(1922) An Introduction to Period Styles of England & France

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AN INTRODUCTIONTO THE PERIOD STYLESOF ENGLAND & FRANCE


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AN INTRODUCTION TO THEPERIOD STYLESOF ENGLAND & FRANCEWITH A CHAPTER ON THE DUTCHRENAISSANCE

WRITTEN AND ILLUSTRATED BYHERBERT COLEWITH AN INTRODUCTION BY

W. G. SUTHERLAND

THE SUTHERLANDPUBLISHING CO. LTD.9 ALBERT SQUAREM AN CHESTER

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LITERARY CONTENTS.Chapter PageINTRODUCTION vii.

I. THE LAST OF GOTHIC iII. ELIZABETHAN 4III. JACOBEAN 7IV. INIGO JONES - I3V. THE LATTER HALF OF THE iyTH CENTURY 17VI. WREN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 20VII. WILLIAM AND MARY, AND ANNE 24VIII. EARLY GEORGIAN 27IX. MIDDLE GEORGIAN 31X. ROBERT AND JAMES ADAM 35XL THE LATE i8TH CENTURY 38XII. THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE 42XIII. LOUIS XIII 48XIV. LOUIS XIV 5 2XV. LOUIS XV, OR " ROCOCO " 59XVI. LOUIS XVI 63XVII. EMPIRE - 66XVIII. THE DUTCH RENAISSANCE - 69

IV.


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.Portrait of Herbert Cole (Frontispiece)

PageTudor Details 2Tudor Interior 3Elizabethan Interior 5Elizabethan Details 6Jacobean Woodwork 8Jacobean Interior 9Jacobean Details nJacobean Furniture - 12The Orders of Architecture - 14An Inigo Jones Chimneypiece 14Furniture of the late iyth Century 15Panelled Room: Late iyth Century 18Furniture and Decorative Detail : Late iyth Century 19Late 1 7th Century Furniture 21Late iyth Century Decoration and Furniture 22Tapestried Room, William and Mary 25William and Mary, and Queen Anne Furniture 26Early Georgian Room 28Early i8th Century Furniture 29Chippendale Furniture 32Part of a Middle Georgian Interior 33Adam Decoration - 36Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and Adam Furniture 37Furniture and Ornaments, Late i8th Century 39Late 1 8th Century Furniture - 40Early French Renaissance Furniture 43Chimneypiece, Period of Francis I. 44French Renaissance Furniture 46French Renaissance Details 47Louis XIII Interior 49Louis XIII Furniture and Decorative Detail 50Louis XIV Interior 53Louis XIV Details and Furniture - - 54, 57, 58Part of Louis XV Interior 60Louis XV Furniture - 61Louis XVI Furniture 64Louis XVI Interior 65Empire Furniture - 67An Empire Bedroom 68Dutch Furniture - 70Dutch Interior and Furniture 7 1

V.


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HERBERTCOLE

VI.


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INTRODUCTION.Bv W. G. SUTHERLAND.

This book is published under somewhat unusualcircumstances, in that the author is many thousandsof miles from this country at the time of publication,having been resident for some years in Australia.This is the main reason why the introduction isnot written by himself, as the publishers, and doubt-less our readers also, would have wished.The book is a reprint of a series of chapters con-tributed by Mr. Herbert Cole to The Journal ojDecorative Art in 1916-17. Their merits entitlethem to a wider appreciation than was possible inthe troubled years during which they appeared, andhence it has been decided to republish them in bookform .The book is put forward, as the title indicates, toserve as an introduction to a subject of first-rate

importance to all who have adopted, or propose toadopt, decoration or its allied crafts as a profession.Mr. Cole's lucid manner, alike in writing and in thedrawings which accompany his chapters, fits himadmirably to produce a work designed, in the mainfor students. He has selected the essentials of hissubject, and has avoided details which, though in asense relevant, are not necessary in a work of thiskind, and may tend to confuse the mind of thestudent.

His book is put forward, therefore, with the utmostconfidence that it will meet with a ready appreciationfrom the craftsmen and students to whom it isaddressed.The object of this book is well described by itstitle. It does not pretend to deal exhaustivelywith so huge a subject as the decorative periods,but it does aim at giving the student a proper intro-duction to the subject, at giving him a grip of itsessentials, and thus at putting him on the way to thecompleter knowledge which will come with furtherstudy.The publishers believe that there is a real need lor abook which will perform this initiatory function.Not seldom it happens that the student approachesthe subject from a wrong angle, with the result thatit becomes to him a confusion of irrelevant detail,rather than, as it should be, a study of enthrallinginterest.

Mr. Cole emphasises first, not what detailscharacterise a given style, but what influencesbrought about its adoption, what habits of life and ofmind caused the evolution of a particular type ofdecoration.He shows us the beginnings of the Classic revivalin England, its first unsophisticated interpretationat the hands of native craftsmen obviously tornbetween a desire to be up-to-date in their handlingof the new ideas from abroad, and a lifelong habitof faithfulness to the older tradition. He shows us,again, the gradual tightening of the architect's gripof the craftsman, the resulting loss of freedom andinterest in detail, balanced, it may be, by a greatermeasure of unity in the whole, but leading to theendless controversy as to whether the age of thefree craftsman or that of the controlling master mindhas produced the more memorable results.

Again, our Author shows us the Court of Erance

at the height of its gaiety, its folly, and its vicious-ness,a court divorced from any real contact with the lifeof the French people, and reflecting its inanities andits fatuity by the meaningless glitter and ostentationof the Rococo ornament in which it delighted.He has shown us the relation of the great, cabinetmakers who arose in this country in Georgian timesto the decoration of their day, and he has given us aglimpse of the decay of the dignity and grandeur ofthe Georgian style until it fell into the banalities ofVictorianism.We have felt again the fascination of the storyin

preparingMr. Cole's finely written chapters for

the Press, and we do not doubt that it will be feltno less by many who will read his book.

In a book which is mainly the gateway to a bigsubject, it is fitting to indicate the road which thestudent may travel when he has mastered what itspages have to teach him.There are many books which can be recommended.Among the best and least pretentious is Glazier'sMiuuiiil of Historic Ornament. Again, .1 Handbookof Oni'Hiienl, by F. S. Meyer, is an invaluable volume,and 'I he Slvlcs of Ornament, by A. Speltz and R. P.Spiers, is well worth deep stud)'.Messrs. Batsford publish many admirable booksdealing with British interiors, and those by FrancisLenygon and M. Jourdain are particularly to benoted.Two modest volumes called The Life mid Workof the English People, by D. Hartley and W7 . M.Elliott, while they aim at history from a new angle,rather than at decoration, contain a great deal thatis of interest to the decorator, and will especiallyhelp him to realise how real is the connection betweenlife and art, the latter being but one expression of theformer.When the young decorator has familiarisedhimself, by reading and observation, with by-gone styles, we would urge him to remember thatthey are the styles of a day that is gone, and theiradaptation to the requirements of to-day is a mattercalling for sense and judgment.There are decorators who strive to make the draw-ing rooms of suburbia resemble Versailles or HamptonCourt, and can see no incongruity in the attempt.It is not one of the objects of this work to assist suchfutile attempts. The object is rather to enable thedecorator to understand the principles on whichthe old styles were built, the conditions which deter-mined the forms they took, and the way in whichthe decorative problems confronted were met andovercome.

If the decorator understands these things, if hefamiliarises himself with the work of these tine periods,he will find that he has gained from them a sense ofproportion, of line and of fitness that will stand himin good stead when he comes to tackle the problemsof modern decorative work.He will soon see that the literal translation of theold styles to the interiors of to-day can seldom besuccessful. Even if the proportions of the roomsto be treated are right, the people, their clothes,and their ways, will dispel the old time atmosphere,

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and put the rooms and their inhabitants at odds.Imagine a salon at Versailles with its rich detailand its glittering and artificial luxury, forming a

fitting background for the. no less artificial womenand effeminate men who, with their silks and brocades,their powdered wigs and painted faces and theirmincing steps, completed the picture. Given a roomof the right proportions and a deep purse, the interiorcould be reproduced to-day without great difficulty.But the moment the breezy maiden of modern times,with her cigarette, her cropped or shingled head, andher swinging gait strolls in, the balance of the pictureis shattered and the whole scheme is out of gear.There is a use for the old styles in the work ofto-day, but judgment born of knowledge must beapplied to the problem, which, rightly viewed, is theadaptation of the old style, rather than an exactreproduction, and nearly always a simplifiedadaptation.The question the decorator should ask himself isnot " how much of this old detail can I cram intothis room ?

"Kather it is

"how can 1 adapt tin'sold model to make it fit the requirements of modern

people in a modern house '. " Very often he willfind that a client will possess furniture which iseither old, or a copy of old work. It will be hisfunction to provide a background in which suchfurniture will look right, but which will, at thesame time, avoid the error of making the peoplewho enter the room look wrong.

Again, it is quite legitimate to take an old styleas a starting point, and to use it as a kind of themeto be varied at will. Suppose, for instance, a deco-rator has a room in which he desires to catch some-thing of the daintiness and elegance of Louis XVI .work, but in which he intends to use stencilledornament. If he understands the Louis XVI. style,if lie is a master of the technique of the stencil, and if

he has an eye for colour and a sense of fitness, hemay get a charming result, which will not, however,be Louis XVI., either in effect or in intention. Itwill be an experiment in decoration with an old styleas the starting point, and with a knowledge oftradition and principle behind it.There are those who profess 'to despise traditionin all its forms, who contend that new types ofdesign and new forms of ornament can be evolvedfrom a man's inner consciousness, without relation towhat has gone before. It is the illusion of a feverishage. It is good that youth should press forward,and that experiments with new forms and newideas should be made. But what the young modern-ist is apt to forget is that in the evolution of each ofthe great historic styles, experience was gainedwhich can be applied to decorative problems quiteunconnected with those styles, and that the youngman who thinks he can start dc nmm, has to find outall over again for himself the things that a littlepatient study could tell him. and if he means torediscover by himself the answers to all the questionsthat crop up in decorative work, he must be preparedfor a lifetime of experiment.

Kvery landscape painter to-day knows that thedistant landscape appears to be blue-grev, and heknows it because hundreds of years ago, somebodydiscovered it, and the result of that piece of observa-tion became for ever a part of the knowledge availablelor those who care to learn.There are many parallel examples in decoration.The wise man avails himself of the work of the

past, and profits by the labours of by-gone masterswho have met and conquered problems of decorationwhich recur in every age. He will attempt, not tobreak with tradition, but rather to use it as a meansto new ends. It is to help him to do so that this bookhas been written.

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PERIOD STYLES.

CHAPTER I.THE LAST OF GOTHIC.

The decorator of to-day is placed in a much morecomplicated position than his predecessor of ancienttimes. Whereas in the past one style of decorationgradually evolved into another by easy stages,revivals of all styles occur in our day, and we areexpected to be conversant with the ornament offour or five centuries. How many of us realisethat we are living in a period of renaissance ? Fornever was there a time when the styles of past ageshave been studied with deeper interest and intelli-gence. This has been going on for twenty or thirtyyears. Architects, decorators, furniture and textiledesigners, craftsmen of all kinds, connoisseurs andamateur collectors as well, have all studied thebuildings, arts and crafts as shown in the history ofour own country.

Seeing that the furnishing and decorating firmsin any place of importance to-day exhibit objectsranging from the style of the 16th century to thelatest phase of modernity, nothing should be neces-sary to bring conviction to the decorator that unlesshe wishes to be hopelessly behind the times he mustbe ready to work in accordance with moderndemands and to bring an intelligent knowledge tobear upon present day problems. It is proposed,therefore, to begin our survey of period styles withthe advent of the Italian Renaissance in our owncountry. It will be quite near enough for ourpurpose to say this happened when Henry VIII.came to the throne, about the beginning of the16th century, 1509. Up to that time Gothic artin its various phases had evolved in even progressionfor four or five hundred years and then a new andforeign influence took root in our national art. Itmust not be supposed, however, that the Gothicstyle died a sudden death on the appearance ofthe " Great Widower " ; a considerable amount ofoverlapping of styles occurred, and resulted in whatis generally known as "Tudor," taking its namechiefly from that interesting monarch.The strange new influence was the style of theRenaissance, a mighty upheaval of thought andnew ideas born, out of the study of the ancientmonuments of art and literature left by Greece andRome. Italian artists and writers brought aboutthis " re-birth," for that is the meaning of theword ; the invention of printing accompanied there-discovery of ancient art and learning and playedits part in spreading the new influence over thegreater part of Europe. Through France andFlanders it travelled to England, gradually trans-forming the arts of our country till they becamemore and more Italianised, dying at last in a formalclassicism, tne direct antithesis of the northernGothic spirit, towards the end of the 18th century.Returning for the moment to the beginning ofthe 16th century, we find the Renaissance work

creeping into the details and even in direct com-bination with Gothic aims. The late form of Gothicarch, the flat or depressed kind with low apex, isoften called the Tudor arch, and while most typicalof the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., it lingerson through subsequent reigns for one hundredyears or more.As most Gothic decoration is included in ordinarychurch decoration, it is irrelevant to our presentpurpose, but Tudor is a good starting point for dis-cussion when treating of modern decoration, asarchitects and designers still draw upon it for sug-gestion and inspiration in their work to-day. InTudor times, the dwellings of Englishmen wereceasing to be castles and fortresses built for defence,and becoming more and more developed into com-fortable homes. The rough stone walls of theinteriors were beginning to be covered with smoothplaster or panelling, so also the ceilings were im-proved and decorated with these two materials,though tapestries on the walls and carved beamson the ceiling still lingered on. When once theplasterer had discovered the decorative possibilitiesof his material, we cannot wonder at the infinityof superb design still to be seen in those beautifulcombinations of floral and geometrical ornamentfor which this period is so justly renowned.A typical example, not so elaborate as many ofthese are, is given on the next page. The gradualintroduction of classic details into the existing Gothicwork can also be seen in the three specimens ofwood panelling. The two bed-posts and carvedchest on the same page will give a good idea of thekind of furniture then in use. Chairs of the Tudorperiod are very rare indeed, and for this there isa reason. Chests, stools and benches were thegeneral seating accommodation of those days. Achair was still a symbol of authority or state, andlent its occupant a sort of prestige, the lord, baronor head of the family probably sat in one at thehead of the table, the rest of the company not aspir-ing to the same dignity, but as comforts grew innumber and variety chairs became common property.

Carpets also began to make their appearanceabout this time ; some of an eastern character maybe observed in Holbein's portraits of Henry VIII.and the notables of his Court.

Reverting once more to the plasterer's art ofthis period, it may be noticed that the frieze andthe overmantel were often treated with decorativeplaster work, as well as the ceilings. The linen-fold panel, a conventional design imitating thebackward and forward doublings of drapery, is awell-known detail in the woodcarving of this time.It is shown on the door panels in the sketch of aTudor interior on page 3.


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Carved oak.'Beef-posts

MasterTudor styfe

Czrvea oa. panetfiny ~- 1u.oCor styh Early l6& century


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PERIOD STYLES.

CHAPTER II.ELIZABETHAN.

The reign of Henry VIII. was a period of immenseactivity in all that related to building and the workof the craftsman. Indeed it was the craftsmen ofthe day who designed the buildings and carried outall the details of their interior and exterior decoration.Little is heard of the architect in the sense in whichwe use the term to-day, and most of the domesticwork of the time, as also the Gothic work whichpreceded it, may be called " craftsman's architec-ture." The master builder relied on his experienceand the tradition in which he had been trained inorder to meet the demands of his patrons. Ifdrawings were made at all before commencing tobuild they were probably only in the nature of roughsketches of general planning, not by any meanselaborated with preconceived intention like thedesigns of later times. It was a method whichplaced convenience and utility before unity andpremeditated design, and much of the oddity andpicturesqueness of our old country houses is due tothe liberty enjoyed by the old builder-craftsman,and the manner in which a house " grew " underhis directions. But in Tudor times, under theinfluence of the Italian Renaissance, other demandsarose. Palaces like Hampton Court and Nonesuchwere reared under such patrons as Cardinal Wolseyand Henry VIII., and the very nature of the workdemanded something more palatial, impressive anddignified than the ordinary country house. Insuch cases it cannot be denied that the builder-craftsman rose to the occasion and produced worksof great architectural beaut}' and exquisite decoration,and if space allowed it would be delightful to includespecimens of the excellent work of the period inthe elaborate roofing of carved timber work, therichly decorated panels and staircases, and theintricate patternings in geometrical or flowing lineof the window glazing. After Henry the Eighth'sreign there was a certain lull in the activity, andthe reigns of Edward VI. and Mary are not noticeablefor any great advance or change in style.With the reign of Elizabeth, however, there isevidence that, in some measure at least, the influenceof the controlling architect made itself felt. Thereare drawings, preserved in the Soane Museum inLondon, made by John Thorpe, who lived andworked in the days of Elizabeth and James I., whichshow that a systematic study of house-planningcombined with careful calculation for effect in thema.tter of--^is)pirlimi^,__p^rjpetiye^,_ejeyations andsymmejricaL-cojnpasilioji was now in process ofdevelopment. Many of the nobility and educatedpeople of the time had also turned their attentionto the study of architecture, and it is necessary toknow this when making a retrospective survey ofthe structure and decoration of the buildings ofthe period. The Elizabethan style itself shows thatthis state of things was not an unmixed blessing, forhalf-digested and partially absorbed details of Italianarchitecture and decoration were often throwntogether in a topsy-turvy manner. Enthusiasm forthese foreign products often resulted in a medleyof orders ana meaningless decoration. Grotesquesand naturalistic^majnenlsjKere^giled indiscriminately

upon bizarre and extravagant perversions of columns,braekets and pilasters.Heads^pf lions^and otlij;r^trange_mpnsters weres of weapons,

strapwork, cartouches, and~~marry other curiousornaments, and in its~most~exaggerated form theElizabethan style is not to be recommended fordirect imitation. Let it not be supposed, however,that beautiful work was lacking either in the matterof design or craftsmanship, but it is so easy for thedecorator to fall unconsciously into the vices, ratherthan the virtues of a style for the simple reasonthat the latter are the more difficult to attain, thata word of warning may not be out of season orinappropriate.

It must be remembered that the Elizabethanstyle is a transitional period ; Tudor proper, and evenour native Gothic were not extinct, and Italianisedclassicism was not wholly understood. With therise of the Renaissance, Italians, Flemings, andGermans had all been employed on works in thiscountry, grafting their own peculiar versions ofstyle upon that of the English craftsmen. Thelong-established and sturdy tradition of the latterdid not give way without a struggle, and that struggleis evident in their work. Thus we may derivefrom these facts an explanation of the compositeand conglomerate character of the Elizabethanstyle ; the wealth of new elements of decorationand the fascination of a foreign style so entirelydifferent from established custom led to its somewhatriotous employment ; judgment and appropriateuse were forgotten in enthusiasm for novelty.The drawing of an Elizabethan interior on p. 5

gives an example of the style in its purer aspects.Italian influence, especially in the matter of refine-ment, is very marked. The panelling is inlaid withconventional patterns, both in dark and light woods.The effect is very beautiful and sufficiently restrained,the grotesque and fantastic are absent, and the effectdepends upon less extravagance of detail than isusually the case in the period. In the chimneypiece on p. 6 is evidence of the more ordinary charac-teristics of the time. Plain pilasters were not enough,and their pedestals must also share the fondness forelaboration of surface. Yet in spite of these foiblesthere is much to admire in the general effect of thedifferent combinations of relief in the carving andcontrast of materials. The two separate panelsinset are good typical examples of the ornament ofthe period, whether employed for interior or exteriorpurposes.The chair is a beautiful specimen of inlay and

carving in combination, and it is well shaped anilfine in proportion as well. The pilaster again showsItalian influence, yet the motive seems reminiscentof Tudor rose applied to scroll lines. The pedestalbelow and the grotesque bracket above, are typesof ornament frequently recurring in Elizabethanwork. The workmanship varies from crudity tovery careful finish, but the chair and pilaster are asdelicate and refined as other examples are uncouthand incomplete in execution.


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jz[izaietf>an 2\TanwooaancC

air carveand'Lnlai.cCEuzaie.th.caifate

ofj Jcarved woodPiCaster


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PERIOD STYLES.CHAPTER III.JACOBEAN.No definite line can be drawn between the Eliza-

bethan and the Jacobean periods of decoration.It is difficult to determine how soon the Elizabethanstyle merged into that of the reign of James theFirst, in fact, the naming of styles after the reigningmonarch is an arbitrary division of work, givingbut a general description, mainly for conveniencein dating. A moment's reflection will show thatone style could not suddenly change or developinto another merely from the accession to the throneof a new king or queen ; it is a rough and readyarrangement, and we are obliged to accept it. By theperversity of things in general, no monarch's name hasbeen popularly tacked on to the period represented bythe reigns of Charles the First and Charles the Second,though the work of that time is characterised bya difference from Jacobean quite as great as thatwhich contrasts Elizabethan with Jacobean. Tosay that Jacobean is Elizabethan sobering downtowards a better understanding of Italian Renaissancewould be, perhaps, a true general description. Bythe way, it may not be known to every readerthat the term Jacobean is derived from " Jacobus,"the Latin form of James, and his majesty of thatname, first of England and sixth of Scotland, is sodescribed on the coins issued in his reign and inofficial documents.

In all the medley of forms and decorative elementsof this period, there is a certain type of work whichcan be called truly national and definitely markedin character. I refer to that distinctive phase ofdesign mainly to be seen in the craft of the woodcarver, and also in that of the plasterer of that day.Take a look first at the oak pilaster on p. 8, andthen contrast it with the enlarged detail of thecupboard panel on the same page. The pilasteris decorated with an extravagant series of strap-work, busts, cherub heads, drapery festoons andsemi-architectural forms, but the cupboard panelis much more coherent, and contains delightfultouches of natural form, rendered with a straight-forward simplicity of purpose in regard to bothdesign and execution. A closer examination of anyone of these characteristic pieces which can be seenin most good museums, and often in the shop windowsof the antique dealer, will reveal a rational treat-ment of the material which is truly admirable.All the forms show the shape of the gouge and chiselmarks ; it is frankly wood-carving without theattempt at smooth modelling so frequently seenin other work. Beautiful as much Italian woodcarving undoubtedly is, there is a smoothness asof metal or marble about it which smacks of a falseideal in the mind of the workman. Here in theseJacobean examples the treatment of the forms isdictated by the qualities of the tools, and by whatcan be produced with the material on direct common-sense principles. Notice the leaf patterns on balus-ters, mouldings, borders, arch, spandrel, guillocheornaments, and rosettes ; they are all frankly cutand decorated with the touch of gouge and chisel.There is a strong flavour of Eastern work in the floralpanels of this period, probably because the spaciousdays of Elizabeth and the discoveries of her navi-gators favoured the importation of the preciousobjects of the Orient, and in the following reign thiselement became more obvious. The panel from theJacobean cupboard above mentioned might well

have been inspired by some Persian tile or textilepattern, yet it is distinctly the work of a Britishcraftsman, and skilfully adapted to its own propermaterial. The same kind of sturdy design and richlytooled decoration is to be seen in the chair and thecourt cupboard shown on the same page. The latterpiece of furniture corresponded somewhat to ourmodern sideboard. It is a substantial and beautifulobject, and the combination and contrasts of carving,inlay and plain panelling are very effective andwell designed. Colour and beauty of surface arenot the least of its charms, for besides the carvingthere are touches of black and yellow inlay on thedark oak, and against such a background one canimagine the effect of those fine tankards and cupsproduced by the silversmiths of the age.The art of the plasterer continued to be employedon the ceilings, friezes and chimney-pieces of thisperiod, and some of the most splendid examples of thisbeautiful craft are those executed in Jacobean days.An endless variety of treatment was applied tothe plaster decoration of the ceilings ; elaborategeometrical plannings had their ribs or mouldingsornamented with floral designs, or they enclosed orframed panels fitted with such patterns. Heraldryalso played a great part in the plasterer's art, acentral coat of arms being frequently supplementedby family badges, mottoes and other armorial insignia.The chimney piece was generally the crowningfeature of the room, and if not carved in wood orstone, or both combined, it had an overmantel inplaster, and here again heraldic design was oftenthe main theme of decoration. The frieze roundthe room was sometimes also of plaster, and insome cases it was very deep and filled with designscontaining animal forms and decorative trees.Interesting examples of friezes of this kind maystill be seen at Hardwicke Hall, Derbyshire, and atAston Hall, Birmingham.The drawing of an interior on p. 9 is a fine exampleof early Jacobean work, the date being about 1606.The panelling is of oak, and the pleasant proportionsand variety of spacing give an excellent total effect.They are, by the way, divided here and there onother sides of the room by pilasters similar to theone on p. 8 above mentioned.The fireplace and the ceiling are the two featuresupon which the ornament has been expended, andthe decoration of the former is typically Jacobean.The Royal Arms of James the First are boldly andcleverly carved, much skilful undercutting being usedto obtain strong contrast in light and shade. Theframe of the fireplace is in white stone, with beauti-fully carved acanthus moulding and panel of birds andanimals in foliage of conventional character. Thesupporting pilasters, grotesques, fretwork pedimentand obelisks all partake of the extravagant andunrestful feeling which we have before noticed.Another strange contrast consists of the two statu-ettes set in niches at each side and surroundedwith a sort of dog-tooth ornament, coarse in scale,but framed by small detached columns, pedestals,and mouldings much more refined in style.In many an old parish church may be foundthe elaborate family tomb, containing most of thesecuriously mixed elements of the Elizabethan andJacobean styles, and for forming an acquaintancewith the work of the architectural carvers and


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ChartCupboard~ carvedancCin/aidoa.&~l6io~JACOBEAN WOODWORK

Oak. cupboardearfyJl^

ear/y 1~J~ century


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10 PERIOD STYLES.designers of the times, they are excellent objects forstudy. They often contain black, white or colouredmarbles, alabaster or painted and gilded stone, andsometimes these materials were employed on themantelpieces of the interior of a mansion or palace.From the similarity of these objects in many partsof the country, it is supposed that stock designsand pattern books were largely used, sometimeswith more enthusiasm than discrimination. Themoveable furniture of the rooms still partook ofthe massive and weighty style, as though oak wasplentiful ; indeed, very few other woods were usedin the best work of this time, and we must be gratefulto the hard and durable quality of the material formany excellent examples preserved for our study,criticism and appreciation.The tircback shown in the drawing is a goodexample of bold and vigorous design and modellingwell adapted to its purpose. The fire-dogs, orandirons, are also an interesting pair, the grotesquelion heads and small decorative knobs being ofbrass. Their function was to serve as supportsacross which the huge logs were slightly raised fromthe hearth, not for resting poker or tongs againstas we sometimes see them used now. Of plasterceilings more will be said in future chapters.Sonic- good embroideries may also be found of thereign of James the First, which began in 1603 andended in 1625.Two features of Elizabethan and Jacobean houseswhich deserve special notice are the staircas,, andthe long gallery. Of staircases there are many fineexamples extant, and when the great hall of the earlyTudor days ceased to be a living apartment, thestaircase became an important feature upon whichthe craftsmen expended their skill. They vary fromplain examples with simple balusters to others withthe most elaborate 1 carving- indeed the carving wasfrequently too elaborate, every portion being coveredwith ornament of that heterogeneous and fantasticcharacter which we have already noticed whilemaking our survey of these periods. The newel-postsare not only carved all over, but often surmountedwith heraldic animals, figures, or monsters. Landingsinterspersed between the groups of steps allowed ofthe: necessary turnings and very interesting andbeautiful effects result from these arrangements.The lights and shadows cross each other from windowand wall as the ascent is made, light from a windowthrowing out the carving and polish of surface 1 intohigh relief, or viewed from below presenting a darksilhouette of pierced woodwork of intricate pattern.Gates were sometimes placed at the lower end of thestairs in order to prevent dogs from wandering overthe upper part of the house and are known as " dog-gates " in consequence. Great houses like Hatfield,Haddon and Knole, possess very fine examples ofthese staircases. Aston Hall, Birmingham, nowa public museum, also has a fine specimen. In themediaeval house of pre-Tudor times the great hall wasliving room, dining room, and for most of the retainersand domestics, sleeping room also. As the housedeveloped, other rooms were added for greater privacyand comfort, and the hall became what it is to-day,the entrance and key to the various rooms or suitesof apartments, which branch from it by doors andpassages on the ground floor or from the staircaseand landings on the upper.

It is an interesting study to trace the growth ofthe English home from the remote and semi-barbaroustimes, when security and defence were the chiefconsideration, to the days when comfort, pleasantsituation, and, finally, architectural beauty, splendour

and luxury became possible. In the Elizabethanand Jacobean periods we have without doubtarrived at the last-mentioned stage, and a perfectepidemic of mansion and palace-building spread overthe land. The long gallery in a house of this periodwas an apartment on the upper floor, generallyrunning along one whole side or front of the building,and commanding a pleasant view of garden orextensive country through its row of large andspacious windows. It was used as a meeting placeor promenade for gentle exercise in wet or incle-ment weather. Panelled with oak or hung withtapestries, chairs and benches were placed at con-venient intervals, while a bay or oriel window-seatprovided other accommodation for rest and leisure.Gradually, as the taste for works of art grew morecommon, it resolved itself into the picture gallery ;family portraits began to adorn the walls, andbronzes, marbles, pottery and other treasureswere arranged as supplementary decorations orobjects of interest.The furniture and decorative details of the Jacobeanperiod are rich and examples copious in number.The carved oak dining-table on page 12 is a finespecimen of that bold and massive style of designand expressive craftsmanship so typical of the age.Its proportions are ample and generous, and therichness of the carved panel and baluster legs con-trasts well with the plain top and foot rail. Wemay notice again in passing the effective ornamenton the moulding below the panel formed of deeply-cut gouge marks, by means of which strong contrastof light and shadow is obtained. . The carved orna-ment of this period is well worth renewed study, forit will yield valuable results to the 1 intelligentdesigner.The armchair on the same page is another exampleof appropriate and well distributed decoration. Nopromine'iit carving interferes with the sitter's comfort,and the various patternings are agreeably inter-changed with plain spaces. Wood-turning is largelyemployed in this period, generally in conjunctionwith carving, and when ne)t too frequently repeatedthe 1 e-ffect is pleasing. There were some examples,however, where this mechanical art is overdone,anel the pieces covered with bead-like knobs whichgive a somewhat savage aspect to them when con-sidered as English furniture. I overheard a visitorat South Kensington Museum describe them as''looking like the work of Fiji Islanders." For-tunately, those answering to this description areexceptions and curious freaks of the period ratherthan typical examples. The amount of turned workon the two chairs given on pages 11 and 12 is tastefulin proportion to the carving, and no reasonable objec-tion can be brought against it. The small side-board again is a sturdy and substantial piece offurniture, not over-decorated, but with a satisfyingquantity of rich ornament of the best Jacobean style.A portion of Jacobean ceiling design is also givento supplement the drawing of an interior shown inour last chapter, and to which it belongs. Geo-metrical planning and floral ornamentation are hereseen in admirable combination, and if the reader willcontinue the pattern in the mind's eye he will realisethe variety of forms resulting from the repetitionof these curved and rectilinear spaces over thesurface of the ceiling. The arms of James theFirst are placed in the centre, and the correspondingpanels are occupied by heads of heroes or "worthies,"Hector, Alexander and others. The floral ornamentis very charming, and it is trailed over the mouldingsin an easy, flowing and ingenious manner.


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13 PERIOD STYLES;

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CHAPTER IV.INIGO JONES.

In reviewing the Tudor, Elizabethan and Jacobeanstyles, we have noticed that all three were the outcomeof Renaissance influence more or less properly under-stood by the English builders and craftsmen, and inthe last chapter we had arrived at a point where pureand unadulterated Italian Renaissance architectureand decoration had come to stay.For this state of things the great architect, InigoJones, born 1573, died 1652, was responsible. Hestudied in Italy under the direct tuition probably,under the direct influence certainly, of the greatItalian masters. He may be considered, in ourcountry at least, as a man before his time, for theJacobean style continued in vogue for many yearsafter some of his finest designs were executed. He istherefore a connecting link between the Jacobean style" King James' Gothic," as it has been called andthe Christopher Wren, Queen Anne, and Georgianstyles which followed after.The authentic works of Inigo Jones are few innumber. For one reason he was loyally attachedto the cause of King Charles the First, andthe period of disturbance produced by the CivilWar was a bad one for art of all kinds, neitherwas the Puritanical spirit of Cromwell's day a likelyincentive to artistic inspiration or activity. Conse-quently there was a lull in this time of transition,which is reflected in the severity of its furniture anddecoration. But Inigo Jones, in his few finishedbuildings, and by the drawings and designs which heleft behind him, had done sufficient to turn the streamin a new direction, and when the civil strife endedand the times became settled, it was to his work thathis pupils and successors turned for guidance andsuggestion.

Picturesque and full of character as the Elizabethanand Jacobean Styles undoubtedly were, we need notregret their disappearance, for out of the study ofItalian architecture, brought to our shores by InigoJones, a new national school of architecture anddecoration was developed, a style which in the mainmay be described by the words in which he expressedhis own ideal, i.e., that architecture should be " mascu-line, dignified and unaffected."In previous chapters the five orders of architecturehave been more than once mentioned, and as it isbetter to explain things too much rather than notexplain them enough, some diagrams are given onp. 14 for reference and information.The word " order " is used in architecture to denotethe style of a building when that building is derivedfrom Greek, Roman, or Renaissance sources. Thecharacteristics of each order are contained in theparticular kind of column and capital, with theaccompanying bases, pedestals and entablatures.The Greeks invented three orders, Doric, Ionicand Corinthian, and the Romans added two others,namely : Tuscan, a simplified version of Doric, andComposite, a combination of Ionic and Corinthian.The Renaissance architects in their study of ancientbuilding, accepted, roughly speaking, the five ordersas exemplified by the Romans in the ancient ruins ofItaly, to which, of course, they had easy access, andmany of which still exist. For the sake of comparison,

a (ireek Doric column and entablature are shownon the same page. The shaft of this column had nobase, but rested directly on the steps of the building.The flutings of the column were cut with sharp edgeswithout a fillet or small flat space between them.The Romans altered the character of this particularorder by adding base and pedestal, and if they did notinvent the round arch they were the first to use itextensively, and by its common employment theyenlarged the scope of building by making it pos-sible to super-impose several tiers one above the other.This arched construction brought in the use of thepedestal under the column. The Renaissance archi-tects, with whom we are most concerned, followed inthe track of the Romans. They used the Tuscan andDoric orders in the lower parts of their buildings, andthe Ionic, as being less severe, and the Corinthian, aspossessed of more grace and elegance, in the upperportions. The Tuscan column was never fluted, butthe other four kinds were used plain, fluted, or withflutings beginning part way up the shaft, leaving thelower portion plain, according to taste and the require-ments of harmony or contrast in the design.

It will be noticed in the diagrams of the orders thatthe entablature, that is, the portion supported by thecolumn and capital, is composed of three main parts ;the lower part directly above the capital is called thearchitrave ; the middle portion, the frieze ; and theupper, or crowning part, the cornice. Sometimes thefrieze is not flat, but has a slightly bulging surface orconvex profile. It is then termed a " swelled " frieze.All these members could be enriched with sculpturedornaments, and it must not be supposed that thedistinctive features of each order were always alike.Great variety was shown in the Ionic volutes, andI heir accompanying ornaments, and the acanthusleaves of the Corinthian and Composite capitals weresometimes sharp and pointed, at other times soft androunded.The slight curve outwards on the shaft of the columnis called the " entasis," and is employed in order toprevent the columns looking hollow in the middle,an optical phenomenon which occurs when they aremade with absolutely straight sides. This defect ma}'be observed sometimes in the iron columns used inrailway stations, and other utilitarian structures,where aesthetic niceties have not been regarded.

By comparing the diagrams of the five orders withthe illustrations of Elizabethan and Jacobean workgiven in previous chapters, it will be seen how thecraftsmen and builders of those times had only re-ceived a garbled version of architectural features, thetrue forms of which very few of them had ever seen.It was, therefore, well-nigh impossible for them toappreciate the careful thought and subtle beautyof harmony and proportion arrived at by the ancientarchitects, or the analysis and additional study ofthese refinements to which the great Italians of theRenaissance had given so much attention. The greatfault of the Elizabethan and Jacobean buildings anddecoration is the absence of a well-ordered simplicity ;there is too great a riot of strangely mixed elementsand too much ornament as a rule. On the otherhand, the builders of these periods gave us much that


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I


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i6 PERIOD STYLES.we should be sorry to lose, much that was nationaland interesting in character; but the change wasbound to come sooner or later, and by good fortunethe right man was there to direct it. For more than150 years onwards the study of Italian Renaissancearchitecture, inaugurated by Inigo Jones, continuedto influence our architects and decorative designers,and a wealth of stately and beautiful work was therebyproduced.The design for a chimney-piece, by Inigo Jones,adjoining the diagrams of the live orders, will give agood idea of their use in a piece of interior decoration.In this instance the columns are Corinthian, fluted ;the panel in the overmantel was probably intendedfor a painting, and the decorative features of festoons,cartouche and draperies, are well proportioned, andtheir main lines designed with a masterly knowledgeof effect. During the time in which the pure Italianstyle introduced by Inigo Jones was superseding theJacobean, the furniture and accessories of the periodwere also undergoing a change, and the latter half ofthe seventeenth century is distinguished by a greaterelegance and lightness in the forms of chairs, stoolsand couches. Cushions, embroidery, upholstery andcane-seating were employed to increase comfort andfinish.

The chairs and tables of Cromwell's time were plainand solid, restraint and severity in furniture anddecoration being the outcome of the Puritanical spiritwhich held art and beauty in low esteem then, as it hasdone ever since. When the restraints of Puritanismwere removed, artistic invention revived, new depar-tures were made, and with more settled times thecraftsmen experimented with new forms.The cane-back chair in our illustrations is a good

example of this, and represents the style to whichwe were tending towards the end of the seventeenthcentury. Embroidered curtains executed in boldpatterns in silk and wool, sometimes entirely in wool,are characteristic of this period, though they go bythe name of " Jacobean " embroideries. The oneillustrated is a typical example.The colourings generally consist of schemes of darkand light greens, with brown stems and occasional

touches of indigo blue and yellows, red tones beingless frequently used. As a rule, they are line piecesof design, much treasured by the amateur, and againshow the influence of Eastern pattern, many of theforms being very similar to those on Chinese, Indian,or Persian textiles.

H C


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CHAPTER V.THE LATER iyTH CENTURY.

In the latter end of the 17th century we havearrived at a time when the control of the architectover building and decoration became completelyestablished. The woodcarver and plasterer no longerfollowed their own fancy. They gave way to thecontrolling architect, who became head designer,assuming sole responsibility for the final result.Much dispute has arisen, especially in modern times,as to whether this was an improvement or otherwise.Probably the argument will never be quite settled.There are those who contend that the charm ofunexpected beauties, resulting from the freedom ofthe craftsman can never be replaced by the latersystem under which he was obliged to carry outorders. There is a large amount of truth in thiswhen viewed by itself, but in all the things of thisworld change and movement occur. New conditionsevolve as fresh discoveries or inventions take place,and herein lies the moral. Only by constant watch-fulness and constant application of commonsenseprinciples to our work can we save ourselves fromdoing the wrong thing while carrying on the traditionsbequeathed to us by our forerunners. They them-selves were often guilty of neglecting these principles.Sometimes the freedom which the craftsman enjoyedran into extravagance and license ; he forgot torestrain his hand at the right moment, the resultbeing an over-elaboration of fantastic detail. Occa-sionally, in later clays, the architect in his zeal forcorrect proportions and outward impressiveness, inhis worship of Italian masters, forgot the differencein climate and conditions between Italy and England,and gave little or no consideration to the comfortof his clients so long as he obtained the stately andsymmetrical beauty of his models. The same faultsin our own day are due to servile or unthinkingimitation.

Thirty years ago or thereabouts our architectswere much drawn to the study of those old farm-houses and country cottages which give so muchbeauty and picturesqueness to our rural landscape,and from which they developed the admirable designsfor modern houses we know so well. Then came thespeculative builder on the new track. Not knowingwhy or how the architect arrived at his results, hecovered our suburban houses with false beams,grotesque porches, and unaccountable angle windows,Tudor in one part, Jacobean or Georgian in another.Even an elementary knowledge of styles wouldsave us from such incongruities. Freedom is aglorious thing, but without the guiding hand ofknowledge it may lead to disaster. The wise courseis therefore to study the traditions of the past andapply them to the requirements of the present withreasoning and intelligence.The date of the Panelled Room in our illustrationis about 1685. The Renaissance style inaugurated inEngland by Inigo Jones is here to be seen, consistentin every detail, yet there is a distinctly Englishlook about it all. Oak was still a typically nationalmaterial in those days, but a change will be noticedin the arrangement of the panelling. Instead ofthe small rectangular divisions of the wall spacegenerally used in the Tudor and Jacobean periodswe have projecting panels of large dimensions. One

distinct advantage thus gained is the improveddisplay of figured patterning produced by the grainof the wood. This in itself gives a great decorativebeauty to the walls. There is a carved cornicerunning round the room, acanthus leaf and delicatebead ornament being the motives employed, butthe central piece of decoration is the chimney pieceand overmantel. This portion is richly adorned withapplied carving in cedar, which gives a pleasingcontrast of colour with the oak background. Pro-bably the centre panel contained a painting of land-scape, still life, or a hunting subject. Such pictureswere specially painted for these spaces as they werealso for " over-door " panels, and they formedpleasing centres of colour interest.The little coat of arms above is also coloured,showing again how decorative an effect is obtainedby a piece of heraldry if it be well designed andplaced in the architectural composition. The sur-round of the fireplace opening is of white marble,which gives, with the dense black of the fireback, astrong and arresting note from which the eye returnsto the restful golden browns of the figured oak. Itis a rich, if sober, harmony, warm, cosy and homelike,and suitable, therefore, to our climate. In Italythe walls would have been marble or painted andgilded wood or plaster, but our architects, like Wrenand the followers of Inigo Jones, while derivingtheir inspiration from Italy, used their brains in alogical manner by adapting their knowledge to ournational materials. The door is also a richly deco-rated feature, but it is not allowed to compete ininterest with the chimney piece.The ceiling again shows a change. Instead of thenarrow ribs intersecting in geometrical patternswith pendants and bosses, we see Italian Renaissanceforms more frankly used. Garlands of fruit andflowers, laurel bands, supplemented with the con-ventional forms of egg and tongue, bead mouldingsand similar ornaments are boldly modelled in strongrelief. These will be seen more clearly defined inthe detail drawing on p. 19.The silver candle sconces, the carved chairs up-holstered in dark crimson velvet and the old portraitsin carved gilt frames give finish to a satisfying schemeof warm and soothing colour. Truly a room goodto live in, serviceable, friendly, and dignified.

In the furniture of the time, examples of whichare given on p. 19, it will be noticed that workmanshipis becoming more exact in finish, more accurate instrvicture. The cabinet maker has now taken theplace of the joiner-craftsman who added woodcarving to his trade as necessity arose for it, and whoconstituted himself the furniture maker of Tudorand Jacobean times. No slight to him is hereintended ; he did his work well according to theideals of his time and with what interesting andadmirable results we have seen in previous chapters.But manners, customs and methods of living hadchanged, and the furniture is a reflection of the age.Walnut was coming more into fashion about thistime, and many fine pieces of carving in this materialare still preserved for our admiration. The chairon p. 19 shows Italian and French influence in itsflorid and skilfully carved ornament.


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Cfiest gfDraioers- Oaf;.& Cecta*secondfiaFfll- century


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20 PERIOD STYLES.

CHAPTER VI.WREN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES.In the study of period styles we find furnitureand interior architectural design so intimatelyconnected that it is impossible to think of one withoutthe other. Sometimes the same influences acted

on both simultaneously. In both, again, we mustremember that important feature, the overlappingof styles as in the progress of time one period mergedinto the next.

In the earlier part of the 17th century we havetraced the influence of the Renaissance architectureand detail as it was rendered and adapted by InigoJones in the reigns of James I. and Charles I. Forsome years it was taken up and carried on by hispupil, John Webb, and other followers, and by themiddle of the century it became, owing to theirinfluence, so well established that the Jacobeanstyle quietly died out. Webb was a very capabledesigner, but his work is heavier and less distinguishedthan that of his master.The next great influence brought to bear onEnglish architecture and decoration emanated froma very great man indeed, one of the greatest artistsof all time Sir Christopher Wren. He is knownby almost every intelligent person as the architectof St. Paul's Cathedral, but few outside professionalcircles realise the extent of his influence on domesticarchitecture and the home decoration of his da}'.He designed a substantial and comfortable houseas well as he designed a church spire or cathedral,and many of the moderately-sized but stately redbrick mansions with stone facings and beautifuldoorways are traditionally assigned to him. Hebrought an eminently practical as well as artisticmind to bear on all the problems he had to solve,for he was a mathematician and a scientist beforehe became an architect, art and science being anecessary combination for success in architecture,by the way. One of the original members of theRoyal Society, and a professor of astronomy atGreshain College, Oxford, he was the author ofsundry inventions, all of which training developedhis remarkable constructive faculty and helped toequip him for the study of architecture. He carriedon the tradition of Inigo Jones, and his work is acontinuation of that style so well described as" masculine, dignified, and unaffected."About the same time as Wren established hisreputation as an architect, the famous carver, Grin-ling Gibbons, arrived in England. He came fromHolland, and brought with him the prevailing styleof woodcarving as it was then being practised inthat country. A marvellous technical skill hadbeen cultivated there, and it might be said the word" impossible " in relation to woodcarving wasunknown to the exponents of this school.The most daring problems were attempted andaccomplished with brilliant success. It is truethat most of the carving of this character is almost

like natural still-life painting in wood. Some criticswould say it ought never to have been done, andwith good reasons in support of their antagonism,for the fragile details of flower, feather, leaf or ribboncould be damaged by a careless touch.The designers of this period were intentionally

producing certain effects in decoration, and for thesethe applied carvings in question were employed.It would have been impossible to obtain the highrelief, the rich and intricate light and shade of theirdecoration by carving direct on the panelling. Themethod followed, therefore, was to carve the orn;.-ment in softer and generally lighter-coloured wocdand apply it to the surface when complete. Flowers,fruits, birds, both living and dead, garlands, shells,musical instruments, ribbons, draperies, in factevery conceivable object was brought in to play apart in this lavish and exuberant ornament. Whenall the objections of the critics have been met, andthey are many and good, we have to admit, if wetake decoration as a whole and possess a broadoutlook, that the effect produced was a very sumptu-ous and splendid one, while the skill was so dazzlingthat it was no wonder it blinded the eyes of con-temporaries to the grave faults of construction,and the treatment of material. But there it standsas an essential part of that particular historic style,and, like many other things which transgress strictly-logical considerations, it possesses a fascination wecannot altogether resist.Holland and its crafts exercised an influence onthe decoration of our own country in other direc-tions, marquetry, and lacquer work among others,and naturally this influence increased with theadvent of William of Orange, when he came to thethrone in 1689. Dutch marquetry became a fashionin the furniture of the time, especially on chests ofdrawers, table tops and clock-cases, or mirror frames.Stained or coloured woods were arranged in elaboratefloral or geometrical designs as surface decorationon these objects. Sometimes metals, tortoiseshellor other materials were used for this purpose, theaim being richness or variety and quality of surface.In fact, colour and surface decoration had taken theplace of carving to a large extent, though carvingstill held its place with and alongside of the othercrafts.The Dutch also took up the making of lacquerwork. They copied it, no doubt, from the specimens

they brought home in their trading with the East.Many of their pieces are close copies of Chinese work,just as they imitated very closely the textiles ofIndia in their block-printed hangings.

English craftsmen also practised the art of lacquerwork, and the cabinet on page 21 will give a goodidea of the richness and beauty of these pieces offurniture. It is included because it is inseparablefrom the period, and we find about this time thebeginning of that definite " Chinese taste," whichmade a strong impression on the decorationof the late 17th century, and part of the 18th,dying out after being carried to fantastic ex-travagance and bizarre experiments in the shapeof alcoves designed as grottoes, mock temples, pagoda-topped doors, and such like incongruities. Never-theless, some objects of great beauty were producedby the phase, which must be taken into account asit ran side by side with the quieter and more soberstyles we associate with William and Mary, QueenAnne, and the early Georgian times.


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CacquerecCCabinetwith brassmounts oncarvedandscCverecCwoodenstanafate 11*2

century

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J


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22 PERIOD STYLES.


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PERIOD STYLES.The drawing of an overmantel decoration on

page 22, is a characteristic example of the GrinlingGibbons' school of applied carved wood decoration.The mantel-piece in nearly every period is chosenas the principal feature to be decorated, and morethan ever do we find at this time the designers andcraftsmen lavish of their effort in order to producea splendid effect.Most frequently the carving enclosed and sur-rounded some Van Dyck or other ancestral portrait,but occasionally a classical landscape or decorativepainting formed the central note of colour. Fromthe Dutch again came those frankly decorativecompositions of peacocks, domestic fowls, parrotsand monkeys grouped with foliage, and vases offlowers or garden backgrounds which so often occupythese spaces or the panels over doors.The lacquered cabinet is a fine specimen of thatparticular class of work, lacquer being a preparationof shellac dissolved in spirit and used as a coating

over the woodwork. There are two colours commonto the 17th and 18th century craftsmen ; black andred, the latter a very rich and brilliant tone, neithervermilion nor Venetian red exactly. With gildingand relief work and touches of other colour somesplendid effects were produced. The cabinet hereillustrated is black, with silver and gold, touched inplaces with faint green and blue. The walnutcabinet and chest of drawers are examples of chasteand severe design, combined with the art of surfacedecoration, obtained by marquetry, in rich arabesquesin the one case, and by the symmetrically arranged" figure " or wood markings in the other. Thechair on the same page is a somewhat plain specimen,but it shows the change from the heavily carvedornament of previous days to a different style. Thehigh back, straight or slightly curved, was veryprevalent during the reign of William III. Thesethree pieces of furniture are quite characteristic ofthe period.


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24 PERIOD STYLES.

CHAPTER VII.WILLIAM AND MARY, AND ANNE.While we trace the general characteristics of theWilliam and Mary or early Georgian styles, we mustallow for the difference between the palatial splendour

of the great houses of the nobility, and the quieter,if no less solid comfort of the wealthy citizen class orthe plain and useful furniture in the cottage orfarmhouse.Continuous, and side by side with oak and cedar

panelling, tapestries had been and were still employedas wall decorations, and an illustration of a room sotreated is given on p. '25. Brussels still held areputation for its tapestry weaving, and the Gobelinmanufactory had been established in France in themiddle of the 17th century, products from boththese sources finding their way across to the greathouses of our own country. Charles I. purchased thecelebrated Raphael cartoons for the purpose of havingthem woven at Mortlake, and Oliver Cromwell,Puritan though he was, wisely purchased these de-signs for the nation after the fall of King Charles,and they now rest in South Kensington Museum.The character of these seventeenth and earlyeighteenth century tapestries is, of course, quitedifferent from that of the older Flemish tapestries,with their more or less Gothic air of stiff draperies,and severe design. The later kinds are more" Frenchy," more pictorial and flamboyant, both incolour and composition. They were part and parcelof the later Renaissance and accorded well with thepalatial architecture and painted ceilings which hadbecome the vogue. It was an age of classicism, andclassical themes formed the subjects of both tapestriesand paintings. Triumphs of Caesars and Alexanders,apotheoses of gods, goddesses and heroes abounded onwalls or ceilings, the characters marching in statelyprocession through magnificently decorative land-scapes on the one, or flying through ethereal bluevaults and bestriding billowy cloud-forms in pomp anddignity on the other. Italian and French artists,like Verrio and Laguerre, were employed on thesepainted decorations by Charles II. and William III.,followed by Sir James Thornhill in the 18th century.Dutch and Flemish artists supplied the lesser

panel paintings over mantel pieces and doors, theirsubjects being chosen generally from bird and animallife, with flower painting and landscape back-ground accompaniments. Frans Snyders, MelchiorHondecoeter and Jan Wee.iix are names usuallyassociated with this type of work, an example ofwhich may be seen in the over-door panel in ourillustration. Occasionally these were varied with" landskips " and marine pictures, in which weredepicted stately ships and barges ; so it will be seenthat there is a great variety of decoration to generalisefrom, and to condense into a style when we considerthe different phases of this period. Some expertsin the history of furniture have divided the periodsinto three main groups or generalisations ; the Age ofOak, the Age of Walnut, and the Age of Mahogany,and it is a convenient arrangement as a roughguide. Most of the permanent and substantialfurniture of this country up to the Restorationof Charles II. was of oak. Then, owing to variousreasons, the national tree became scarcer. Ship-building, as commerce increased, demanded moreof this wood, and no doubt the forests became more

depleted as the population grew larger. Oak panel-ling and wainscoting began to be less frequentlyseen than formerly, and walnut made its appear-ance as a fashionable material for furniture. Thereign of William and Mary and perhaps that of QueenAnne may be styled the age of walnut, while theGeorgian periods which followed later come mainlyunder the title of the Age of Mahogany, as it was inthe 18th century that this wood began to be exten-sively used. Its beautiful colour, surface, andfineness of grain gave the craftsmen their oppor-tunity for exquisite workmanship and delicate finish.The shapes of chair backs and table and chair legs inthe time of William III. and Anne begin to forecastthe designs of Chippendale, who followed a littlelater, and who was undoubtedly one of the greatestof furniture designers and craftsmen. Two chairsin the illustrations on p. 26 show the type whichwas evolving at the time ; their graceful lines andshapes of back and legs set a pattern in chair designwhich was followed closely for many years onwards.The third example shows that tapestry, upholstering,and the tall back still held place with the others.The clock case in marquetry is a very rich and elabo-rate piece of woodwork, and the little toilet glass givesus another example of the " Chinese taste." Besidestapestry, stamped leather, painted and gilded, hadcome into use during the 17th century. It arrivedfirst from Spain, but its manufacture was takenup by the Flemish and the Dutch. The productsof all these countries were imported into England.An illustration is given of a piece of the Spanishmaterial on p. 25. The background is coloured intwo tints, dark and light blue, most of the ornamentgilded with diapered and punched surfaces, while theflowers are of varied colours. This is a very elaborateexample, for some specimens show merely the browntint of the leather with embossed pattern and linesor touches of gold here and there. This industrynever really took root in England, but in moderntimes paper imitations have been manufactured.About the same time velvet brocades, patterned silksand damasks began to be used as material for cover-ing walls and seatings. Chairs of this character areshown in the illustration of the tapestried room.Noblemen on travels and ambassadors at foreigncourts sent home costly specimens of these textilesfrom Italy, France and Spain, and those who couldnot vie with their wealth sought imitations and sub-stitutes. This led to the introduction of wallpapers,some of the first specimens coming from China.The period of William and Mary and that of Anne areremarkable for their varied aspects of decorativeinterest. Wallpapers, which had only been made insmall squares were, by the invention of suitablemachinery, manufactured in long strips at the begin-ning of the 18th century ; the weaver, the ironsmith,and the locksmith, as well as the mason, the plasterer,the carver in wood or marble, and the cabinetmaker,had all attained a high degree of skill and excellencein their various crafts, due to the sound trainingthey had received in the School of Sir ChristopherWren and his fellow architects. A love of fine build-ing and interior decoration was characteristic of theperiod, and to it we owe some of the finest specimensof our national arts.


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FUKNITURE OF THEWILLIAM cmdMARYarJQUEENANNEPERIODS

TOILET&ASSofpoplar,pine anaoax. withbCue amfgatelacquer


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PERIOD STYLES. 27

CHAPTER VIII.EARLY GEORGIAN.

The two great pioneers of Renaissance Architecturein England, Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren,were succeeded by a number of very talented archi-tects in the eighteenth centiiry James Gibbs,Nicholas Hawksmoor, and Henry Flitcroft may bementioned as prominent men who left monuments oftheir skill in some of the most beautiful of London'sRenaissance Churches, and many splendid mansionsand great houses of the period are of their design. Asound, perhaps it would not be too much to say, astrict and severe training in all the knowledge ofItalian architecture was the common course laid outfor such men in their apprenticeship. Some of themvisited Italy, where they enthusiastically studied,measured, and examined, and also made drawings of,the remains of classical buildings and the works of thegreat Italian masters of the 15th, 16th and 17thcenturies.

Their rich and noble patrons also vied with tin inin the pursuit of architectural tastes and learning.Clubs like the " Dilettante " wore formed for theexpress purpose of studying and debating uponantiquities and works of art as well as architecture.

Altogether the study of architecture and its atten-dant arts was " in the air " ; from a fashion it becamethe rage, and, in spite of the extravagances andeccentricities of some of the devotees, it did animmense amount of good in cultivating the demandfor a high standard of design and workmanship.

Consequently, we find in this, and the age whichfollowed, up to the end of the 18th century, a veryhigh state of excellent craftsmanship in carvingand furniture making, and in lacquering, textiles,plaster ornament, and the lesser arts generally.

If we examine the mouldings and carved detailsof the rooms of this period, we find a grace andtenderness of execution, an exquisite feeling for formand beauty of detail which bespeak the pride andjoy taken in his work by the eighteenth centurycraftsman.The room illustrated on p. 28 is a case in point.It is adapted from a specimen in South KensingtonMuseum, where it is described as " in the style ofJames Gibbs." Elegance and refinement, both inproportion and execution, mark it as an unusuallyfine example of its period. All the details are carriedout with the greatest artistic feeling, in fact, themore it is examined in part, the more one comes tothink that design and execution could not be moreharmoniously blended.The woodwork, in this instance, is of pine, and itwas originally painted, though, in its present state,with the paint removed, it is surely much more beauti-

v ful. When oak became scarce, at the end of theSeventeenth century, it was customary to carry out

: the panelling of rooms in cheaper woods like pine,(and they were generally painted. The commonestcolour applied was olive, though sometimes white,

' cream, and other tints were employed. Gilding was|also occasionally used on the woodwork in importantdetails like capitals and flutings of columns orpilasters, moulded ornaments and similar accentua-tions of relief.

While endeavouring to keep these examples ofperiod styles as distinct and orderly as possible, wemust remember that there were, even in these days,conflicting tastes and fashions.For instance, the Rococo style had been prevalentin France for many years, and some English connois-seurs had a fancy then, as now, for things in theFrench taste. The gold mirror-frame in our roomillustration is an example of its influence. The glitter-ing pomp and affected grandeur of the court ofLouis XV. demanded the showy and superficialsplendour which the tortuous curves, flowery garlands,and medley of shells, rock, ribbons and frills soreadily produce in this style. Consequently we findit reflected every now and then in English work,though with us it always remained a side-path ofornament, an exotic, scarcely native, not quiteacclimatised. It is evident, however, sometimes inthe twist of a chair or table leg, sometimes in a bitof carved ornament, the decorated window cornicefrom which the curtains depend, and similar details.The extravagances of the style are caricaturedby Hogarth in that well-known picture of the " Mar-riage a la Mode " series, where the dissolute Earlsprawls on a chair in a grand saloon, and on thechimney-piece behind him, a clock-case formedof a most extraordinary combination of details,satirises Rococo work in its worst phases. Luckily, itplayed only an incidental part in our national periods,but these few words of explanation will account forthe reasons why and where we find it. A touch ofit comes in the shell-ornamented corners of theovermantel frame on p. 29, but in this case it is soslight and restrained that its objectionable qualitiesare absent. Let us not be unjust even to the Rococostyle of ornament, for it cannot be denied that takenwith the French costume of the time there was anartificial grace about its lightness and vivacity whichis not without its own peculiar charm, but it wasfortunate that it had but little influence on the moreserious quality of English furniture and decorationof that day.The overmantel just mentioned represents anothercharacteristic piece of furniture of the period. Com-binations of mirror and picture had quite a vogue.When no picture was present the gilt-framed mirrorswere frequently divided across by partition lines,also in gold, and not always of rectangular shape;they sometimes took the lines of long palm branches,making decorative cartouche forms across thesurface of the glass. Wreaths and festoons oftendivided the sheets of plate glass in the same fashion.A mirror of this kind may be seen at KensingtonPalace. In our illustration the marine painting issoft in colour with tones of blue, grey, and green.Warm golden tints in the vessels bring the pictureinto harmony with the gold of the frame, while thedecorated mouldings and silver tone of the mirrorall contribute to a very pleasing effect. This is anarticle which might be revived with success in ourown day if tastefully executed amid appropriatefurnishing ; in fact, many such schemes have beenworked out in the decoration of modern hotels, clubs,


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urvau cabinet.airCy /6Mc

PLatZ t^Lass oivrmanteL wilfiLate 1 ~J, or carCy 18 centy

Stoof if with tapestry xr -, 0V ^ ^ ^Late 11 centy


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PERIOD STYLES.and the large ocean-going liners, showing the needof a sound knowledge of style to the modern deco-rator.Walnut still continued to be used as a materialfor furniture well on into the 18th century, as theillustrations of bureau, chair and stool will show,but the chair and table in the room on p. 28 are ofmahogany, which was now rapidly coming intofashion for the best and most highly finished work ofthe time.Some of the chair backs remind one irresistiblyof the beautiful lines and shapes made by the lovelycurves of a violin.

This is a great compliment to the cabinet-maker'slove of subtle and beautiful form, for no more exqui-site shapes were ever produced by handicraft thanthose evolved in the process of making stringedinstruments of the violin type.The bureau cabinet illustrated in this chapter is afine example of good craftsmanship, and representsthe high water mark of the age of walnut. Elegantin proportion, beautiful in line, reticent in ornament,the surface of the wood is given every chance todisplay its natural beauty. The doors of the upper

portion contain plate-glass mirrors, making, withthe woodwork, a harmony of silver and gold.Though in this period elegance and solidity werenot divorced from each other, if there was a fault itwas sometimes on the side of heaviness, but thiscannot apply to the woodwork, the panelling orcarved detail of the room on p. 28. Here all isso justly proportioned, so .beautifully refined, andthe ornamented and plain surfaces so exquisitelycontrasted with each other that no one but a carpingcritic could wish an alteration. The beautiful brasscandelabrum should also be noticed. The chandeliers,the wall sconces, locks, keys, and other metal acces-sories in this age were as carefully designed andexecuted as the woodwork and furniture of the time.Somehow, too, the old china, real china it was then,fitted in quite happily with the English work, as didalso the English porcelain made under its influence.This brings to mind a saying of the late Lord Leighton,P.R.A., that " if you want a beautiful house, all youhave to do is to put nothing ugly in it."These beautiful 18th century interiors prove thatif this is not the whole truth, it goes a long waytowards reaching it.


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CHAPTER IX.MIDDLE GEORGIAN.

In the middle of the eighteenth century the stylewe generally associate with the term " Georgian "reached its highest point of all-round excellence inthe matter of interior decoration, furniture design,and craftsmanship. The introduction of mahoganyas a material for furniture in the earlier part ofthe century had led up to a still keener desire forrefined and delicate workmanship ; clever nativedesigners and craftsmen, like Thomas Chippendale,had arisen, foreign influence was less felt, commercehad increased and money was more plentiful. Con-sequently we find an abundance of splendid workin the domestic arts, and some of the choicest speci-mens of the cabinet-maker's art, now so highlyprized by the collector, were designed and wroughtabout this period. The middle Georgian periodmay be fixed about 17-40 to 1760, for by the latterdate the style had come under a new influence, thatof Robert Adam, who brought from his studies inItaly a revival of ancient classical forms somewhatof the character of Pompeian decoration 'but thiswe must study later.To revert once more to the earlier part of thecentury, and to take up the links in the historicalchain of designers of interior decoration, the nameof William Kent must be included. Born about1684 (the exact year is uncertain) he began his careerwhen a youth as a coach painter, but was lateron patronised by the celebrated Lord Burlington,an amateur architect and enthusiast in all thatrelated to the fine arts. Kent rose rapidly underthis influential nobleman. He twice visited Italy,and became for many years the idol of the Courtand the wealth}'. He was consulted with regardto decoration of all kinds, from a palace to a pictureframe, from a painted ceiling to a lady's ball dress.Opinions are divided as to his artistic merits.Some critics consider him to be an exponent ofcheap grandeur and shallow magnificence, whileothers bestow high praise upon him and think heis much maligned and somewhat under-estimated.Certainly in his own day he was both extravagantlyadored on the one hand and severely caricaturedon the other. The truth, perhaps, lies in a middlecourse between the two. Some of his work has alargeness of style and conception which gives itdistinction and impressiveness, while at other timeshe is either trivial or clumsy. The " Horse Guards "building in Whitehall is of his design, and at Ken-sington Palace some examples of his interior decora-tion may be seen. He attempted to excel in toomany branches of design, and some were beyondhis powers, for his painted ceilings compare butpoorly as works of art with those of his predecessors.Much of his furniture design is of the massive andostentatious carved and gilt style, marble-toppedconsole tables, supported by Sphinx or eagle formswith outspread wings, cupids with festoons of fruitand foliage, or twists and curves of unrestful character.He died in 1748, so that his influence comes quiteinto the period we are now considering. All throughthe eighteenth century, side by side with the beautifulmahogany furniture now so much appreciated, wefind the carved and gilt articles just mentioned.

They are characteristic of the " palace " ratherthan the " home," but it must not be forgotten thatthey are part of the period, and throughout thecentury gilt tables, mirror frames, overmantels,sconces, candelabra, all made of carved wood andgilded over, lend a contrasting richness and brightnessto the tones of the walnut or mahogany furniture.The name of Chippendale has become a householdword, but it must not be supposed that everythingassociated with his name came from his hand, eitheras regards design or workmanship.The examples of furniture given on p. 32 arebroadly typical of his style, and the square-backed

chairs here shown always remind us of his name.Settees made in the form of a double chair, butshorter than a couch or sofa, are common to thisperiod, though they were first designed earlier inthe century. There are, of course, authentic piecesof Chippendale's furniture in existence which enableus to appreciate the excellence of craftsmanship inboth structural merit and beaut}- of carving forwhich his workshop was so justly celebrated. Littleis known of his life ; the date of his birth is a matterof conjecture, but he lived to be seventy or there-abouts. He came to London about 1727 with hisfather, who was a carver and gilder, took a shopin 1749, and published his well-known book called" The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker's Director,"in 1754. It will be readily understood that theappearance of a set of furniture designs publishedby a fashionable London cabinet maker had a wideinfluence all over the country. Local craftsmencopied and imitated the work of Chippendale moreor less closely, adding their individual variationsaccording to taste and demand. This book hasbeen reprinted in recent times with facsimile repro-ductions, and anyone wishing to see Chippendale'sdesigns can refer to it in most good libraries.Besides chairs, tables, cabinets, bookcases and allordinary furniture, it contains numerous designs formany kinds of unusual objects, such as teapot stands,candlesticks, mirror frames, fire screens, card tables,wine coolers all designed with great care, refine-ment, and taste. The various influences under whichChippendale worked from time to time may beseen as we turn over the pages of his book.He sometimes wandered into the extravagancesof the Rococo style or adopted the fantastic formsdemanded by the fashion for things in the " Chinesetaste," as it was then called. In the latter stylehe produced the borders of Chinese fretwork andeccentric key patterns which surround the edge ofa table or perforate a chair back, the pagoda-shapedtops of bookcases and china cabinets and otherdetails of the same character. The effect of some ofthese pieces is very light and graceful, and theymake excellent and appropriate receptacles for theexhibition of fragile objects like china and porcelain,but it is his purely English work which is to-daymost admired and sought after by the collectorand the art lover. He also experimented withGothic forms, and in his later period he introducedpointed arches into chair backs and the glazingof bookcase and cabinet doors. In the middle of


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FURNITUREcftfie/e Qe.orgria.rL

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1sira 1=1'CsII&l Is5 1!= ' [s! ny

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34 PERIOD STYLES.the 18th century a temporary interest in Gothicarchitecture was raised by a few amateurs, chiefamong them being the somewhat shallow and pedan-tic critic, Horace Walpole, and although Chippendaleincluded in his stock patterns examples of the

"Gothictaste," it died out under the influence of later de-

signers like Adam, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite.Chippendale's best pieces are refined and elegant

in design, reticent and reasonable in the quantityof carved ornament employed, and finished withexcellent craftsmanship, and it is owing largely tohis talent that English eighteenth century furnitureand decoration possesses a quality all its own andsecond to no phase of similar work produced on theContinent.

The portion of an interior represented on p. 33is a typical example of middle eighteenth centurywork, and the accompanyin

Documents

(1922) An Introduction to Period Styles of England & France