1_Basics of IT - SET-2

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1. What are translators? Explain

Translating text to a foreign language is famously difficult due to the differences in syntax

sentence structure as well as in the less formal aspects of language, like usage of idioms.

Although simple dictionaries are available for the beginner, language translation tools arebecoming increasingly sophisticated in their ability to interpret words or phrases in a more

natural, contextual way.

Computer-Assisted Translation

o Computer-assisted translation, also known as machine-assisted translation,involves the use of software or databases to help people translate words from one

language to another. Although the most complex software is commonly used by

professional translators, various types of programs and databases are available to

the public as well.

Dictionarieso Many dictionaries are available on CD-ROM for the direct translation of a single

word from one language to another. These tools are helpful for students, travelers,

and those who are just beginning to learn a language.

Online Translators

o Some online language tools function as dictionaries, accessing databases totranslate words from one language to another. Often, entire websites can be

translated simply by entering the URL, then indicating the languages to translate

to and from. However, without a human to interpret ambiguous or idiomatic

terms, the results are often as funny as they are helpful.

Spelling and Grammar Checkers

o These tools are used to check the spelling and grammar in a text. They can bepurchased as stand-alone programs, as well as in the more familiar word

processing format. Of course, their limitations are the same as when being used to

check a text written in a native language; they are unable to decipher the context

of the words in the text, so it is still possible that the grammar and spelling are

incorrect.

Terminology Databaseso These databases contain phrases that have already been translated from one

language to another. Much like a dictionary, the user can enter a phrase and

retrieve its meaning in another language. Fortunately, terminology managers

provide the intended meaning of a phrase, rather than just translating it word for

word.


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Terminology Management Software

o Terminology managers allow users to create their own database of translatedphrases. New phrases can be added for future use, using a variety of formats.

Complexity can range from simple word processor documents or spreadsheets to

special software targeted to the language industry.

Human-Aided Machine Translation

o This term covers a broad variety of computer translation tools. However,programs that fall under this category allow for human interaction, providing for

more flexibility. For example, instead of simply replacing one word with another

in a text, a pop-up might appear, offering several alternatives

2. Explain about folders in user profile

A user profile consists of:

A registry hive. The registry is a database used to store computer- and user-specificsettings. Portions of the registry can be saved as files, called hives. These hives can then

be reloaded for use as necessary. User profiles take advantage of the hive feature to

provide roaming profile functionality. The user profile registry hive is the NTuser.dat in

file form, and is mapped to the HKEY_CURRENT_USER portion of the registry when

the user logs on. The NTuser.dat hive maintains the users environment preferences when

the user is logged on. It stores those settings that maintain network connections, Control

Panel configurations unique to the user (such as the desktop color and mouse), and

application-specific settings. The majority of the settings stored in the registry are opaque

to user profiles settings are owned and maintained by individual applications and

operating system components.

A set of profile folders stored in the file system. User profile files are stored in thefilesystem in the Documents and Settings directory, in a per user folder. The user profile

folder is a container for applications and other operating system components to populate

with subfolders and per-user data, such as shortcut links, desktop icons, startup

applications, documents, configuration files and so forth. Windows Explorer uses the user

profile folders extensively for special folders such as the users desktop, start menu and

my documents folder.Together, these two components record user-configurable settings that can migrate from

computer to computer.

The default location of user profiles was changed from the Windows NT 4.0 operating system to

allow administrators to secure the operating system folders without adversely affecting user data.

On a clean installed computer running Windows Server 2003, Windows XP or Windows 2000,

profiles are stored in the %Systemdrive%\Documents and Settings folder. In contrast, on


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Each users profile contains the following folders:

Application data*. Application-specific data, such as a custom dictionary for a wordprocessing program. Application vendors decide what data to store in this directory.

Cookies. Internet Explorer cookies. Desktop. Desktop items, including files and shortcuts. Favorites. Internet Explorer favorites Local Settings*. Application settings and data that do not roam with the profile. Usually

either machine specific, or too large to roam effectively.

Application data. Computer specific application data. History. Internet Explorer history. Temp. Temporary files. Temporary Internet Files. Internet Explorer offline cache.

My Documents. The new default location for any documents that the user creates.Applications should be written to save files here by default.

My Pictures. Default location for users pictures. My Music. Default location for users music.

NetHood*. Shortcuts to My Network Places items. PrintHood*. Shortcuts to printer folder items. Recent. Shortcuts to the most recently used documents. SendTo. Shortcuts to document storage locations and applications. Start Menu. Shortcuts to program items. Templates*. Shortcuts to template items.

* These directories are hidden by default. To see these directories, change the View Options.


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The Folder Redirection feature of IntelliMirror allows an administrator to redirect the location of

certain folders in the user profile to a network location. When these redirected folders are

accessed either by the operating system or by applications, the operating system automatically

redirects to the location on a network share specified by the administrator. From a user

perspective, this is similar to the roaming scenario because users have the same settings

regardless of which computers they use. However unlike roaming, these settings actually remain

on the network share. Folder redirection can be used with all types of user profiles: local,

roaming, or mandatory.

Using Folder Redirection with local profiles can provide some of the benefits of roaming profiles

(such as having a users data available at any computer or maintaining data on the server) without

the need to implement roaming profiles. Remember though, using Folder Redirection with a

local profile would only result in the users documents and files being available from all

computers. To have settings and configurations move with the user, you would need to use

roaming profiles.

Combining Folder Redirection with roaming profiles gives the benefit of roaming profiles, whileminimizing network traffic caused by synchronization of the profile.

Folder redirection is accomplished using Group Policy. The use of Folder Redirection with

roaming profiles is discussed later in this article.

Table 2 below lists the folders that roam with the profile by default and indicates whether they

can be redirected using Group Policy.

Table 2 Folders that Roam with the Profile

Folder Name Description

Roams with

profile by default

Redirect with

Group Policy

Application

Data

Per-user roaming application data. Yes Yes

Cookies Users Internet Explorer cookies. Yes No

Desktop Desktop items, including files and

shortcuts.

Yes Yes

Favorites Users Internet Explorer favorites. Yes No

Local Settings Temporary files and per-user non-

roaming application data.

No No

My

Documents

Users documents. Yes Yes

NetHood Shortcuts to My Network Places Yes No


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items.

PrintHood Shortcuts to printer folder items. Yes No

Recent Shortcuts to recently used

documents

Yes No

Send To Shortcuts to document storage

locations and applications.

Yes No

Start Menu Users personal start menu. Yes Yes

Templates Per-user customized templates. Yes No

Non-Roaming Folders

The default behavior of roaming user profiles in Windows NT 4.0 is to include all the folders inthe user profile directory. Thus when a user first logs on, all folders within the profile folder are

copied from the server to the client at logon and copied back at logoff,

Windows 2000 introduced a per-user local settings folder into the user profile that is not copied

during log on or logoff. This folder is intended for the storage of operating system components

and other applications can store non-roaming per-user data. A typical example of the usage of

this folder is for Microsoft Internet Explorer to store a users Favorites in the roaming portion of

the user profile but store the Temporary Internet Files in the local (non-roaming) portion of the

user profile. This will allow a user to retain access to their favorite URLs, but will save copying

of temporary cache files at logon and logoff.

On computers running Windows Server 2003, Windows XP or Windows 2000, the History,

Local Settings, Temp and Temporary Internet Files folders do not roam by default. Other Non-

Roaming Folders are configured using the Group Policy Object Editor. The path for this setting

in the Group Policy name space is:

User Configuration\Administrative Templates\System\User Profiles\Exclude directories in

roaming profile

Once enabled this allows multiple folder names to be defined, all relative to the root of the users

profile. Once included in the policy these folders will not be copied to the local machine at

logon, nor copied back to the server at logoff. This setting is likely to result in decreased time

taken for a user to logon, by restricting the amount of data within a user profile that really does

roam with the user.

How Do Users Get Their Profile?

The way in which users get their profiles depends on the type of profile they're configured to use.

This section describes this process.


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Local Profile - New User

1. The user logs on.2. The operating system checks the list of user profiles located in

HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\Prof

ileList to determine if a local profile exists for the user.

3. Because this is a new user, no local profile is found. If the computer is part of a domain,the operating system checks if a domain wide default profile exists in a folder named

Default User on the domain controllers NETLOGON share.

If a domain wide profile exists, it is copied to a subfolder on the local computerwith the user name under %SYSTEMDRIVE%\Documents and Settings\. For

example, a new user with the user name JDoe would have a profile created in

%SYSTEMDRIVE%\Documents and Settings\JDoe.

If a default domain profile does not exist, then the local default profile is copiedfrom the %Systemdrive%\Documents and Settings\Default User folder to a

subfolder on the local computer with a user name under%Systemdrive%\Documents and Settings\.

4. If the computer is not part of a domain, the local default profile is copied from the%Systemdrive%\Documents and Settings\Default User folder to a subfolder on the local

computer with a user name under %Systemdrive%\Documents and Settings\.

5. The users registry hive (NTUSER.DAT) is mapped to the HKEY_CURRENT_USERportion of the registry.

6. The users %userprofile% environment variable is updated with the value of the localprofile folder

7. When the user logs off, a profile is saved to the local hard disk of the computer.Local Profile - Existing User

1. The user logs on.2. Windows checks the list of user profiles located in

HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\Prof

ileList to get the path to the users profile.


4. The users %userprofile% environment variable is updated with the value of the localprofile folder.

5. When the user logs off, the profile is saved to the local hard disk of the computer.Roaming Profile - New User

1. The user logs on.2. The path to the users roaming profile is retrieved from the user object on the Domain

Controller.


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3. Windows checks to see if a profile exists in the roaming path, if no profile exists a folderis created.

4. Windows checks the list of user profiles located inHKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\Prof

ileList to determine if a cached copy of the profile exists. If a local copy of the profile is

not found, and the computer is part of a domain, Windows checks to determine if a

domain wide default profile exists in the Default User folder on the domain controllers

NETLOGON share.

If a domain wide profile exists, it is copied to a subfolder on the local computerwith their user name under %Systemdrive%\Documents and Settings\.

If a default domain profile does not exist, then the local default profile is copiedfrom the %Systemdrive%\Documents and Settings\Default User folder to a

subfolder on the local computer with their user name under

%Systemdrive%\Documents and Settings\.

5.

The users registry hive (NTUSER.DAT) is mapped to the HKEY_CURRENT_USERportion of the registry.


7. The user can then run applications and edit documents as normal. When the user logs off,their local profile is copied to the path configured by the administrator. If a profile

already exists on the server, the local profile is merged with the server copy (see merge

algorithm later in this paper for more details).

Roaming Profile - Existing User

1. The user logs on.2. The path to the users roaming profile is retrieved from the user object on the Domain

Controller.

3. Windows checks to see if a profile exists in the roaming path, if no profile exists a folderis created.

4. Windows checks the list of user profiles located inHKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\Prof

ileList to get the path to the users cached profile if it exists.

5. The contents of the local cached profile are compared with the copy of the profile on theserver, and the two profiles are merged. (See the new merge algorithm later in this paper

for more details).




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8. The user can then run applications and edit documents as normal. When the user logs off,the local profile is copied to the path configured by the administrator. If a profile already

exists on the server, the local profile is merged with the server copy.

3. What are the different types of Image Format? Explain those

Image file formats are standardized means of organizing and storing digital images. Image filesare composed of either pixels,vector (geometric) data, or a combination of the two. Whatever

the format, the files are rasterized to pixels when displayed on most graphic displays. The pixels

that constitute an image are ordered as a grid (columns and rows); each pixel consists of numbers

representing magnitudes of brightness and color.

Image file sizeexpressed as the number of bytesincreases with the number of pixels

composing an image, and the colour depth of the pixels. The greater the number of rows and

columns, the greater the image resolution, and the larger the file. Also, each pixel of an image

increases in size when its colour depth increasesan 8-bit pixel (1 byte) stores 256 colors, a 24-

bit pixel (3 bytes) stores 16 million colors, the latter known as truecolor.

Image compression uses algorithms to decrease the size of a file. High resolution cameras

produce large image files, ranging from hundreds of kilobytes to megabytes, per the camera's

resolution and the image-storage format capacity. High resolution digital cameras record 12

megapixel (1MP = 1,000,000 pixels / 1 million) images, or more, in truecolor. For example, an

image recorded by a 12 MP camera; since each pixel uses 3 bytes to record truecolor, the

uncompressed image would occupy 36,000,000 bytes of memorya great amount of digital

storage for one image, given that cameras must record and store many images to be practical.

Faced with large file sizes, both within the camera and a storage disc, image file formats were

developed to store such large images. An overview of the major graphic file formats follows

below.

Image file compression

There are two types ofimage file compression algorithms: lossless and lossy.

Lossless compression algorithms reduce file size without losing image quality, though they are

not compressed into as small a file as a lossy compression file. When image quality is valued

above file size, lossless algorithms are typically chosen.

Lossy compression algorithms take advantage of the inherent limitations of the human eye and

discard invisible information. Most lossy compression algorithms allow for variable quality

levels (compression) and as these levels are increased, file size is reduced. At the highest

compression levels, image deterioration becomes noticeable as "compression artifacting".
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Major graphic file formats

Including proprietary types, there are hundreds of image file types. The PNG, JPEG, and GIF

formats are most often used to display images on the Internet. These graphic formats are listed

and briefly described below, separated into the two main families of graphics: raster and vector.

In addition to straight image formats,Metafile formats are portable formats which can include

both raster and vector information. Examples are application-independent formats such as WMF

and EMF. The metafile format is an intermediate format. Most Windows applications open

metafiles and then save them in their own native format. Page description language refers to

formats used to describe the layout of a printed page containing text, objects and images.

Examples are PostScript, PDF and PCL.

Raster formats

Main article: Raster graphics

These formats store images as bitmaps (also known as pixmaps).

JPEG/JFIF

JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a compression method; JPEG-compressed images

are usually stored in theJFIF(JPEG File Interchange Format) file format. JPEG compression is

(in most cases) lossy compression. The JPEG/JFIF filename extension is JPG or JPEG. Nearly

every digital camera can save images in the JPEG/JFIF format, which supports 8 bits per color

(red, green, blue) for a 24-bit total, producing relatively small files. When not too great, the

compression does not noticeably detract from the image's quality, but JPEG files suffer

generational degradation when repeatedly edited and saved. The JPEG/JFIF format also is used

as the image compression algorithm in many PDF files.

JPEG 2000

JPEG 2000 is a compression standard enabling both lossless and lossy storage. The compression

methods used are different from the ones in standard JFIF/JPEG; they improve quality and

compression ratios, but also require more computational power to process. JPEG 2000 also adds

features that are missing in JPEG. It is not nearly as common as JPEG, but it is used currently in

professional movie editing and distribution (e.g., some digital cinemas use JPEG 2000 for

individual movie frames).

Exif

The Exif (Exchangeable image file format) format is a file standard similar to the JFIF format

with TIFF extensions; it is incorporated in the JPEG-writing software used in most cameras. Its

purpose is to record and to standardize the exchange of images with image metadata between

digital cameras and editing and viewing software. The metadata are recorded for individual

images and include such things as camera settings, time and date, shutter speed, exposure, image

size, compression, name of camera, color information, etc. When images are viewed or edited by
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image editing software, all of this image information can be displayed. It stores mete

information.

TIFF

The TIFF(Tagged Image File Format) format is a flexible format that normally saves 8 bits or

16 bits per color (red, green, blue) for 24-bit and 48-bit totals, respectively, usually using either

the TIFF or TIF filename extension. TIFF's flexibility can be both an advantage and

disadvantage, since a reader that reads every type of TIFF file does not exist. TIFFs can be lossy

and lossless; some offer relatively good lossless compression for bi-level (black&white) images.

Some digital cameras can save in TIFF format, using the LZW compression algorithm for

lossless storage. TIFF image format is not widely supported by web browsers. TIFF remains

widely accepted as a photograph file standard in the printing business. TIFF can handle device-

specific color spaces, such as the CMYK defined by a particular set of printing press inks. OCR

(Optical Character Recognition) software packages commonly generate some (often

monochromatic) form of TIFF image for scanned text pgs.

RAW

RAW refers to a family ofraw image formats that are options available on some digital cameras.

These formats usually use a lossless or nearly-lossless compression, and produce file sizes much

smaller than the TIFF formats of full-size processed images from the same cameras. Although

there is a standard raw image format, (ISO 12234-2, TIFF/EP), the raw formats used by most

cameras are not standardized or documented, and differ among camera manufacturers.

Most camera manufacturers have their own software for decoding or developing their raw file

format, but there is also a lot of 3rd party raw file converter software available that accepts the

raw format from most cameras including Phase One's Capture One. Some graphic programs andimage editors may not accept some or all raw file formats, and some older ones have been

effectively orphaned already.

Adobe's Digital Negative (DNG) specification is an attempt at standardizing a raw image format

to be used by cameras, or for archival storage of image data converted from undocumented raw

image formats, and is used by several niche and minority camera manufacturers including

Pentax, Leica, and Samsung. The raw image formats of more than 230 camera models, including

those from manufacturers with the largest market shares such as Canon, Nikon, Phase One,

Sony, and Olympus, can be converted to DNG.[1]

DNG was based on ISO 12234-2, TIFF/EP,

and ISO's revision of TIFF/EP is reported to be adding Adobe's modifications and developments

made for DNG into profile 2 of the new version of the standard.

As far as videocameras are concerned, ARRI's Arriflex D-20 and D-21 cameras provide raw 3K-

resolution sensor data with Bayern pattern as still images (one per frame) in a proprietary format

(.ari file extension). Red Digital Cinema Camera Company, with its Mysterium sensor family of

still and video cameras, uses its proprietary raw format called REDCODE (.R3D extension),

which stores still as well as audio+video information in one lossy-compressed file.
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PNG

The PNG (Portable Network Graphics) file format was created as the free, open-source

successor to the GIF. The PNG file format supports truecolor (16 million colors) while the GIF

supports only 256 colors. The PNG file excels when the image has large, uniformly colored

areas. The lossless PNG format is best suited for editing pictures, and the lossy formats, like

JPG, are best for the final distribution of photographic images, because in this case JPG files are

usually smaller than PNG files. The Adam7-interlacing allows an early preview, even when only

a small percentage of the image data has been transmitted.

PNG provides a patent-free replacement for GIF and can also replace many common uses of

TIFF. Indexed-color, grayscale, and truecolor images are supported, plus an optional alpha

channel.

PNG is designed to work well in online viewing applications like web browsers so it is fully

streamable with a progressive display option. PNG is robust, providing both full file integrity

checking and simple detection of common transmission errors. Also, PNG can store gamma andchromaticity data for improved color matching on heterogeneous platforms.

Some programs do not handle PNG gamma correctly, which can cause the images to be saved or

displayed darker than they should be.[2]

Animated formats derived from PNG are MNG and APNG. The latter is supported by Mozilla

Firefox and Opera and is backwards compatible with PNG.

GIF

GIF(Graphics Interchange Format) is limited to an 8-bit palette, or 256 colors. This makes the

GIF format suitable for storing graphics with relatively few colors such as simple diagrams,

shapes, logos and cartoon style images. The GIF format supports animation and is still widelyused to provide image animation effects. It also uses a lossless compression that is more effective

when large areas have a single color, and ineffective for detailed images or dithered images.

BMP

TheBMP file format(Windows bitmap) handles graphics files within the Microsoft Windows

OS. Typically, BMP files are uncompressed, hence they are large; the advantage is their

simplicity and wide acceptance in Windows programs.

PPM, PGM, PBM, PNM

Netpbm format is a family including the portable pixmap file format (PPM), the portable

graymap file format (PGM) and the portable bitmap file format (PBM). These are either pure

ASCII files or raw binary files with an ASCII header that provide very basic functionality and

serve as a lowest-common-denominator for converting pixmap, graymap, or bitmap files

between different platforms. Several applications refer to them collectively as PNM format

(Portable Any Map).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam7_algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_file_formats#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_file_formats#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_file_formats#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-image_Network_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla_Firefoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla_Firefoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_(web_browser)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Interchange_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMP_file_formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMP_file_formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMP_file_formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netpbm_formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netpbm_formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMP_file_formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Interchange_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_(web_browser)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla_Firefoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla_Firefoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APNGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-image_Network_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_file_formats#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam7_algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics


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WEBP

WebP is a new image format that uses lossy compression. It was designed by Google to reduce

image file size to speed up web page loading: its principal purpose is to supersede JPEG as the

primary format for photographs on the web.

WebP is based on VP8's intra-frame coding and uses a container based on RIFF.

Others

Other image file formats of raster type include:

JPEG XR (New JPEG standard based on Microsoft HD Photo) TGA (TARGA) ILBM (InterLeaved BitMap) PCX (Personal Computer eXchange) ECW (Enhanced Compression Wavelet)

IMG (ERDAS IMAGINE Image) SID (multiresolution seamless image database, MrSID) CD5 (Chasys Draw Image) FITS (Flexible Image Transport System) PGF (Progressive Graphics File) XCF (eXperimental Computing Facility format, native GIMP format) PSD (Adobe PhotoShop Document) PSP (Corel Paint Shop Pro)

Vector formats

Main article: vector graphicsAs opposed to the raster image formats above (where the data describes the characteristics of

each individual pixel), vector image formats contain a geometric description which can be

rendered smoothly at any desired display size.

Vector file formats can contain bitmap data as well. 3D graphic file formats are technically

vector formats with pixel data texture mapping on the surface of a vector virtual object, warped

to match the angle of the viewing perspective.

At some point, all vector graphics must be rasterized in order to be displayed on digital monitors.

However, vector images can be displayed with analog CRT technology such as that used in some

electronic test equipment, medical monitors, radar displays, laser shows and early video games.

Plotters are printers that use vector data rather than pixel data to draw graphics.

CGM

CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile) is a file format for 2D vector graphics, raster graphics, and

text, and is defined byISO/IEC 8632. All graphical elements can be specified in a textual source

file that can be compiled into a binary file or one of two text representations. CGM provides a
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VP8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Interchange_File_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG_XRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truevision_TGAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILBMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECW_(file_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ERDAS_IMAGINEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MrSIDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasys_Draw_IEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FITShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Graphics_Filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XCF_(file_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIMPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Photoshop#Featureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corel_Paint_Shop_Prohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mappinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_test_equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_monitorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_light_showhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacewar!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Graphics_Metafilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_(computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_(computer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Graphics_Metafilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacewar!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_light_showhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_monitorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_test_equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mappinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corel_Paint_Shop_Prohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Photoshop#Featureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIMPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XCF_(file_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Graphics_Filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FITShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasys_Draw_IEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasys_Draw_IEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MrSIDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ERDAS_IMAGINEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECW_(file_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILBMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truevision_TGAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG_XRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Interchange_File_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VP8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP


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means of graphics data interchange for computer representation of 2D graphical information

independent from any particular application, system, platform, or device. It has been adopted to

some extent in the areas of technical illustration and professional design, but has largely been

superseded by formats such as SVG and DXF.

Gerber Format (RS-274X)

RS-274X Extended Gerber Format[3] was developed by Gerber Systems Corp., now Ucamco.

This is a 2D bi-level image description format. It is the de-facto standard format used by printed

circuit board or PCB software. It is also widely used in other industries requiring high-precision

2D bi-level images.

SVG

SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) is an open standard created and developed by the World Wide

Web Consortium to address the need (and attempts of several corporations) for a versatile,

scriptable and all-purpose vector format for the web and otherwise. The SVG format does nothave a compression scheme of its own, but due to the textual nature of XML, an SVG graphic

can be compressed using a program such as gzip. Because of its scripting potential, SVG is a key

component in web applications: interactive web pages that look and act like applications.

Other 2D vector formats

AI (Adobe Illustrator) CDR (CorelDRAW) DrawingML EPS (Encapsulated PostScript) Graphics Layout Engine HPGL, introduced on Hewlett-Packard plotters, but generalized into a printer language HVIF (Haiku Vector Icon Format) MathML MetaPost Myv vector format NAPLPS (North American Presentation Layer Protocol Syntax) ODG (OpenDocument Graphics) PICT (Classic Macintosh QuickDraw file) PDF (Portable Document Format) PostScript, a page description language with strong graphics capabilities POV-Ray markup language Precision Graphics Markup Language, a W3C submission that was not adopted as a

recommendation.

PSTricks and PGF/TikZ are languages for creating graphics in TeX documents. ReGIS, used by DEC computer terminals
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_drawinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoCAD_DXFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerber_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerber_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerber_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ucamcohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOM_scriptinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gziphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Illustratorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CorelDRAWhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DrawingMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encapsulated_PostScripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Layout_Enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPGLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiku_Vector_Icon_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetaPosthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAPLPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenDocument_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PICThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Document_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostScripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Page_description_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POV-Rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_Graphics_Markup_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W3C_recommendationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSTrickshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGF/TikZhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TeXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReGIShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReGIShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TeXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGF/TikZhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSTrickshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W3C_recommendationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_Graphics_Markup_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POV-Rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Page_description_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostScripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Document_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PICThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenDocument_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAPLPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetaPosthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiku_Vector_Icon_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPGLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Layout_Enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encapsulated_PostScripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DrawingMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CorelDRAWhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Illustratorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gziphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOM_scriptinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ucamcohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerber_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerber_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoCAD_DXFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_drawing


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Remote imaging protocol SWF (Shockwave Flash) VML (Vector Markup Language) WMF / EMF (Windows Metafile/ Enhanced Metafile) XAML User interface language using vector graphics for images. Xar XPS (XML Paper Specification)

3D vector formats

AMF - Additive Manufacturing File Format Asymptote - A language that lifts TeX to 3D. COLLADA .dwf eDrawings

HSF IGES IMML - Immersive Media Markup Language IPA JT PRC STEP SKP STL - A stereolithography format. U3D - Universal 3D file format VRML Virtual Reality Modeling Language XAML XGL XVL xVRML X3D .3D 3DF .3ds 3DXML

Stereo formats

PNS

The PNG Stereo (.pns) format consists of a side-by-side image based on PNG (Portable Network

Graphics).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_imaging_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_Markup_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Metafilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensible_Application_Markup_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xar_(graphics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_Paper_Specificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_Manufacturing_File_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptote_(vector_graphics_language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COLLADAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dwfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JT_(visualization_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRC_(File_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_10303http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SketchUphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STL_(file_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U3Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VRMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensible_Application_Markup_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XVLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XVRMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X3Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.3dshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3DXMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PNG_Stereo&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PNG_Stereo&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3DXMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.3dshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X3Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XVRMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XVLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensible_Application_Markup_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VRMLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U3Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STL_(file_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SketchUphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_10303http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRC_(File_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JT_(visualization_format)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dwfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COLLADAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptote_(vector_graphics_language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_Manufacturing_File_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_Paper_Specificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xar_(graphics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensible_Application_Markup_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Metafilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_Markup_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_imaging_protocol


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JPS

The JPEG Stereo (.jps) format consists of a side-by-side image format based on JPEG.

4. Discuss on moving cell contents

The simplest way to move cell contents around a spreadsheet involves selecting a block of cellscontaining the contents to be moved, either "cutting" or "copying" those cells, selecting the

location where these contents are to be moved and then pasting the data.

Moving data can only be performed with a single selection of cells which means that only

continuous rectangular blocks of cells can be moved. This does mean, however, that columns orrows can be moved as a unit. By default, Gnumeric moves the entire contents of the cells

including both the data values and the formatting of the cells.

Once you have selected a group of cells, they can be "cut" or "copied" either using the Edit

menu, the toolbar buttons (a pair of scissors or two pieces of paper, respectively), the rightmouse button context menu or keyboard shortcuts (Ctrl+X or Ctrl+C respectively). If cells are

"cut" the contents will be removed from the current location. If cells are "copied", the contents

will be duplicated in the new location. These two operations treat cell references in formulasslightly differently. If cells are "cut", any references in the cells in the new location will remain

pointed at the original cells. If cells are "copied", the references in the cells in the new location

will point to cells in the same relative position.You can select the new location for the cells in two ways. The simplest is to select the top, left

cell of the new location. Alternatively, you can select the whole new range of cells but the shape

of this new range must match exactly the dimensions of the original range which is more

difficult.

Finally you can "paste" the cell contents in the new location using either the Edit menu Pastemenu entry, the toolbar button with a clipboard, the context menu Paste menu entry or the

Ctrl+V keyboard shortcut.An alternative way to move cells in a current worksheet involves dragging and dropping the

original selection. You select the cells to be moved as above. You then place the mouse cursor

on the thick white selection border. If you click and hold the left hand button, you can drag the

selected cells to a new location resulting in the same operation as a "cut" and a "paste". If youhold down the Ctrl key during the click and drag of the mouse, the result is the same as a "copy"

and "paste" operation and can be repeated several times.

Both the Edit menu and the context menu have an extra menu entry called Paste Special...

which can be used during a cut and paste operation to selectively transfer some of the original

the cell contents or to alter the contents in specific ways. This option allows the transfer of onlythe cell contents, only the cell formats or only the calculated values of the cells. The transferred

contents can also be mathematically combined with the current contents of cells in the newlocation. Alternatively, the selection can be transposed.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JPEG_Stereo&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JPEG_Stereo&action=edit&redlink=1


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5. Explain three methods of addressing in Excel

Microsoft Excel records cell addresses in formulas in three different ways, called absolute,

relative, and mixed. The way a formula is recorded is important when you copy it.

Relative Cell Addressing

With relative cell addressing, when you copy a formula from one area of the worksheet to

another, Microsoft Excel records the position of the cell relative to the cell that originally

contained the formula. The following exercises demonstrate:

1. Go to cell A7.2. Type 1. Press Enter.3. Type 1. Press Enter.4. Type 1. Press Enter.5. Go to cell B7.6. Type 2. Press Enter.7. Type 2. Press Enter.8. Type 2. Press Enter.9. Go to cell A10.

In addition to typing a formula, you can also enter formulas by using Point mode. When you are

in Point mode, you can enter a formula either by clicking on a cell with your mouse or by using

the arrow keys.

1. You should be in cell A10.2. Type =.3. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A7.4. Type +.5. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A8.6. Type +.7. Use the up arrow key to move to cell A9.8. Press Enter.9. Look at the Formula bar while in cell A10. Note that the formula you entered is recorded

in cell A10.

Copying by Using the MenuYou can copy entries from one cell to another cell. To copy the formula you just entered, follow

these steps:

1. You should be in cell A10.2. Choose Edit > Copy from the menu. Moving dotted lines appear around cell A10,

indicating the cells to be copied.

3. Press the Right Arrow key once to move to cell B10.


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4. ChooseEdit > Paste from the menu. The formula in cell A10 is copied to cell B10.5. Press Esc to exit the Copy mode.

Compare the formula in cell A10 with the formula in cell B10 (while in the respective cell, look

at the Formula bar). The formulas are the same except that the formula in cell A10 sums the

entries in column A and the formula in cell B10 sums the entries in column B. The formula was

copied in a relative fashion.

Before proceeding with the next exercise, you must copy the information in cells A7 to B9 to

cells C7 to D9. This time you will copy by using the Formatting toolbar.

Copying by Using the Formatting Toolbar

1. Highlight cells A7 to B9. Place the cursor in cell A7. Press F8. Press the down arrow keytwice. Press the right arrow key once. A7 to B9 should be highlighted.

2. Click the Copy icon , which is located on the Formatting toolbar.3. Use the arrow key to move the cursor to cell C7.4. Click the Paste icon , which is located on the Formatting toolbar.5. Press Esc to exit Copy mode

Absolute Cell Addressing

An absolute cell address refers to the same cell, no matter where you copy the formula. You

make a cell address an absolute cell address by placing a dollar sign in front of both the row and

column identifiers. You can do this automatically by using the F4 key. To illustrate:

1.

Move the cursor to cell C10.2. Type =.3. Use the up arrow key to move to cell C7.4. Press F4. Dollar signs should appear before the C and before the 7.5. Type +.6. Use the up arrow key to move to cell C8.7. Press F4.8. Type +.9. Use the up arrow key to move to cell C9.10.Press F4.11.Press Enter. The formula is recorded in cell C10.

Copying by Using the Keyboard Shortcut

Now copy the formula from C10 to D10. This time, you will copy by using the keyboard

shortcut.

1. Your cursor should be in cell C10.2. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "c" (Ctrl-c). This copies the contents of cell C10.


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3. Press the right arrow once.4. Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "v" (Ctrl-v). This pastes the contents of cell C10

in cell D10.

5. Press Esc to exit the Copy mode.Compare the formula in cell C10 with the formula in cell D10. They are the same. The formula

was copied in an absolute fashion. Both formulas sum column C.

Mixed Cell Addressing

You use mixed cell addressing to reference a cell that is part absolute and part relative. You can

use the F4 key.

1. Move the cursor to cell E1.2. Type =.3. Press the up arrow key once.4. Press F4.5.

Press F4 again. Note that the column is relative and the row is absolute.

6. Press F4 again. Note that the column is absolute and the row is relative.7. Press Esc.