2. FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR (2).pptx

7/27/2019 2. FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR (2).pptx

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FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL

BEHAVIOUR


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Introduction

Intelligence is one of the characteristic thatpeople bring with them when they join an

organization.

In this chapter, we look at how biographical

characteristics (such as age, gender) and

ability affect employee performance and

satisfaction.

Then we look at how people learn behaviours

and what management can do to shape those

behaviours.


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Biographical Characteristics

Biographical characteristics are essentially concerned

with finding and analyzing the variables that have

an impact on employee productivity, absence,

turnover and satisfaction.


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1. Age

What is the relationship between age and jobperformances?

Job performance declines with increasing age

What is the perception of older workers?

Number of positive qualities that older workers bring

to their jobs; specifically, experience, judgment, a

strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.

But older workers are lacking flexibility and resistant to

new technology.


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What effect does age actually have on turnover,absenteeism, productivity, and satisfaction?

a) Turnover: The older you get, the less likely you are to quit youjob.

QUIT JOB - LESS LIKELYb) Absenteeism: Age is also inversely related to absenteeism.

ABSENTEEISM - MORE (Old Age)

ABSENTEEISM - LESS (Young Age)

c) Productivity: Productivity declines with age. It is oftenassumed that an individuals skills particularly speed, agility,strength and coordination decay over time and that prolongedjob boredom and lack of intellectual stimulation all contribute toreduce productivity.

PRODUCTIVITY - REDUCE

d) Job satisfaction: The evidence is mixed. Most studies indicatea positive association between age and satisfaction, at least upto age 60. Other studies however, have found a U-shapedrelationship.

In case among Professionals, Satisfaction increases asthey age

In case of Non-Professionals, Satisfaction falls during


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.-whether women perform as well on jobs as mendo

GENDER FEMALEMALE

PROBLEM SOLVING

ANALYTICAL

COMPETITIVE SAME

MOTIVATION

SOCIABILITY

LEARNINGCONFORM TO AUTHORITY MORELESS

AGGRESSIVENESS LESSMORE

TURNOVER SAME


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3. Marital Status

Research indicates that married employees have

fewer absences, undergo less turnover, and are

more satisfied with their jobs than are their

unmarried co-workers.

a) PRODUCTIVITY - NO

CONCLUSION

b) TURNOVER - LESSc) ABSENTEEISM - FEWER

d) JOB SATISFACTION - MORE


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4. Tenure

Tenure is expressed as work experience. In otherwords, seniority is expressed as time on a particular

job.

a) Seniority productivity relationship: Positiverelationship

b) Absence: seniority to be negatively related to

absenteeism

c) Turnover: The longer a person is in a job, the lesslikely he or she is to quit

d) Satisfaction: Positive relationship between tenure

and job satisfaction


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ABILITY

Ability refers to an individuals capacity to

perform the various tasks in a job.

An individuals overall abilities are essentially

made up of two sets of factors :

1) intellectual and

2) physical abilities.


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Intellectual Abilities

Are those needed to perform mental activities.

Example: Intelligence quotient ( IQ ) tests are

designed to ascertain ones general intellectualabilities. So, too are popular college admission

tests such as the SAT and graduate admissions

tests in business (CAT, GMAT), law (LSAT) and

medical (MCAT).


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Dimensions of

Intellectual Ability

Number aptitude

Verbal comprehension

Perceptual speed

Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning

Spatial visualization

Memory


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Physical Abilities


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Nine Basic Physical Abilities

Strength Factors

1. Dynamic Strength: Ability to exert muscular force

repeatedly or continuously over time

2. Trunk Streng th: Ability to exert muscular strength usingthe trunk (particularly abdominal) muscles

3. Stat ic Streng th: Ability to exert force against external

objects

4. Explosive Strength: Ability to expend a maximum of

energy in one or a series of explosive acts


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Flexibility Factors

5. Extent Flexibi l i ty: Ability to move the trunk and back

muscles as far as possible6. Dynamic Flexibi l i ty: Ability to make rapid, repeated

flexing movements

Others Factors

7. Body coord inat ion: Ability to coordinate thesimultaneous actions of different parts of the body

8. Balance: Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forcespulling off balance

9. Stamina: Ability to continue maximum effort requiringprolonged effort over time


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Nine Physical Abilities

Strength Factors

Dynamic strength

Trunk strength

Static strength

Explosive strength

Other Factors

Body coordination

Balance

Stamina

Flexibility Factors

Extent flexibility

Dynamic flexibility


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The Ability-Job Fit

Employees

Abilities

Jobs Ability

Requirements

Ability-JobFit


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Learning

Learning is any relat ively p ermanent change

in behavior that occurs as a resul t of

experience.

Learning has taken place if an individual

behaves, reacts, responds as a result of

experience in a manner different from the way he

formerly behaved.


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Components of Learning

It involves change.

The change must be relatively permanent.

Is concerned with behavior. Is acquired through experience.


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Theories of Learning


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Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning states that an event,repeated several times, evokesdesired response.

Classical conditioning became the subject of careful

study in the early 20th

century, when Ivan Pavlov, aNobel prize-winning psychologist from Russia,identified it as an important behavioural process.

Contd


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Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog and tried to

relate the dogs salivation and the ringing of a bell.

When Pavlov presented the dog with a piece of meat,the dog exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation.

When he withheld the presentation of meat and just

rang a bell, the dog has no salivation.

Then Pavlov proceededto link the meat and the ringingof the bell.

After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the

food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell

rang.

After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the

sound of the bell, even if no food was offered.

In effect, the dog has learnt to respond (salivate) to the

bell.


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Key concepts of classical conditioning:

Salivation in response to food is a natural, unlearned

response. This response was called the uncondi t ionedresponse.

The food, because it elicited the unconditionedresponse automatically, was called theuncondi t ioned st imulus.

When Pavlovs repeated presentation of the bellfollowed by food led the dog to salivate in responseto the bell alone, this salivation was designed as

condi t ioned response, which emphasized thatarousal of the response was dependent upon astimulus, as the condi t ional st imu lus.

Thus, the concepts central to classical conditioning

are uncondi t ioned st imu lus (US), uncondi t ioned


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Example of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is best observed in the police

department, particularly in traffic police. Every circle will be manned with inspectors, sub-

inspectors or constables to control movement ofvehicles and pedestrians.

During peak hours, an Asst. Commissioner of Police(ACP), who is in overall control of traffic, goes roundthe city and monitors the way the traffic is beingregulated.

It is the practice of the personnel under the ACP, tosalute whenever he passes by in his vehicle.

The police at the circles are so used to saluting theirboss, that they do so even when only the vehiclepasses without the ACP being seated inside.


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Operant Conditioning

It is also called instrumental conditioning. It refers to the process that our behaviour

produces certain consequences and how we

behave in the future will depend on what these

consequences are. If our actions have pleasant effects, then we will be

more likely to repeat them in the future.

If, however, our actions have unpleasant effects, we

are less likely to repeat them in the future.

Thus, according to this theory, behaviour is the

function of its consequences.


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Operant Behaviours and their Consequences

The

Individual

Behaviours Consequences

Works Is paid

Talks to others Meets more people

Enters a restaurant Obtains food

Enters a library Finds a book

Increases productivity Receives merit pay

Completes a difficult

assignments

Receives praise and

promotion


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Example:

An executive is asked to speak at a board meeting.

The stimulus is the request to speak, and the

executive responds by giving certain views on

matters within his or her area of responsibility.

The executives response may be reinforces by nods

and smiles from a director, and the effect or the

reinforcement increases the likelihood that the

executive will respond with the same or similar views

of future meetings.

Difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant


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Difference between Classical Conditioning and OperantConditioning

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Responses are elicited (or

obtained) from a person

(reactive)

Responses are emitted (or

produced) by a person

(proactive)Responses are fixed to stimulus

(no choice)

Responses are variable in types

and degrees (choice)

Conditioned stimulus is stimulus

such as sound, an object, aperson

Conditioned stimulus is a

situation such as office, a socialsetting, a specific set of

circumstances

Reinforcement (or support, back

up) is not received by choice

Person is instrumental in

securing reinforcement by

operating on the environment


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Cognitive Theory of Learning

Cognitive process assumes that people areconscious, active participants in how they learn.

Cognitive theory of learning assumes that the

organism learns the meaning of various objects and

events and learned responses depending on the

meaning assigned to stimuli.

C f


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Cognitive Process of Learning

1. In the cognitive view, people draw on their

experiences and use past learning as a basis forpresent behaviour. For example, an employee facedwith a choice of job assignment will use previousexperiences in deciding which one to accept.

2. People make choices about their behaviour. Theemployee recognizes his or her two alternatives andchooses one.

3. People recognize the consequences of theirchoices. When the employee finds the job

assignments rewarding and fulfilling, he or she willrecognize that the choice was a good one and willunderstand why.

4. Finally, people evaluate those consequences and

add them to prior learning, which affects future

C i i P f L i


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Cognitive Process of Learning

Prior LearningBehavioral

ChoicePerceived

Consequences

Feedback


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Social Learning Theory

Also called observational learning.

Social learning theory emphasizes the ability of an

individual to learn by observing others.

The important models may include parents, teachers,

peers, motion pictures, TV artists, bosses and others.

The learner picks up whatever the role model does or

does not do.


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Process of Observational Learning


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1. To start with, the learner must pay attention to the

model the greater the attention, the more effectivethe learning will be.

2. Second, the observer must have good retentionof the models behaviour. Remembering helps

develop a verbal description or mental image ofsomeones actions in order to remember them.

3. Third, observers must practice modelsbehaviour. Unless, the learner is capable of doingexactly what the model does, he or she will be ableto learn from observing peer, teacher or parent.

4. Finally, the observer must have some motivationto learn from the model. For example, an action forwhich the model is rewarded.

Process of Observational Learning


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Tool

Systematically reinforcing each successive step thatmoves an individual closer to the desired response.

If an employee who has chronically been a half-hour

late for work comes in only 20 minutes late, we can

reinforcethat improvement.


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Methods of Shaping Behaviour

There are four ways in which to shape behaviourthrough:

1. Positive reinforcement

2. Negative reinforcement

3. Punishment

4. Extinction


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Positive Reinforcement

Following a response with something pleasant is

called positive reinforcement.

This would describe, for instance, the boss whopraises an employee for a job well done.


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Following a response by the termination or

withdrawal of something unpleasant is called

negative reinforcement.

If your college instructor asks a question and you

dont know the answer, looking through your

lecture notes is likely to preclude your being

called on. This is a negative reinforcementbecause you have learned that looking busily

through your notes prevents the instructor from

calling on you.

Negative Reinforcement


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Punishment

Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in

an attempt to eliminate and undesirable behavior.

Giving an employee a two day suspension fromwork without pay for showing up drunk is an

example of punishment.


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Negative Effects of Punishment


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Extinction

Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaininga behavior is called extinction.

When the behavior is not reinforced, it tends to be

gradually extinguished. College instructors who

wish to discourage students from asking

questions in class can eliminate this behavior in

their students by ignoring those who raise their

hands to ask questions. Hand raising will

become extinct when it is invariably met with an

absence of reinforcement.


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Both positive and negative reinforcement result in

learning. They strengthen a response and increase

the probability of repetition.

Praise strengthens and increases the behavior of

doing a good job because praise is desired.

The behavior of looking busy is similarly

strengthened and increased by its terminating the

undesirable consequence of being called on by theteacher.

However, both punishment and extinction weaken

behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent


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Schedules of Reinforcement


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Contd

S h d l f R i f t


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Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed-ratio

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2. FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR (2).pptx