J. Crabtree, R. S. Hendriksen, L. B. Price, B. P. Upadhyay, G. Shakya, C. M. Fraser, J. Ravel, and P. S. Keim. 2014. Genomic epidemiology of the Haitian cholera outbreak: a single introduction followed by rapid, extensive, and continued spread characterized the onset of the epidemic. MBio 5:e01721.

Ewald, P. W. 1993. The evolution of virulence. Sci Am 268:86-93. Faherty, A. 2017. The child whose town rejected vaccines. Wellcome Collection. Faria, N. R., A. Rambaut, M. A. Suchard, G. Baele, T. Bedford, M. J. Ward, A. J. Tatem, J. D. Sousa, N.

Arinaminpathy, J. Pepin, D. Posada, M. Peeters, O. G. Pybus, and P. Lemey. 2014. HIV epidemiology. The early spread and epidemic ignition of HIV-1 in human populations. Science 346:56-61.

Farmer, P., C. P. Almazor, E. T. Bahnsen, D. Barry, J. Bazile, B. R. Bloom, N. Bose, T. Brewer, S. B. Calderwood, J. D. Clemens, A. Cravioto, E. Eustache, G. Jerome, N. Gupta, J. B. Harris, H. H. Hiatt, C. Holstein, P. J. Hotez, L. C. Ivers, V. B. Kerry, S. P. Koenig, R. C. Larocque, F. Leandre, W. Lambert, E. Lyon, J. J. Mekalanos, J. S. Mukherjee, C. Oswald, J. W. Pape, A. Gretchko Prosper, R. Rabinovich, M. Raymonville, J. R. Rejouit, L. J. Ronan, M. L. Rosenberg, E. T. Ryan, J. D. Sachs, D. A. Sack, C. Surena, A. A. Suri, R. Ternier, M. K. Waldor, D. Walton, and J. L. Weigel. 2011. Meeting cholera's challenge to Haiti and the world: a joint statement on cholera prevention and care. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5:e1145.

Farmer, P. E., and L. C. Ivers. 2012. Cholera in Haiti: the equity agenda and the future of tropical medicine. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86:7-8.

Fauci, A. S., and D. M. Morens. 2016. Zika Virus in the Americas--Yet Another Arbovirus Threat. N Engl J Med 374:601-604.

Fine, P., K. Eames, and D. L. Heymann. 2011. "Herd immunity": a rough guide. Clin Infect Dis 52:911-916. Firth, C., M. Bhat, M. A. Firth, S. H. Williams, M. J. Frye, P. Simmonds, J. M. Conte, J. Ng, J. Garcia, N. P.

Bhuva, B. Lee, X. Che, P. L. Quan, and W. I. Lipkin. 2014. Detection of Zoonotic Pathogens and Characterization of Novel Viruses Carried by Commensal Rattus norvegicus in New York City. MBio 5.

Fleming-Dutra, K. E., A. L. Hersh, D. J. Shapiro, M. Bartoces, E. A. Enns, T. M. File, Jr., J. A. Finkelstein, J. S. Gerber, D. Y. Hyun, J. A. Linder, R. Lynfield, D. J. Margolis, L. S. May, D. Merenstein, J. P. Metlay, J. G. Newland, J. F. Piccirillo, R. M. Roberts, G. V. Sanchez, K. J. Suda, A. Thomas, T. M. Woo, R. M. Zetts, and L. A. Hicks. 2016. Prevalence of Inappropriate Antibiotic Prescriptions Among US Ambulatory Care Visits, 2010-2011. JAMA 315:1864-1873.

Futuyma, D. J. 2005. Evolution. 2nd edition. Gilbert, P. K. 2017. On Cholera in Nineteenth-Century England.in D. F. Felluga, editor. BRANCH: Britain,

Representation and Nineteenth-Century History. Gladwell, M. 2000. The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. Little, Brown, and

Co.

Golnar, A. J., M. J. Turell, A. D. LaBeaud, R. C. Kading, and G. L. Hamer. 2014. Predicting the mosquito species and vertebrate species involved in the theoretical transmission of Rift Valley fever virus in the United States. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8:e3163.

Gordon, J. I. 2012. Honor thy gut symbionts redux. Science 336:1251-1253. Gould, E. A., and S. Higgs. 2009. Impact of climate change and other factors on emerging arbovirus

diseases. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 103:109-121. Grady, D. 2013. Disgusting, Maybe, but Treatment Works, Study Finds. New York Times. New York Times

Company, New York. Groopman, J. 2012. Sex and the superbug. Pages 26-30 The New Yorker, New York. Grossi-Soyster, E. N., and A. D. LaBeaud. 2017. Rift Valley fever virus: future emergence and the impact

on One Health The Biochemist 39:22-25. Hacker, J. S., and P. Pierson. 2016. American Amnesia: How the War on Government Led Us to Forget

What Made America Prosper. Simon & Schuster, New York. Harper, K. 2015. Rethinking the Plague of Cyprian: Pandemics and Passages to Late Antiquity. Journal of

Roman Archaeology. Harrison, E. M., G. K. Paterson, M. T. Holden, J. Larsen, M. Stegger, A. R. Larsen, A. Petersen, R. L. Skov, J.

M. Christensen, A. Bak Zeuthen, O. Heltberg, S. R. Harris, R. N. Zadoks, J. Parkhill, S. J. Peacock, and M. A. Holmes. 2013. Whole genome sequencing identifies zoonotic transmission of MRSA isolates with the novel mecA homologue mecC. EMBO Mol Med 5:509-515.

Himsworth, C. G., K. L. Parsons, C. Jardine, and D. M. Patrick. 2013. Rats, cities, people, and pathogens: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of literature regarding the ecology of rat-associated zoonoses in urban centers. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 13:349-359.

Hofmeester, T. R., P. A. Jansen, H. J. Wijnen, E. C. Coipan, M. Fonville, H. H. T. Prins, H. Sprong, and S. E. van Wieren. 2017. Cascading effects of predator activity on tick-borne disease risk. Proc Biol Sci 284.

Ingram, W. M., L. M. Goodrich, E. A. Robey, and M. B. Eisen. 2013. Mice infected with low-virulence strains of Toxoplasma gondii lose their innate aversion to cat urine, even after extensive parasite clearance. PLoS One 8:e75246.

Jackson, A. P., and M. A. Charleston. 2004. A cophylogenetic perspective of RNA-virus evolution. Mol Biol Evol 21:45-57.

Kan, Q. C., J. G. Wen, X. H. Liu, and Z. Z. Li. 2016. Inappropriate use of antibiotics in children in China. Lancet 387:1273-1274.

Keesing, F., L. K. Belden, P. Daszak, A. Dobson, C. D. Harvell, R. D. Holt, P. Hudson, A. Jolles, K. E. Jones, C. E. Mitchell, S. S. Myers, T. Bogich, and R. S. Ostfeld. 2010. Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. Nature 468:647-652.

Kelly, C. P. 2013. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation — An Old Therapy Comes of Age. New England Journal of Medicine.

Kilpatrick, A. M. 2011. Globalization, land use, and the invasion of West Nile virus. Science 334:323-327. Klug, W. S. 2006. Concepts of Genetics. 8th edition. Knell, R. J. 2004. Syphilis in renaissance Europe: rapid evolution of an introduced sexually transmitted

disease? Proc Biol Sci 271 Suppl 4:S174-176. Koenig, W. D., W. M. Hochachka, B. Zuckerberg, and J. L. Dickinson. 2010. Ecological determinants of

American crow mortality due to West Nile virus during its North American sweep. Oecologia 163:903-909.

Kovats, R. S., S. J. Edwards, S. Hajat, B. G. Armstrong, K. L. Ebi, and B. Menne. 2004. The effect of temperature on food poisoning: a time-series analysis of salmonellosis in ten European countries. Epidemiol Infect 132:443-453.

LeBreton, M., O. Yang, U. Tamoufe, E. Mpoudi-Ngole, J. N. Torimiro, C. F. Djoko, J. K. Carr, A. Tassy Prosser, A. W. Rimoin, D. L. Birx, D. S. Burke, and N. D. Wolfe. 2007. Exposure to wild primates among HIV-infected persons. Emerg Infect Dis 13:1579-1582.

Levy, S. B. 1992. The Antibiotic Paradox: How Miracle Drugs Are Destroying the Miracle. Plenum, New York.

Lindgren, E., and R. Gustafson. 2001. Tick-borne encephalitis in Sweden and climate change. Lancet 358:16-18.

Lipkin, W. I. 2011. The real threat of 'Contagion'. New York Times. New York Times Company, New York. Livesay, C. 2017. Amid Measles Outbreak, Italy Makes Childhood Vaccinations Mandatory. NPR. Lowen, A. C., S. Mubareka, J. Steel, and P. Palese. 2007. Influenza virus transmission is dependent on

relative humidity and temperature. PLoS Pathog 3:1470-1476. Luber, G., K. Knowlton, B. J., H. Frumkin, M. Hayden, J. Hess, N. McGeehin, N. Sheats, L. Backer, C. B.

Beard, K. L. Ebi, E. E. Maibach, R. S. Ostfeld, C. Wiedinmyer, E. Zielinski-Gutiérrez, and L. Ziska. 2014. Human health. Pages 220-256 in J. M. Melillo, T. C. Richmond, and G. W. Yohe, editors. Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, D. C.

Mayr, A. 1989. Infections which humans in the household transmit to dogs and cats. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg B 187:508-526.

McAuliffe, K. 2016. This Is Your Brain on Parasites: How Tiny Creatures Manipulate Our Behavior and Shape Society. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston.

McGuire, J. W. 2010. Wealth, Health, and Democracy in East Asia and Latin America. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

McNeil, D. G., Jr. 2017. Turning the Tide Against Cholera. New York Times, New York. Menachery, V. D., B. L. Yount, Jr., K. Debbink, S. Agnihothram, L. E. Gralinski, J. A. Plante, R. L. Graham, T.

Scobey, X. Y. Ge, E. F. Donaldson, S. H. Randell, A. Lanzavecchia, W. A. Marasco, Z. L. Shi, and R. S. Baric. 2015. A SARS-like cluster of circulating bat coronaviruses shows potential for human emergence. Nat Med 21:1508-1513.

Mendelson, M., J. A. Rottingen, U. Gopinathan, D. H. Hamer, H. Wertheim, B. Basnyat, C. Butler, G. Tomson, and M. Balasegaram. 2015. Maximising access to achieve appropriate human antimicrobial use in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet.

Messenger, A. M., A. N. Barnes, and G. C. Gray. 2014. Reverse zoonotic disease transmission (zooanthroponosis): a systematic review of seldom-documented human biological threats to animals. PLoS One 9:e89055.

Mindell, D. P. 2006. The Evolving World : Evolution in Everyday Life. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass.

Mlakar, J., M. Korva, N. Tul, M. Popovic, M. Poljsak-Prijatelj, J. Mraz, M. Kolenc, K. Resman Rus, T. Vesnaver Vipotnik, V. Fabjan Vodusek, A. Vizjak, J. Pizem, M. Petrovec, and T. Avsic Zupanc. 2016. Zika Virus Associated with Microcephaly. N Engl J Med.

Morelli, G., Y. Song, C. J. Mazzoni, M. Eppinger, P. Roumagnac, D. M. Wagner, M. Feldkamp, B. Kusecek, A. J. Vogler, Y. Li, Y. Cui, N. R. Thomson, T. Jombart, R. Leblois, P. Lichtner, L. Rahalison, J. M. Petersen, F. Balloux, P. Keim, T. Wirth, J. Ravel, R. Yang, E. Carniel, and M. Achtman. 2010. Yersinia pestis genome sequencing identifies patterns of global phylogenetic diversity. Nat Genet.

Morris, I. 2010. Why the West Rules--For Now. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York. Mutreja, A., D. W. Kim, N. R. Thomson, T. R. Connor, J. H. Lee, S. Kariuki, N. J. Croucher, S. Y. Choi, S. R.

Harris, M. Lebens, S. K. Niyogi, E. J. Kim, T. Ramamurthy, J. Chun, J. L. Wood, J. D. Clemens, C. Czerkinsky, G. B. Nair, J. Holmgren, J. Parkhill, and G. Dougan. 2011. Evidence for several waves of global transmission in the seventh cholera pandemic. Nature 477:462-465.

Nakazawa, Y., R. A. J. Williams, A. T. Peterson, P. S. Mead, K. J. Kugeler, and J. M. Petersen. 2010. Ecological Niche Modeling of Francisella tularensis Subspecies and Clades in the United States. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82:912-918.

Neerinckx, S., A. T. Peterson, H. Gulinck, J. Deckers, D. Kimaro, and H. Leirs. 2010. Predicting Potential Risk Areas of Human Plague for the Western Usambara Mountains, Lushoto District, Tanzania. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82:492-500.

Norrie, P. 2016. A History of Disease in Ancient Times: More Lethal than War. Palgrave Macmillan. Olival, K. J., P. R. Hosseini, C. Zambrana-Torrelio, N. Ross, T. L. Bogich, and P. Daszak. 2017. Host and viral

traits predict zoonotic spillover from mammals. Nature advance online publication. Ostfeld, R. S. 2009. Biodiversity loss and the rise of zoonotic pathogens. Clin Microbiol Infect 15 Suppl

1:40-43. Papagrigorakis, M. J., C. Yapijakis, P. N. Synodinos, and E. Baziotopoulou-Valavani. 2006. DNA

examination of ancient dental pulp incriminates typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens. Int J Infect Dis 10:206-214.

Pearce-Duvet, J. M. 2006. The origin of human pathogens: evaluating the role of agriculture and domestic animals in the evolution of human disease. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 81:369-382.

Peeters, M., V. Courgnaud, B. Abela, P. Auzel, X. Pourrut, F. Bibollet-Ruche, S. Loul, F. Liegeois, C. Butel, D. Koulagna, E. Mpoudi-Ngole, G. M. Shaw, B. H. Hahn, and E. Delaporte. 2002. Risk to human health from a plethora of simian immunodeficiency viruses in primate bushmeat. Emerg Infect Dis 8:451-457.

Peterson, A. T. 2009. Shifting suitability for malaria vectors across Africa with warming climates. BMC Infect Dis 9:59.

Peterson, A. T., M. A. Ortega-Huerta, J. Bartley, V. Sanchez-Cordero, J. Soberon, R. H. Buddemeier, and D. R. Stockwell. 2002. Future projections for Mexican faunas under global climate change scenarios. Nature 416:626-629.

Phadke, V. K., R. A. Bednarczyk, D. A. Salmon, and S. B. Omer. 2016. Association between vaccine refusal and vaccine-preventable diseases in the united states: A review of measles and pertussis. JAMA 315:1149-1158.

Phillip, A. 2014. Why West Africans keep hunting and eating bush meat despite Ebola concerns. Washington Post.

Powers, A. M., and C. H. Logue. 2007. Changing patterns of chikungunya virus: re-emergence of a zoonotic arbovirus. J Gen Virol 88:2363-2377.

Purse, B. V., P. S. Mellor, D. J. Rogers, A. R. Samuel, P. P. Mertens, and M. Baylis. 2005. Climate change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe. Nat Rev Microbiol 3:171-181.

Quammen, D. 2012. Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Epidemic. W. W. Norton, New York.

Raichlen, D. A., H. Pontzer, J. A. Harris, A. Z. Mabulla, F. W. Marlowe, J. Josh Snodgrass, G. Eick, J. Colette Berbesque, A. Sancilio, and B. M. Wood. 2017. Physical activity patterns and biomarkers of cardiovascular disease risk in hunter-gatherers. Am J Hum Biol 29.

Reusken, C. B., V. S. Raj, M. P. Koopmans, and B. L. Haagmans. 2016. Cross host transmission in the emergence of MERS coronavirus. Curr Opin Virol 16:55-62.

Rubin, E. J., M. F. Greene, and L. R. Baden. 2016. Zika Virus and Microcephaly. N Engl J Med. Rulli, M. C., M. Santini, D. T. S. Hayman, and P. D’Odorico. 2017. The nexus between forest

fragmentation in Africa and Ebola virus disease outbreaks. 7:41613. Sabbatini, S., and S. Fiorino. 2009. La peste antonina e il declino dell’Impero Romano. Le Infezioni in

Medicina 4:261-275. Sadava, D., D. M. Hillis, H. C. Heller, and M. R. Berenbaum. 2014. Life: The Science of Biology. Tenth

edition. Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass.

Salemi, M., J. Desmyter, and A. M. Vandamme. 2000. Tempo and Mode of Human and Simian T-Lymphotropic Virus (HTLV/STLV) Evolution Revealed by Analyses of Full-Genome Sequences. Molecular Biology and Evolution 17:374-386.

Schmid, B. V., U. Buntgen, W. R. Easterday, C. Ginzler, L. Walloe, B. Bramanti, and N. C. Stenseth. 2015. Climate-driven introduction of the Black Death and successive plague reintroductions into Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112:3020-3025.

Sherman, I. W. 2006. The Power of Plagues. ASM Press, Washington, DC. Shiode, N., S. Shiode, E. Rod-Thatcher, S. Rana, and P. Vinten-Johansen. 2015. The mortality rates and

the space-time patterns of John Snow’s cholera epidemic map. Int J Health Geogr 14:21. Siraj, A. S., M. Santos-Vega, M. J. Bouma, D. Yadeta, D. Ruiz Carrascal, and M. Pascual. 2014. Altitudinal

changes in malaria incidence in highlands of Ethiopia and Colombia. Science 343:1154-1158. Smith, D. W., and J. Mackenzie. 2016. Zika virus and Guillain-Barre syndrome: another viral cause to add

to the list. The Lancet. Solomon, C. 2013. How kitty is killing the dolphins. Sci Am 308:72-77. Specter, R. 2012. Germs are us. Pages 32-39 New Yorker. Conde Nast, New York. Stenseth, N. C., N. I. Samia, H. Viljugrein, K. L. Kausrud, M. Begon, S. Davis, H. Leirs, V. M. Dubyanskiy, J.

Esper, V. S. Ageyev, N. L. Klassovskiy, S. B. Pole, and K. S. Chan. 2006. Plague dynamics are driven by climate variation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:13110-13115.

Streicker, D. G., S. M. Altizer, A. Velasco-Villa, and C. E. Rupprecht. 2012. Variable evolutionary routes to host establishment across repeated rabies virus host shifts among bats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:19715-19720.

Suk, J. E., and J. C. Semenza. 2014. From global to local: vector-borne disease in an interconnected world. Eur J Public Health 24:531-532.

Sun, L. H. 2017. Trump energizes the antivaccine movement in Texas. Washington Post, Washington, DC. Tang, H., C. Hammack, Sarah C. Ogden, Z. Wen, X. Qian, Y. Li, B. Yao, J. Shin, F. Zhang, Emily M. Lee,

Kimberly M. Christian, Ruth A. Didier, P. Jin, H. Song, and G.-l. Ming. 2016. Zika Virus Infects Human Cortical Neural Progenitors and Attenuates Their Growth. Cell Stem Cell 18.

Thucydides. 1972. History of the Pelopennesian War. Penguin, New York. Tomes, N. 1998. The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life. Harvard

University Press, Cambridge, Mass. Trevisanato, S. I. 2007. The 'Hittite plague', an epidemic of tularemia and the first record of biological

warfare. Med Hypotheses 69:1371-1374. UN. 2011. Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti. Underdown, S. J., K. Kumar, and C. Houldcroft. 2017. Network analysis of the hominin origin of Herpes

Simplex virus 2 from fossil data. Virus Evolution 3: vex026. Veyrier, F., D. Pletzer, C. Turenne, and M. A. Behr. 2009. Phylogenetic detection of horizontal gene

transfer during the step-wise genesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. BMC Evol Biol 9:196. Walker, N. F., and C. J. Whitty. 2015. Tackling emerging infections: clinical and public health lessons from

the West African Ebola virus disease outbreak, 2014-2015. Clin Med 15:457-460. Wallace, R. G., R. Kock, L. Bergmann, M. Gilbert, L. Hogerwerf, C. Pittiglio, R. Mattioli, and R. Wallace.

2016. Did Neoliberalizing West African Forests Produce a New Niche for Ebola? Int J Health Serv 46:149-165.

Walsh, B. 2011. Virus hunter. Time. Wertheim, J. O., M. D. Smith, D. M. Smith, K. Scheffler, and S. L. Kosakovsky Pond. 2014. Evolutionary

Origins of Human Herpes Simplex Viruses 1 and 2. Molecular Biology and Evolution 31:2356-2364.

Williams, S. C., M. A. Linske, and J. S. Ward. 2017. Long-Term Effects of Berberis thunbergii (Ranunculales: Berberidaceae) Management on Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) Abundance

and Borrelia burgdorferi (Spirochaetales: Spirochaetaceae) Prevalence in Connecticut, USA. Environ Entomol nvx146.

Wolfe, N. 2011. The Viral Storm: The Dawn of a New Pandemic Age. Times Books, New York. Woolhouse, M., and E. Gaunt. 2007. Ecological origins of novel human pathogens. Crit Rev Microbiol

33:231-242. Woolhouse, M. E., D. T. Haydon, and R. Antia. 2005. Emerging pathogens: the epidemiology and

evolution of species jumps. Trends Ecol Evol 20:238-244. Worobey, M., M. Gemmel, D. E. Teuwen, T. Haselkorn, K. Kunstman, M. Bunce, J. J. Muyembe, J. M.

Kabongo, R. M. Kalengayi, E. Van Marck, M. T. Gilbert, and S. M. Wolinsky. 2008. Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. Nature 455:661-664.

Yip, C. W., C. C. Hon, M. Shi, T. T. Lam, K. Y. Chow, F. Zeng, and F. C. Leung. 2009. Phylogenetic perspectives on the epidemiology and origins of SARS and SARS-like coronaviruses. Infect Genet Evol 9:1185-1196.