PowerPoint The atomic moments in these materials exhibit very
strong interactions, resulting in a parallel or antiparallel
alignment of atomic moments.
Exchange forces are very large, equivalent to a field on the order
of 1000 Tesla, or approximately a 100 million times the strength of
the earth's field.
The exchange force is a quantum mechanical phenomenon due to the
relative orientation of the spins of two electron.
Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit parallel alignment of moments
resulting in large net magnetization even in the absence of a
magnetic field.
The elements Fe, Ni, and Co and many of their alloys are typical
ferromagnetic materials.
Two distinct characteristics of ferromagnetic materials are their
(1) spontaneous magnetization and the existence of (2) magnetic
ordering temperature
Ferromagnetism
i) Magnitude of Ms
M (ferro) >> M (para) : 1700 emu/cm3 for Fe >> 10-3
emu/cm3
Hs = 50 Oe
Weiss' Assumption
Molecular field is acting in FM not only above Tc but also below Tc
and this field is so strong that it could magnetize the substance
to saturation even in the absence of an applied field. →
spontaneously magnetized (Self-saturating)
Magnetic domain : In demagnetized state, a ferromagnetic material
is divided into a number of small regions called domains, each of
which is spontaneously magnetized.
Magnetization process
b) – c) Single domain process (motion of domain wall)
d) Rotation of the domain along the field
Question: Spontaneous magnetization?
Division into domains?
(a) A single-domain sample with a large stray field. (b) A sample
split into two domains in order to reduce the magnetostatic energy.
(c) A sample divided into four domains. The closure domains at the
ends of the sample make the magnetostatic energy zero.
Magnetic Domain
Magnetic Domain
Magnetic Order
Are ferromagnets already in an ordered state before a magnetic
field is applied or is the order by the field?
Explanation of magnetic order in ferromagnets
Weber (1852): The material could already have small atomic magnetic
moments within the solid which are randomly aligned in the
demagnetized but which became ordered under the action of a
magnetic field.
Poisson (1983) : The atomic magnetic moments may not exist at all
in the demagnetized state but could be induced by a mangetic
field.
Explanation of magnetic order in ferromagnets
Ampère (1827): The origin of the atomic moments was suggested that
they were due to electrical currents continually circulating within
the atom.
Ewing (1893): Followed Weber’s idea and interested in explaining
hysteresis.
Atomic magnetic moments were in permanent existence (Weber’s
hypothesis)
Atomic magnetic moments were ordered even in the demagnetized
state. It was the domains only which were randomly aligned in the
demagnetized state.
The magnetization process consisting of reorienting the domains so
that more domains were aligned with field.
Weiss domain theory
Magnetic Domain
In order to minimize its magnetostatic energy, the magnetic
material divides up into magnetic domains.
Weiss (1907): concept of magnetic domains. A magnetic material
consisted of a number of distinct regions termed ‘domains’ each of
which was saturated in a different direction.
The concept of domains is able to explain why ferromagnetic
materials can be demagnetized even below their Curie
temperature.
What is the origin of the alignment of the atomic magnetic
moments?
It is the Weiss mean field (later the “molecular field”, further
later exchange coupling from quantum mechanics)
Weiss Mean Field Theory
molecules) do not interact with one another
Curie-Weiss law:
Fictitious internal field Hm (“molecular field”) for
interaction
: molecular field constant
Molecular field theory
Interaction between magnetic moments Fictitious internal
filed
For > 0, Hm || M
Curie Temperature
Curie Temperature
Even though electronic exchange forces in ferromagnets are very
large, thermal energy eventually overcomes the exchange and
produces a randomizing effect.
This occurs at a particular temperature called the Curie
temperature (TC).
Below the Curie temperature, the ferromagnet is ordered and above
it, disordered.
The saturation magnetization goes to zero at the Curie
temperature.
Curie temperature
as a function of temperature
Exchange Energy
Exchange force depends on relative orientation of spins of two
electrons due to Pauli's exclusion principle
When two atoms, such as hydrogen atoms, are coming together, there
are electrostatic attractive (e-↔p+) and repulsive (e-↔e-, p+↔p+)
forces and exchange force.
The internal field is produced by interactions between
nearest-neighbor dipole moments.
The interaction arises from the electrostatic electron-electron
interaction, and is called the ”exchange interaction” or exchange
force.
Exchange Energy: Heisenberg Model
Je : a numerical quantity called exchange integral
Bethe-Slater curve
(1) If Jex is positive, Eex is a minimum when the spins are
parallel, leading to ferromagnetism
(2) If Jex is negative, Eex is a minimum when the spins are
antiparallel, leading to antiferromagnetism.
Relative orientation of two spins determines the energy
states.
ra/r3d
Band Theory of Ferromagnetism
A simple extension of the band theory of paramagnetism by the
introduction of an exchange coupling between the electrons.
Source of magnetic moments: unpaired electrons
In partially filled energy band, an imbalance of spins leads to a
net magnetic moment per atom.
Band Theory
When N atoms come together to form a solid, each level of the free
atom must split into N levels.
In transition metal elements, the outermost electrons are the 3d
and 4s; these electron clouds are the first to overlap as the atoms
are brought together, and the corresponding levels are the first to
split.
Density of states
Anti-Ferromagnetism
Anti-ferromagnetism
If the A and B sublattice moments are exactly equal but opposite,
the net moment is zero. This type of magnetic ordering is called
antiferromagnetism.
The clue to antiferromagnetism is the behavior of susceptibility
above a critical temperature, called the Néel temperature
(TN).
Above TN, the susceptibility obeys the Curie-Weiss law for
paramagnets but with a negative intercept indicating negative
exchange interactions.
Wess Model on Anti-ferromagnetism
Two identical sublattices A and B: While the interaction with the
moments on other sublattices with a negative coupling coefficient,
interaction with the moments on their own sublattice with a
positive coupling coefficient
On the basis of nearest-neighbor interactions, with a negative
interaction between nearest neighbors, this leads to simple
antiferromagnetism
Anti-ferromagnetism
Anti-ferromagnetism
Ferrimagnetism
In ferrimagnets, the magnetic moments of the A and B sublattices
are not equal and result in a net magnetic moment.
Ferrimagnetism is therefore similar to ferromagnetism. It exhibits
all the hallmarks of ferromagnetic behavior- spontaneous
magnetization, Curie temperatures, hysteresis, and remanence.
However, ferro- and ferrimagnets have very different magnetic
ordering.
Ferrimagnetism
Ferrimagnetism
Cubic :
General formula : MOFe2O3 where M is a divalent metal ion (Mn, Ni,
Fe, Co, Mg, ...)
CoOFe2O3 is magnetically hard, but all the other cubic ferrites are
magnetically soft.
magnetite : Fe3O4 = FeOFe2O3 : oldest ferrite (lodestone, iron
ferrite)
2. Hexagonal :
Cubic ferrites (Spinel structure)
MO·Fe2O3: M = Mn, Ni, Fe, Co, Mg, etc.
In the unit cell, total 56 ions (8 M2+ ions, 16 Fe3+ ions, 32 O2-
ions)
64 tetrahedral A
site / 8 = 8
32 octahedral B
site / 2 = 16
Normal Spinel : 8 M2+ in A, 16 Fe3+ in
B
Inverse Spinel : 8 Fe3+ in A, 8 M2+ + 8 Fe3+ in B
Intermediate structure : Nor perfectly normal or inverse
structure
MnO · Fe2O3 (80% on
A, 20% on B)
MgO · Fe2O3 (10% on
A, 90% on B)
Most commercial ferrites : a mixed ferrite like (Ni, Zn)O ·
Fe2O3
Hexagonal Ferrites
Calculated saturation magnetization
Other Ferrites
γ-Fe2O3 : tetragonal
Cr3As2, CrPt3,
Crystal structure
FeO·Fe2O3 (Iron ferrite)
Magnetite is a well known ferrimagnetic material. Indeed, magnetite
was considered a ferromagnet until Néel in the 1940's, provided the
theoretical framework for understanding ferrimagnetism.
Magnetite (Fe3O4) has a very high Curie temperature (850 °C), but
shows complex magnetic behavior. For this reason it seems to be a
promising candidate for a high spin polarization degree near 100%
even at room temperature.
Magnetite Fe3O4
Magnetite Fe3O4
Curie-Weiss behavior above Tc is not obeyed (Non-linear)
NiO •Fe2O3 :
Experiment: 2.3 B (56 emu/g) at 0 K
Spontaneous magnetizations
Spontaneous magnetizations of the A and B sublattices and the
resultant s
Kinds of Magnetism