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The job facing the cultural intellectual is . . . not to accept the politics of identityas given, but to show how all representations are constructed, for what purpose,

by whom, and with what components. (Edward Said)1

I am glad to have been born in Argentina, since I was not confronted with thenotion of cultural hegemony, which in Europe has been used to justify fatal

inhibitions and aggressions. . . . As regards the concept of `cultural identity':sure I've got one, my identity, yet I would prefer to speak of `fragmentaryidentities'. The aggressive identification with a single culture has often led tocatastrophes. (Mauricio Kagel)2

Cross-cultural musical representation has been a hotly debated topic over thepast decade. Whereas traditional research tended to focus on the expansion ofthe material of Western concert music, more recent approaches have empha-sised the ideological aspect of references to non-Western music, ranging fromacceptance as a fruitful synthesis in the sense of multiculturalism to suspicion

of its being a manifestation of Western hegemony.3

While the critique ofWestern appropriations, notably in postcolonial theory, undoubtedly enabled amore informed debate, certain ideological assessments are founded less onanalytical insight than judged a priori, thereby effectively by-passing thequestion of how representation is constituted musically. For example, in theirintroduction to Western Music and Its Others, Georgina Born and DavidHesmondhalgh state that:

Postcolonial analysis . . . sets a fruitful example for music studies in that it pays

meticulous attention to textual detail, but always sees such analysis assubsidiary to the larger project of thinking through the implications of cultural

expression for understanding asymmetrical power relations and concomitantprocesses of marginalization and denigration.4

It is hard to disagree with a programme that sounds so worthy, yet there is adanger that, by starting from the assumption that there are `asymmetricalpower relations and concomitant processes of marginalization and denigration',an analysis is put on the wrong footing. From this perspective, the outcome ofany engagement with cross-cultural representation in Western music isseverely circumscribed before it has even started. This is what happens, for

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REPRESENTATION IN MAURICIO KAGEL'S DIE STU CKE DERWINDROSE FU R SALONORCHESTER

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instance, when Richard Middleton states that Gershwin in Porgy and Bess `hassituated himself where he is inevitably heir to the nineteenth-century strategyof imposing monologic authorial control on disparate materials, and where theonly method available to him of representing ` low-life'' is through the code of

the picturesque'.

5

The problem here is not the conclusion itself, which repre-sents one of many plausible ways of understanding the work, but that it seemsso inevitable from the very outset, and that all there is in the way of musicalanalysis appears solely to serve the purpose of supporting it, without examiningin detail exactly how the music references its sources and what constitutes the`code of the picturesque'.

But if the representation of non-Western music by Western composers islittle more than neo-imperialist usurpation a conclusion that could be drawnfrom Born and Hesmondhalgh's introduction as well as other articles in thevolume would it not be best to eschew it altogether? Apparently not: `postwar

musical modernism's attempts to create musical autarchy and self-enclosure,through the negation or denial of reference to other musics or cultures . . . ishistorically aberrant', comment the editors.6 We have obviously reached animpasse. Is there really no way of mediating between those poles, one thatavoids the slightly patronising aestheticism of the `artist as sympatheticcommentator [on the East]', expressing a `profound Western appreciation ofthe artistic and aesthetic legacy of the East',7 as well as equally generalisingnotions of the celebration of difference or hybridity? The volume is silent onthis issue. Along with many similar publications, it tends to chart an almostundifferentiated musical terrain with little scope for alternatives. (The

sweeping generalisation about modernism above is a case in point.)8

One purpose of this article, then, is to attempt to redress the balance bydemonstrating that there are ways in which Western concert music, even orperhaps particularly of a broadly modernist tradition, can engage with dif-ferent cultures in ways that go beyond simple appropriations. One such way isto render the Western representation of otherness itself into an object ofrepresentation, thereby introducing an element of historically informed self-critique. This is the strategy taken by Mauricio Kagel (b. 1931) in Die Stuckeder Windrose fur Salonorchester

9 (198995). Kagel is an interesting case as he

combines insider and outsider perspectives on Western culture. Growing up inBuenos Aires as the son of Jewish immigrants fleeing anti-Semitic persecutionin post-revolutionary Russia, he eschewed the cultural nationalism predomi-nant in Argentina at the time (musically represented, for instance, by AlbertoGinastera) in favour of the ardent cosmopolitanism of the writer Jorge LuisBorges one of Kagel's university teachers and the charismatic father figureof the South American musical avant-garde, Juan Carlos Paz. After emigratingto Cologne in 1957, Kagel became one of the leading composers of the post-warEuropean avant-garde associated with the Darmstadt summer courses.

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However, he kept himself at a critical distance from the various factions of theavant-garde and their respective ideologies, a sceptical attitude that he alsoreserves for Eurocentric attitudes more generally, as the quotation at thebeginning demonstrates. As will be seen, while Die Stucke der Windrose are an

example of this kind of questioning of Western perspectives and of monisticnotions of cultural identity, they also incorporate elements from Kagel'sArgentine and Jewish heritage.

An investigation of this work may further the study of cross-cultural musicalrepresentation by reintroducing a greater element of analytical reasoning andhistorical perspective without relinquishing the increased ideological aware-ness and methodological reflexivity that recent approaches such as post-colonialism have undeniably brought. The method I propose in order toachieve this linkage between musical analysis and ideological critique is basedon Bakhtinian dialogics. This leads to a typology of representations, such as

was putatively proposed by Born and Hesmondhalgh,10 and which couldenable a more informed differentiation between different kinds of musicalrepresentations. Although this typology is based on Die Stucke der Windrose, itis intended to be more widely applicable.

Die Stu cke der Windrose as an Essay on Cultural Geography

Die Stucke der Windrose constitute a cycle of eight pieces on the main bearings ofthe compass, each number being named after a compass point. The titles of boththe cycle and the individual pieces establish two references: the first, the

compass points, directed outwards towards the geographically and culturallydefined other; the second, the salon orchestra, pointing inwards towards the self,namely a Western `light' music tradition. These references are closely relatedsince the salon orchestra repertoire is characterised by the musical exoticism ofthe hey-day of imperialism during the fin-de-sie cle, thus signifying an earlierapproach to the representation of otherness.11 As will become apparent, it isthrough the shifting relationships between these two references that Kageldevelops a critique of common constructions of selfhood and otherness.

Kagel's most fundamental insight is that the perception of geography is

closely connected to the representation of non-Western cultures. In support ofthis he collected a host of newspaper cuttings, advertisements and similarmaterials, now held among the sketch materials, which show a link between theperception of geography and an intuitive, pre-rational representation of other-ness in the public imagination. In his introduction to the cycle he describes thisconnection in the following terms: `[With respect to compass points] our ideastend to be simplistic; they are a composite of fleeting or enduring travelmemories, of lectures and things we know, of likes and dislikes'.12 Hiscomments in the interview are more explicit:

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What's always stimulating is the relativity of compass points: what is north,what is south? What is south for you, what is north for me, west for an Asian?

It's worthwhile considering these questions, because then one can expose theresults of thinking in fixed categories. Just as we regard our own musical culture

as a dynamic phenomenon, we should mistrust rigid and static conceptions of

others.13

This quotation reveals an important strategy for subverting `thinking in fixedcategories', namely the reference to compass points, which makes clear thatsomething is represented, but not what. Since geographical directions arerelative, the musical representation of a certain compass point could be seen torefer to an unlimited number of world regions and their cultures, and listenersare constantly misled while trying to reconcile the title with the supposedcultural characteristics of the music, thus being made aware of musical cliche s.In this way Kagel critiques the connection between musical characteristics and

cultural identity, on which the musical representation of otherness iscommonly predicated. By defining geographical locations in terms of theirrelationships to one another, as the idea of compass points implies, heemphasises interconnectedness and reciprocal influence instead of supposedlyessential attributes. The result is a musical world of strangely refracted andunstable co-ordinates, which reflects the dramatic changes in the perception ofplace as a result of developments such as globalisation.

Furthermore, Kagel adds a second layer to this play with musical identitiesby changing the vantage point of the imaginary observer from piece to piece.While the settings of `Osten' and `Su den', the first two pieces of the set, are

Piece

Osten

Sden

Nordosten

Nordwesten

Sdosten

Sdwesten

Westen

Norden

Finishingdate

6/1/89

30/12/89

21/12/90

23/7/91

1/12/91

93

12/8/94

1/11/94

Region

Nordeste(northeast Brazil, Cuba)

Argentina

Vantage point

Eastern Europe

Mediterranean

Andean Mountains

Caribbean Africa

Oceania

Africa USA

Arctic(Siberia Hudson Bay)

anywhere

non-defined(Germany)

non-defined(Germany)

Argentina

Cuba

Mexico (west coast)

non-defined(Europe)

gamelan (?)

Caribbean

South American Indian(huayuo of the Aymar)

Musical idioms

Klezmer

Italian folk dances(tarantella)

cinquillo

African (modal),ragtime, jazz

shamanic (Siberian)

First performance

Salonorchester Cln

Schnberg EnsembleAmsterdam (16/6/90)

Aachen (4/6/89)

Salonorchester Cln

Salonorchester ClnCologne (18/1/92)

Cologne (18/1/92)

Cologne (8/1/92)Ensemble Modern

Kyoto (5/11/93)

Ensemble

Cologne (3/3/95)

intercontemporainParis (23/4/95)

Fig. 1 Overview of the Conception of Die Stucke der Windrose


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defined in relation to Kagel's current domicile in Cologne, `Nordosten' and`Nordwesten' are seen from Argentina, his birthplace, and later pieces featureyet different perspectives and `musical voyages' (Fig. 1 presents an overview).Just as the obscuring of the geographical setting of each piece asks a question

about who the other is, so the fluid positioning of the imaginary observerundermines a clear identification of the self. In this sense, the exposition of therelativity of compass points acts as a metaphor for the contingency of culturalidentity. This cosmopolitan conception is arguably a reflection of Kagel's ownbiographical background.

Kagel and the Analysis of Representations

Kagel is frequently described as an iconoclast, an enfant terrible or simply as`critical'. Although the question of what and how Kagel criticises is far from

trivial, there can be little doubt that many of his pieces parody bourgeois `high'culture. For instance, the theatrical elements in the String Quartet I/II (1965/67) undermine concert hall rituals, the music theatre piece Sur sce ne (1961)portrays musical culture as a whole as a grotesque carnival, and the `sceniccomposition' Staatstheater (`state theatre', 1971) contains a biting satire of oneof the most prestigious European cultural achievements, opera. That thesepieces strike at the heart of the Western cultural self-image can be seen not leastin audience reactions: few composers have been so enthusiastically applauded orso fanatically hissed; the premiere of Staatstheater even led to an anti-Semiticbomb threat. The avant-garde idea of bridging the divide between art and life

also led Kagel to explore various forms of popular music, including the salonorchestra tradition alluded to in Die Stucke der Windrose. Thus, the pieces`Charakterstu ck for zither quartet' and `Musi for plucking orchestra' from thecycle Programm (1972) (which includes audience discussions as part of theperformance instructions) are composed for amateur musicians (again provingextremely contentious). Furthermore, Tactil (1970) and `Die Rhythmus-maschinen' from Ex-Position (1978) allude to pop, `Pre sentation' and `Varie te 'from Quatre degres (1977) to show and circus music, Blue's Blue (1979) and`Five Jazz Pieces' from Rrrrrrr. . . (1982) to jazz, and Klangwehr (1970) as well

as Ten Marches to Miss the Victory (1979) to marches. As a matter of course,there is also a tango, albeit a `German' one: Tango alema n (1978).Of even more immediate importance regarding Die Stucke der Windrose is

Kagel's engagement with issues of cross-cultural influence. This concern canbe seen, for example, in his choosing `extra-European music' as the topic forthe Ko lner Kurse fu r Neue Musik in 1974,

14 but it is equally evident in hiscompositions. His first work with an overt cross-cultural background, Exotica

for Extra-European Instruments (1972), focused on a deliberate reversal of thecommon direction of cultural transmission. Instead of non-Western musicians



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with many children make their appearance, who, in the conviction that they areauthentically representing a certain region, also declare their acoustic solidarity

with other examples of adulterated music. (As so often, the fate of folklore to actat the same time as mouthpiece and entertainment of the ethnic community is

deplorable.)19

The combination of nonsense texts (actually taken in part from world litera-ture, such as the Poema del Cid, Boccaccio and Heine) and a stereotypedmixture of third-based harmony, bouncy rhythms and catchy tunes, played bya somewhat imbalanced `folkloristic' ensemble is a specimen case of musicalsynthetics and the interchangeability of marketed folklore. The ironic edge ofthe piece results not least from Kagel's idiosyncratic use of serial technique,which he calls `serial tonality'.20 This technique, developed by Kagel duringthe early 1970s and used by him ever since, consists of treating `tonal' materialsuch as triads and pulse rhythms according to serial principles. For example,

numbers are assigned to triads and their sequence is derived from numericalrows; similar methods are used for other parameters. In this way, there is adeliberate incongruity between the musical materials and their treatment,resulting in a music that is rich in historical and cultural associations, but thatalways thwarts the expectations they raise. By the same token, the mismatchbetween techniques and materials from different historical periods eschews anyappearance of `naturalness' or `organicism'; on the contrary, it appearsostentatiously artificial. Hence, in Kantrimiusik accents seem to fall in the`wrong' place, harmonic sequences are erratic and melodies merely meander inchromatic motion. Kagel's own characterisation is particularly revealing in this

context: `The hypothesis of the piece is that the apocryphal has become theauthentic. We are so dependent on apocryphal music performances that theyhave become part of our instinct, just like plastics or nylon.'21

Shortly afterwards, Kagel produced the `epic radio play' Die UmkehrungAmerikas (`The Reversal of America') (1976).22 Taking up the topic of theconquista again, Die Umkehrung is in many ways a sequel to Mare Nostrum, butnow replacing the cynical humour of the earlier piece with a very real sense ofterror. Despite Kagel's claim that the piece was a representation of real events,historical and present, Die Umkehrung Amerikas is a personal treatment of the

facts, shaped by his outrage at the treatment of the South American Indians.The work is chiefly built from a collage of texts, including fragments fromoriginal documents concerning the events, as well as other material such asenumerations of different ways of killing (apparently also concocted from thedocuments). As Kagel explained in his introduction, he tried to `compose withwords in a musical way'. The most notable technique in this context is the tapereversal, which is used, for instance, to illustrate the forced teaching of theoppressors' language. For this, Kagel wrote the text in reverse, which was thenread and recorded, but played backwards so that the result is a distorted



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version of the original. The Amerindians in the piece speak mostly in thisdisembodied, ghostly way, the loss of their language signifying their loss ofcultural identity. Since Kagel wanted to avoid illustrating the words withmusic in the way of traditional radio play or film practice, music in a conven-

tional sense is used only sparingly as in strange percussion sounds and surrealchant. The result is not so much a narrative but a conglomeration of night-marish images, characterised by violence and religiously motivated hatred,exposing the perverse accumulation of greed, religion and sheer blood lust thatlay behind the genocide.

What is apparent in all these cases is that Kagel reflects on the repre-sentations and depictions of non-Western cultures within Western culturerather than using indigenous music as raw material for his own compositions.It seems as if Kagel, in accordance with Shklovsky's theory of `defamiliarisa-tion',23 exhibits the mirror-image of èthnic' music as it is reflected in Western

culture and then meditates on what the original might have been. The idea ofthe àpocryphal', which Kagel mentions in his preface to Kantrimiusik, andwhich plays an important role in his aesthetics in general, is crucial here, as itoffers a critique of the notion of àuthenticity'.24 In a similar way toBaudrillard's concept of simulacre, the apocryphal i.e. the deliberately `fake'and artificial supersedes the supposedly òriginal'.25 Somewhat paradoxically,this analysis of the replacement of the original by its simulacra appears aspossibly the only way to reclaim this original which can neither be recapturednor be represented directly without falsifying it.

Die Stucke der Windrose continue Kagel's exploration of Western repre-

sentations of otherness, while presenting a more positive, if sceptical, view ofcross-cultural interaction. This may have something to do with the shift in thegeneral discourse on cross-cultural interaction, from the sometimes simplisticMarxism of the political activism of the 1970s, with its stereotypical ascriptionof passivity and stasis to the other, to more recent postcolonial theories. 26 Inethnomusicology, too, the essentialisation and attempted conservation of theàuthentic' has given way to a new appraisal of change, which is not necessarilyregarded as a sign of standardisation or annihilation by the West, but rather asa strategy of resistance or subversion and the sign of dynamic cultures, which

for their part appropriate foreign influences.

27

From his statements it is evident that Kagel was aware of these develop-ments and wanted to capture the dynamic interplay between musical culturesin Die Stucke der Windrose. For instance, in his programme note to `Nord-westen' he states that `fusion and reciprocal influence have become keyconcepts in looking at musical languages and cultures', and in my interviewwith him he also confirmed emphatically that Die Stucke der Windrose areintended as a model of cultural interchange. These are all clear examples of theways in which Kagel reacts compositionally to social debates.


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The Dialogics of Representation

If any meaningful discussion of musical representation is to be undertaken,then it is first essential to identify the sources to which Kagel alludes in DieStucke der Windrose. Kagel's programme notes are helpful in this regard, but in

many cases an investigation of the sketch and manuscript materials is alsonecessary to reveal the precise source materials Kagel has employed, as well ashow they are subsequently transformed and incorporated into the pieces.28

Fig. 1 is based on both sources of information: the geographic locations under`region' are derived from Kagel's programme notes, and the entries under`musical idiom' are taken from analyses of the sketch and manuscript materials,as well as the finished composition.

This leads us to the more complex and revealing question of how the sourcesare represented in the music. This aspect of musical intertextuality can best beinvestigated via Bakhtinian dialogics.29 Of particular importance here isBakhtin's concept of `represented discourse' that can be related to Said'snotion of `representation', and which in turn forms the basis for recentdiscussions of cross-cultural interaction.30 Represented discourse in Bakhtin'stheory of the novel means that a character's words or thoughts are representedby someone else (often, but not exclusively, the narrator, i.e. the àuthorialdiscourse').31 Representation thus entails a sense of aesthetic distance: we aremade aware that what we read or hear are not the words and intended meaningof the persona who has voiced them, but of someone else.

However, this recontextualisation automatically inflects what is represented:

according to Bakhtin, `someone else's words introduced into our own speechinevitably assume a new (our own) interpretation and become subject to ourevaluation of them; that is they become double-voiced'.32 Political andscientific debates are examples of this kind of ìnternal dialogisation', wheresomeone else's discourse can be represented in many different ways, and givennew meaning in the process. This `heteroglossia' of manifold voices in dialogicinteraction is, according to Bakhtin, captured in the `polyphony' of representeddiscourses in a novel which is therefore not characterised by a unified voice orstyle, but constitutes an ìntentional hybrid' of different voices. These are allcontained within the authorial discourse, which is nevertheless only one voice

among many.The same happens in music. Quotations or stylistic references signal to us

that we are listening to someone else's music contained within the authorialdiscourse of the respective composer even if we do not know whose music it isthat is being represented. These represented discourses are not identical to thecomposer's; they are heard in imaginary quotation marks, resulting in amusical meta-level. As in the case of language, there is no neutral discourse: therepresentation by the authorial discourse is inevitably felt to be double-voiced,



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that is to contain, for instance, overtones of admiration or parody. Since in thecase of cross-cultural interaction musical voices signify cultural identities(which is, by and large, the step from Bakhtin's to Said's concepts of repre-sentation), it is not hard to see why such representation can appear contentious.

Ex. 1, the first section of Òsten', illustrates this model of musical dialogics.It consists of four elements: a recurrent melodic figure in the clarinet; anoompah accompaniment using minor chords in an irregular rhythm in thelower strings (only the first of those chords is shown in the example); a freely

floating, ìmprovisatory' melodic line for the standing violinist; and a fastersuccession of minor chords in parallel motion in the piano, harmonium andsecond violin.

To begin with, let us examine the two more prominent elements in thispassage: the clarinet melody and the oompah accompaniment. The melodyfeatures a conspicuous, falling rhythmic motive consisting of note-repetitionsbetween relatively unaccented and accented semiquavers and highlighting theinterval of the augmented second. As will be shown below, these elements arecharacteristic of Yiddish folklore (klezmer), which Kagel portrays in Òsten',

and the soaring violin line (which shares with the clarinet the prominence offaux-modal augmented and minor seconds) adds to that association. Theaccompaniment, on the other hand, is a stereotypical requisite of the salonorchestra.

That these elements are represented discourses within the overall authorialdiscourse is made clear by the incongruity of the various idioms. While thecombination of a klezmer line in the clarinet with an oompah accompaniment inthe lower strings sounds natural enough, the specific compositional realisationof these elements in terms of harmony and phrase structure is incompatible

Vla,Vlc.,Cb.

pizz.

St. Vln

con sord.

, ma dolce

Piano,Harm.,Vln 1

Clar.

Moderato gracioso (MM = ca 84)con vibr.

, ma dolce ed espressivo

5

Ex. 1 Òsten', bars 14


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with the conventions of their respective idioms. Although the clarinet line,with its recurring augmented seconds, suggests modal usage, it actually runsthrough eleven pitch-classes in one-and-a-half bars. The oompah, meanwhile,stays obstinately in A minor, even though this has no connection with the

melody line it is supposed to accompany, except for the very first few notes(which is subsequently uncovered as a red herring). The harmonic sequence ofthe accompaniment is AE[ AGA, which an investigation of the sketchmaterials reveals to be the beginning of a twelve-note row with the first notereturning after each series step. As can also be inferred from the sketches, thesequence of notes and rests in the oompah is likewise serially derived, this timefrom a numerical row which is unrelated to the twelve-note series employed forthe harmonic sequence (as can be seen in Ex. 1, the values are 243156 fornumber of consecutive notes, always followed by one quaver rest). It istherefore no wonder that the phrase structure of the lower strings only

occasionally coincides with that of the melody line in the clarinetThus, what first appears to be a klezmer line with an oompah accompani-

ment is revealed as a collage of incompatible elements, to which the addition oftwo extra layers complicates matters further. That is not to say that there areno structural relationships between the layers the clarinet and violin lines andthe faster moving minor chords share the semitone/augmented-second motif,while the clarinet line and the chords in parallel motion are melodicallyidentical at first but this sort of connection is more akin to a collage ofdifferent elements assimilated to one another than to the kind of melody-plus-accompaniment texture which is being mimicked. Both the klezmer and the

salon orchestra elements are defamiliarised to an extent that makes theiridentification as simply klezmer or salon orchestra music implausible. Salonorchestras do not typically play harmonic sequences based on twelve-note rowsand serially derived rhythms, and `genuine' klezmer is not atonal. Conversely,both elements are sufficiently marked to set them apart from what we mayassume to be Kagel's music, judged from the perspective of the overall atonalcontext against which the klezmer line and minor chords are placed. Thus,while the topics represented by the klezmer line in the clarinet and the oompahchords in the lower strings can be described as represented discourses, the

atonal harmonic framework, dodecaphony and serially derived rhythms are aresult of Kagel's authorial intervention. The represented discourses thus referto putative sources outside the music itself some generative form of klezmeror salon orchestra music respectively, not unlike Platonic ideas. What we hearis an apocryphal version of an original which must itself remain a fictionalconstruction, in other words a simulacrum.

What is crucial in this context is that the authorial discourse does not assertitself as a personal voice, since there is no single musical element in theexample which can unmistakably be described as `Kagel's music' and this



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can, with some qualification, be said of all of Die Stucke der Windrose, as well asof the composer's more recent work in general. In this way, representeddiscourses and authorial discourse cannot be isolated from one another: there isno `pure state' of uninflected musical discourse. Instead, all discourses are in

dialogical interaction with one another. It is this emphasis on interaction ratherthan a supposed original and `authentic' monologic state that makes dialogicssuch a useful tool for the study of cross-cultural musical representation.

On the whole, then, `Osten' can in Bakhtinian terms be described as apolyphony of represented discourses, an intentional hybrid reflecting theheteroglossia of cultural interchange in real life, which, as was noted earlier,was Kagel's stated intention. As a consequence, authorship mostly manifestsitself by the selection, combination and inflection of pre-existing musicalidioms, not by the assumption of a `personal voice'. This obviously represents achallenge to romantic-modernist concepts of authorship, characterised by

notions of originality, organicism and unity, which are still widely prevalent inmusicology. However, the inadequacy of these models in dealing with music ina postmodern context need hardly be elaborated. In addition, a dialogicalperspective reveals that any composition or artistic creation more generally involves a dialogue with pre-existing forms, idioms and conventions.33

This does not mean that dialogics sound the death knell for the notion ofauthorship altogether. On the contrary, it can be viewed as rescuing it from arather simplistic declaration of death by complementing a monological modelof authorship (the `personal style' defined as an absolute difference from otherstyles) with a dialogical one. As we have seen, the represented idioms in the

example are transformed by the authorial discourse, which clearly leaves itsmark. Modifying Bakhtin's own terminology, where the term describes aparticular kind of objectified discourse rather than a general principle, I callthis transformation `stylisation'. Hence, stylisation is the difference betweenthe reference to an idiom and its putative source, and thus acts as the clearestmarker of authorial intervention. In its aesthetic effect it can best be comparedwith Shklovsky's defamiliarisation.34

Since it describes the very mechanism of dialogical interaction betweendiscourses, stylisation is a very useful tool for the analysis of musical

representations, cross-cultural or otherwise. In Ex. 1, for instance, the atonalinflection of the klezmer idiom in the clarinet, and the twelve-note row andserial rhythmic structure in the salon orchestra's oompah, can be attributed tothe stylisation of the authorial discourse. In accordance with the principles ofdialogics, this process arguably works both ways: just as the authorial discoursestylises the represented idioms, so it is shaped by them inasmuch as the `newmusic' element (for want of a better term) is defamiliarised because klezmer andsalon orchestras are considered alien to it. Since the piece does not contain any`frame' unmistakably establishing Kagel's personal voice to which the repre-


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sented idioms could be contrasted, there is a significant degree of reciprocity inthe dialogic interaction, leading to an effective othering of the authorialdiscourse. So the music may be heard as Kagel's `take' on klezmer and salonorchestras, or as a defamiliarised version of how Kagel would imagine a salonorchestra to play klezmer.

The relationships between the musical discourses in Ex. 1, as I havedescribed them so far, can be visualised as in Fig. 2 (the arrows standing forrepresentation), with both the klezmer and the salon orchestra as represented

discourses within the authorial discourse. However, there is a different way ofunderstanding the passage, one that takes the historical reflexivity I mentionedearlier into account. As suggested, the two references created by Kagel can beseen as interlinked in that musical exoticism was a staple of the salon orchestrarepertoire.35 This interpretation leads to a different model: since the salonorchestra is mentioned in the title to the piece, and adhered to in theorchestration, it becomes possible to regard it as a mediating representationallevel between authorial discourse and klezmer as presented in Fig. 3. Accordingto this reading, Kagel creates a fictional salon orchestra which plays a `klezmer

fantasy'. The salon orchestra would then be an element of theatrical illusionand the music it plays would obtain a quasi-diegetic function. In this sense, thesalon orchestra acquires agency as an authorial mask, resulting in the twoconsecutive representations depicted in the graph. This interpretation issupported by the theatrical actions to be performed by the musicians in manyof the pieces that are part of the legacy of Kagel's ìnstrumental theatre'. As aconsequence, Òsten', and Die Stucke der Windrose in general, can beunderstood as analyses of Western representations of otherness rather thanresembling such representations themselves. Applying this reading to Ex. 1may result in seeing it as a parody of conventional klezmer arrangements, with

Authorial Discourse

Salon Orchestra Klezmer

Fig. 2 Musical Representation in Òsten'

Authorial Discourse

Salon Orchestra

Klezmer

Fig. 3 Three-level model of representation



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the salon orchestra trying to impose a stereotypical harmonic framework on theklezmer, but never `getting it right'.

A Typology of Musical Representations

Ex. 1 is only one instance of representation in Die Stucke der Windrose. Atypology of representation can be developed for the rest of the work bydistinguishing between different kinds and degrees of stylisation. In general,musical references can be differentiated through three main parameters: theduration of the reference in relation to the piece as a whole; the contrastbetween the reference and its surrounding discourse; and the proximitybetween reference and source. The last of these is the most crucial for a studyof cross-cultural representation, and is captured by the term stylisation. Thelowest level of stylisation (and the greatest degree of proximity) would be literal

quotation, the highest an abstract, almost imperceptible allusion. Thecontinuum between these poles can be divided into discrete stages.

With respect to Die Stucke der Windrose, I distinguish between sevendifferent types of representation, based on five degrees of stylisation plus twospecial types, and I believe that this taxonomy in modified form can be alsobe used for other repertoire. The first type is literal quotation. There is onlyone instance in Die Stucke der Windrose, where it can be proved beyond doubtthat Kagel has employed musical material in its original form. This occurs inÒsten'. Where Ex. 1 represented a free application of typical characteristics ofklezmer, other sections consist of melodies copied verbatim from a collection of

Yiddish folk tunes from the Ukraine recorded by the ethnomusicologist MosheBeregovsky during the 1930s, and more recently re-edited by Mark Slobin.36

(If I speak of `quotation' in this context, it has to be borne in mind that theperformance of an ethnomusicological transcription obviously differs from theoriginal.)

Ex. 2 shows bars 1619 of Òsten' and Ex. 3 the respective transcription byBeregovsky from which it is derived. The only differences as such in themelody are the transposition and the closing figure (which Kagel uses as a

Vln, Vln,Vlc., Harm.

Vla, Harm.

Andantino (MM = 72)

Ex. 2 Òsten', bars 1619


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motif that recurs in other parts of the piece). This is one of five tunes which arequoted in direct succession and which constitute the middle section of the piece(bars 1656 from a total of 92 bars). The source of the tunes is mentioned in thesketch to the passage where all the quoted material is copied, also specifyingthe titles and page numbers from Slobin's book. But as can be seen in Ex. 2,Kagel makes no attempt to compose an àuthentic' complement to his tunes;

neither does he adhere to the rather stale shock aesthetics of greatest possiblecontrast which is often associated with collage techniques. Instead, he subtlyundermines the harmonic implications of the tunes, while at the same timekeeping their general character and rhythmic properties intact.

The intimacy of this dialogic interaction and the sense of identification ofthe authorial discourse with the represented idiom subverts any dichotomybetween self and other, or foreign and own, to a far greater extent than anyàuthentic' quotation or a straightforward àrrangement' could have done. Theeffect is slightly paradoxical: whereas the quoted passages with their mildlysentimental melodies on harmonically amorphous complements sound like

typical Kagelian inventions, the actual inventions such as Ex. 1 with itsstereotypical klezmerisms actually sound more other to Western ears.37 Thisreversal of self and other is one of Kagel's typical rhetorical strategies, aswitnessed in Exotica and Mare Nostrum, and can be seen to result from his ownbiography: Kagel regards klezmer as an important part of his own Ashkenaziheritage.38

The second type is what I call representation of genre. The most prominentexample of this type of representation is a tarantella at the beginning of `Su den'which is meant to depict the Mediterranean. As Ex. 4 shows, this genre is very

closely adhered to by means of the distinctive 6/8 rhythm and the contour andminor key of the melody. Nevertheless, there are distinct elements of stylisa-tion which mark the tarantella as a represented discourse. The most obvious, asso often, is the harmony: the melody is accompanied by heterophonic variantsof itself in parallel thirds which, although emulating tonal harmony, havenothing to do with the harmony suggested by the melody. Cello and doublebass, meanwhile, are playing chords consisting of stacked fifths, whose rootsfollow a twelve-note row (only the first three notes of which can be seen in theexample) and whose rhythmic structure is also serially derived. Less apparent

Aj, du forst a ve ket, un, aj, du forst a vek fun mir

26. Aj, du forst avek

Ex. 3 Beregovsky's transcription of a Yiddish folk tune, from Slobin (ed.), OldJewish Music, p. 339 (first line)



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is the modular structuring of the tune: in the sketches to the passage, Kagelfirst set up different melodic modules of a dotted crotchet in length, which arerepeated different numbers of times according to a numerical series.

Thus, this passage is constituted by the rhythmic and melodic charac-teristics of an Italian folk dance, heterophony in atonal harmonies, a twelve-note row and numerical ordering techniques. As in the case of Ex. 2, the

dialogic interaction between the authorial and represented idioms does notarise simply from the re-contextualisation of the tarantella element, in thesense that one cannot just equate the represented discourse with the tarantellaidiom and the authorial discourse with the context. Instead, the melody itselfshows marks of the authorial discourse, and conversely the tarantella rhythm ispresent in the complement, and takes hold in the entire piece.

Representation of genre is frequent in Die Stucke der Windrose, and caninvolve a variety of idioms and different degrees of stylisation. The tarantellain `Su den' is a familiar dance form in Western concert music; the ragtime in

`Westen' is a similar example. However, there is also a danzo n (the Cubannational dance) in `Nordosten', and a huayno (a dance of the Aymara in theAndes of Peru and Bolivia) in `Nordwesten'. Whereas in the earlier cases thereis the possibility of coincidence between production and perception, the laterinstances tend more towards covert allusions which can only be uncovered byexamining the sketch materials. The huayno illustrates how close representa-tions of genre can be to their source: Ex. 5 presents an excerpt from `Nord-westen' and Ex. 6 an ethnomusicological transcription contained in the sketchmaterials.39 Were it not for the harmonic context, this would be a re-

pizz.

pizz.

8'

8'

Allegro ( . = 120128)

Harm.

St. Vln,Vln, Vla

Vcl., Cb.

Perc.(Brummtopf)

(arpeggios alternately upwards and downwards)

Ex. 4 `Su den', bars 14


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a multitude of less familiar African modes resulting in more esoteric allusions.

Exs. 7 and 8 present an excerpt from the piece and an illustration of the tonal

system of the Wagogo, a Tanzanian people, on which the passage is based, as

is apparent from a note to that effect in the sketch to the passage.40

The

excerpt, with its striking similarity to Debussyian whole-tone scales in dense

canon, stands out from its context and is thus easy to identify as a represented

discourse, but what it represents specifically is almost impossible to decode

through listening alone.Perceptual representation, the fourth type, describes idiomatic resemblance

rather than identical structural features, thus focusing on the `sound character'of a music, its aesthetic effect. As a counterexample to Messiaen, one could citeBoulez's extremely elusive evocations of gamelan, and African and Japanesemusic in Le Marteau sans matre (1954) (both examples are on opposite pointsof the scale; in most cases and certainly in Die Stucke der Windrose there is adegree of dialogue between conceptual and perceptual representation).41 Asthere is no similarity without difference, perceptual representations will mostlyappear markedly stylised. It is arguably the most common mode of appro-

priating foreign musics, from the exoticism of the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies to Weltmusik. It is also ubiquitous in Die Stucke der Windrose. Themost obvious instance is the klezmer adaptation in Ex. 1. As I have suggested,the note repetitions between unaccented and accented semiquavers and theslurring do reflect typical klezmer pieces and performance practice;Beregovsky's collection which Kagel used shows an abundance of examples.42

The augmented second is also a factual element of many klezmer modes, butobviously not in such seemingly random transpositions as introduced byKagel. In this way, although Kagel's representation is based on certainstructural features of klezmer, there is no wholesale adoption of any suchfeatures; rather, the music appears to imitate the general character of its source.

, dolce

poco sul tasto

Andantino (MM = 5863)

St. Vln, Vln

Ex. 7 `Westen', bars 1423

( - )

( - )

IzezeVocal

Ex. 8 Kubik's illustration of the tonal system of the Wagogo (see Kubik, Ostafrika,p. 116)


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Other examples, such as jazz elements in `Westen' and references toCaribbean music in `Su dosten', establish even more elusive connections to theirrespective sources. This creates an analytical problem: it becomes increasinglydifficult to distinguish between authorial and represented discourses; in other

words, how does one decide whether or not a reference is being made?Moreover, it is far from clear on what to base one's judgement the subjectivelistening experience, authorial intention or structural affinities that can behighlighted in the score. (My tacit method so far has been that all are equallyvalid, and that the interest lies in their intersection.) But the analyst's loss isarguably the aesthetician's gain in that the fascination of musical references liesprecisely in the subtlety of allusion, and in the shady no-man's-land betweenwhat is `my music' (authorial discourse) and what is `your music' (representeddiscourses) as well as their reciprocal assimilation. This may be why perceptualrepresentations have proved to be so attractive to composers.

A phenomenon related to conceptual representation is the fifth type, fictiverepresentation. This describes a reference to a non-existent source, such asimaginary or invented folklore. More than the other types of representation,fictive representation highlights the construction of the other, for instance inthe `exotic fantasy'. It is to this aspect that Kagel's aesthetics of the apocryphalcalls attention, as has already been discussed with respect to Kantrimiusik. Inour interview, Kagel explicitly stated that his aim was to reflect on the`construction of the characteristic' and to create a `fata morgana' (a mirage). Ina subsequent telephone conversation, he also characterised his musicalrepresentations in Die Stucke der Windrose rather globally (and somewhat

misleadingly, as we have seen) as `imaginary regional folklore, which isn'tactually based anywhere'.43 Apart from his critique of folkloristic simulacra,evident in his ambivalent attitude to the salon orchestra, Kagel is generallymore interested in imagination, fantasy and potentiality than in the purelyfactual. This can be witnessed in his close involvement with South-Americanliterature, notably the works of Jorge Luis Borges, as well as with laterdevelopments often described as `magical realism'.44

The clearest instance of fictive representation can be found in `Norden' inwhich Kagel wanted to convey his experiences while reading Mircea Eliade's

account of Arctic shamanism

45

`without having ever heard a single note of theoriginal music', as he states in his programme note, so that `the music has noconnection to a physical experience or a recording, and therefore makes nodemands on authenticity'. The music has what can be described as a `folk-loristic ring' to it, but there is no clear differentiation between authorial andrepresented discourses, and identification of concrete sources for any of themusic remains elusive, even though the sketches show that Kagel did possessinformation concerning Siberian chant, for instance. Similar cases abound in`Su dwesten', but with the difference that large sections of the piece appear to



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Conclusion: Interpreting Representations

As I have shown, there is a great variety of cross-cultural musical representationsin Die Stucke der Windrose. These involve different degrees of stylisation, andrange from concrete to abstract, close imitations to obscure allusions, long

sections or whole pieces to short local inflections. In most pieces there is anetwork of different kinds of interacting representations at work. For instance,the literal quotation of original music in Òsten' is reinforced and at the sametime contrasted with perceptual representations of the music in question,composed in a hybrid of idiomatic features of klezmer stylised by Kagel'scompositional techniques. Longer pieces such as `Westen', `Su dwesten' and`Norden' feature a complex web of often conflicting references. A furtherdifficulty in these pieces lies in the fact that they refer to more than one culture ormusical idiom, and depict a trajectory between different regions. On the whole,however, each piece is concerned with one specific region or a musical journey inone direction; there is no attempt to synthesise a greater number of musicalidioms in order to develop something like a `global music'. Although thecollection in its entirety may be interpreted as a step towards a broaderperspective, it is fair to say that the individual pieces are more concerned withthe local and particular than with the global and universal: they are characterisedby an èncyclopaedicity of incompleteness' as Kagel called it in our interview.

As has also become apparent, Kagel has used much specialist information inhis engagement with foreign cultures, which is often directly reflected in themusic, though not always perceptibly. I have already demonstrated the

influence of Beregovsky's collection ofklezmer tunes on Òsten', Kubik's workon African music on `Westen', Helfritz's transcriptions on `Nordwesten',Eliade's study of shamanism on `Norden', and Koch's and Christensen'saccount of Tuvaluan music and culture on `Su dwesten'. Other sources includeClaus Schreiner's and Alejo Carpentier's books on South American music,47

and there is reason to believe that this is only the tip of the iceberg.This detailed preparation and the sometimes remarkable accuracy of the

representation (details which are often lost on audiences) contrasts withKagel's playful and at times (seemingly) irreverent engagement with his sourcematerials. Kagel's emphasis is on an aesthetics of allusion rather than quotation

and reproduction, so that even the incorporation of original material should beinterpreted in the light of a discourse of the apocryphal. Although there areprominent counterexamples (such as the klezmer quotations and someconceptual representations), the majority of references are of an imaginativerather than an ethnographic kind. Moreover, the more specific borrowings arealso of a broadly illusory nature and not to be understood as àuthentic' (whichis probably why Kagel never mentions these cases in his programme notes). Infact, the composer stated in our interview that he wished to `transcend the very



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concept of quotation'. Rather than expressing indifference to the sourcematerials, this concern with the apocryphal should be seen as a musical critiqueof the concept of àuthenticity' and its representation.

The fascination of the pieces, therefore, lies in the intersection between,

firstly, a depiction of empirical reality, secondly, fiction, mimicry, illusion andmake-believe, and, thirdly, a reflection on Western musical representations ofotherness. It has also been demonstrated that Kagel places greater emphasis onsyncretism than on the supposedly àuthentic' or `pure'. His dislike for theterm `purity', incidentally, goes as far as associating it with `fundamentalism'and `fanaticism' (even when it is used in an aesthetic and not a racial context). 48

The resulting multifariousness of the work and its openness to differentinterpretations activates listeners' own reflections, which is perhaps its mostdistinguishing and admirable characteristic.

The network of representations I have described forms a polyphony of

musical idioms, which acts as a mimetic representation of the heteroglossia ofcross-cultural musical influences in real life. Due to the multitude ofreferences, the intimacy of the dialogic interaction and the different degreesof stylisation, it will at times be difficult to distinguish between authorial andrepresented idioms. I do not think that it is going too far to suggest that thisconfusion concerning the essential question of `whose music is this?', which isconstantly raised, can be seen as a deliberate strategy to subvert theessentialising distinctions between self and other. Listening to the pieces,one is time and again struck by fleeting allusions and vaguely familiar passages,but before one is able to `hunt the reference down' in the deeper recesses of

one's musical memories and internalised code systems, the passage is long overand superseded by different, but equally evocative music (but evocative ofwhat?). In this way, the represented discourses are almost always stylised bythe authorial discourse just as the authorial discourse is inflected by what it isrepresenting. In short, the music is an intentional hybrid, in Bakhtin's sense.

Kagel's method of inventing folklore `more life-like than the real thing', ashe stated in his programme note to `Norden', further undermines the commondichotomies between cliche and original, or invented and characteristic, suchas the fictive impressions of Oceanian music in `Su dwesten', which are

highlighted by technological means. Here again, the conceptual closeness ofKagel's aesthetics of the apocryphal to Baudrillard's critique of simulacra isevident. What seems to sound most typically other in Die Stucke der Windroseis frequently composed by Kagel, while more òriginal' music is often lesssalient and will at times sound positively Kagelian (e.g. the conceptualrepresentation of the music of the Wagogo in `Westen'). Following Shklovsky'sobservation that defamiliarisation lends significance, what is presentedaccording to our expectations will only reconfirm our conceptions, whereaswhat is made slightly unfamiliar may trigger a reflective process. 49 According


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to Kagel's characterisation, this peculiar mixture of identification andunfamiliarity, brought about by the stylisations discussed, provides an impulseto `reflect on the complexity of cultural geography [which is] the most strikingaspect of the conception of the pieces'.50

It is this reflexivity and the constant critique of essentialising constructionsof self and other which provide a way out of the impasse concerning therepresentation of non-Western music I outlined at the beginning. Particularlythrough the use of the salon orchestra as a mediating representational agent,the representation of otherness becomes itself an object of representation. Also,the use of triads in `Osten' and `Su dwesten', for instance, points to a stylisedrepresentation of the Western tradition. Thus the self is othered, just as theother appears surprisingly familiar. In `Osten', in particular, Kagel seems toidentify with what is supposed to be the other while othering what is ostensiblythe self.

This questioning of the self is also evident in the withdrawal of a `personalvoice' of the authorial discourse. Rather than subsuming appropriated idiomsunder the umbrella of a personal style the typical charge regarding therepresentation of non-Western music Kagel creates an essentially non-hierarchical dialogue between different idioms, resulting in a music oftendominated by represented discourses, referring both to the external and thetabooed internal other (the salon orchestra).

Thus, there are ways in which Western concert music engages with non-Western traditions without resorting to simple appropriations or manifesta-tions of hegemony. I do not think that Kagel is alone in critiquing Western

representations in his music Berio's Folk Songs (1964, orch. 1973) and Coro(1974) present comparable examples nor is this necessarily the only strategyto avoid exerting monologic control. But in order to discuss such subtle andcomplex cases of cross-cultural representation, it is necessary thoroughly toanalyse the actual music. In the case of Die Stucke der Windrose, the fact thatthe music represents non-Western cultures may be very much on the surface,but to describe what it represents and how, as I have endeavoured, requiresdetailed analysis of the scores, and in this case particularly an in-depthinvestigation of the sketch and manuscript materials. Without this, many of the

references would probably never have been uncovered. For the study ofmusical representation it is therefore necessary to reconnect ideologicalcritique with more traditional musicological methods such as analysis andsketch studies. An ideological critique that does not concern itself with what isactually represented musically risks being as short-sighted as an analysisundertaken in an aesthetic and ideological vacuum.



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Notes

This article is a revised version of material that first appeared in my PhDdissertation ` ``Transcending Quotation'': Cross-Cultural Musical Representa-tion in Mauricio Kagel's Die Stucke der Windrose fur Salonorchester' (PhD

diss., University of Southampton, 2001). I should like to thank Richard Toopfor his valuable suggestions for improving the article.

1. Culture and Imperialism (New York: Knopf, 1993), p. 380.

2. From an interview with Max Nyffeler, `Fragen wird es immer genug geben:Mauricio Kagel im Gespra ch mit Max Nyffeler', Lettre, 51/iv (2000), n. p.; partof the interview was also published in Frankfurter Rundschau, 20 June 2000.

3. The traditional approach is most obvious in Peter W. Schatt, Exotik in der Musikdes 20. Jahrhunderts (Munich: Katzbichler, 1986) and Glenn Watkins, Pyramidsat the Louvre: Music, Culture, and Collage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists

(Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1994); multicultural approaches are predomi-nant in Akim Euba and Cynthia Tse Kimberlin (eds.), Intercultural Music, Vol. 1(Bayreuth: Breitinger, 1995) and Mervyn Cooke, ` ``The East in the West'':Evocations of the Gamelan in Western Music', in Jonathan Bellman (ed.), TheExotic in Western Music (Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1998),pp. 25880; and the postcolonial critique of representation is most notable inGeorgina Born and David Hesmondhalgh (eds.), Western Music and Its Others:Difference, Representation, and Appropriation in Music (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 2000) and Timothy Dean Taylor, `The Voracious Muse: Con-temporary Cross-Cultural Musical Borrowings, Culture, and Postmodernism'

(PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1993). For a more comprehensive biblio-graphy on cross-cultural interaction in music see my ```Transcending Quotation'':Cross-Cultural Musical Representation in Mauricio Kagel's Die Stucke derWindrose fur Salonorchester' (PhD diss., University of Southampton, 2001).

4. Western Music and Its Others, p. 5.

5. `Musical Belongings: Western Music and Its Low-Other', in Western Music andIts Others, p. 68.

6. Born and Hesmondhalgh, `Introduction', in Western Music and its Others, p. 16(italics in the original).

7. Watkins, Pyramids at the Louvre, p. 31.8. For a more balanced view, see for example W. Anthony Sheppard, Revealing

Masks: Exotic Influences and Ritualized Performance in Modernist Music Theatre(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001): `It is naive or at least a productof wishful thinking to discuss cross-cultural encounters, borrowings, or appro-priations without considering the attendant political ramifications and assump-tions inherent in such transactions. Cross-cultural influence is never neutral,although to say this is not completely to foreclose the possibility of mutual benefitand respect.' (p. 10)


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9. In this article I shall use the original German title of the work, normallyabbreviated as Die Stucke der Windrose. The main reason for this is that thecomposer specifically wanted to retain the German title even in English texts, ashis replacing the translator's suggestion `Pieces of the Compass Card' with theGerman title in the preface to the score of Òsten', the first of the pieces, makes

clear. This can be seen in a draft of the preface kept at the Mauricio KagelCollection of the Paul Sacher Foundation, Basle, where all sketch and manuscriptmaterials of finished compositions are housed. (There are various translations inuse, such as `Compass Pieces' in the CD booklet Mauricio Kagel 5. Stucke derWindrose: Osten, Nordosten, Nordwesten, Sudosten. Phantasiestuck. AuvidisMontaigne: (MO 782017), and `Pieces of the Compass Rose' by the publisherat concerts.) For reasons of consistency, I shall also use the original German titlesfor the individual pieces. Although the pieces are published separately, I refer tothem in single quotation marks, reserving italics for the title of the complete set.

10. See Ìntroduction', pp. 39 ff.

11. In an interview with me Kagel drew another connection by suggesting an analogybetween the external other and the tabooed internal `low-other' as Middletoncalls it (see `Musical Belongings'), stating that òne cannot divide music into``noble'' and `ìgnoble'' material. If you condemn the salon orchestra, you alsoreject a great amount of folk music'. The interview was held in German, and thetranslation is mine. A complete transcription as authorised by the composer canbe found in my `Transcending Quotation', pp. A24A35. An abridged version ofthe original is also published as Bjo rn Heile, `Musik an der Grenze derEmpfindsamkeit', Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik, 162/vi (2001), pp. 1620.

12. Kagel's programme notes are used for all performances of the work and for theliner notes of the commercial recording Mauricio Kagel 5: Stucke der Windrosewhich contains the five pieces completed at the time of the production. They cantherefore be regarded as part of the work itself. I am using Richard Toop'stranslation of the original German texts from the programme note to the concertby the London Sinfonietta in the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London, on 2 November1999.

13. In the original version Kagel explicitly stated that he `sensed that [compass pointshave] something to do with our conception of culture, [and] how we grouptogether and perceive foreign cultures'. The section was later revised, but thecomposer gave permission to quote the original wording (telephone conversationof 9 February 2001).

14. See Werner Klu ppelholz, Mauricio Kagel 19701980 (Cologne: DuMont, 1982),p. 299.

15. In a typically postmodern twist, a recent recording with the Ensemble Moderndirected by Kagel (Koch Schwann Aulos, Ko 31 3912) features Asian musiciansimitating Asian music, rather like blacks performing in blackface.

For Exotica see Klu ppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, pp. 6972; Claus Raab, `ZumProblem authentischer Musik: eine Interpretation von Mauricio Kagels Exotica',in Wilfried Gruhn (ed.), Reflexionen u ber Musik heute: Texte und Analysen



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(Mainz: Schott, 1981), pp. 290316; Peter W. Schatt, Exotik in der Musik; andPeter Niklas Wilson, `Das andere als Fremdes und Eigenes: Die Neue Musik undihr Zugriff auf die Musiken der Welt', MusikTexte, 26 (1988), pp. 36.

16. The idea of Weltmusik is a fascinating example of cross-cultural transaction inmusic, which unfortunately has been all but overlooked in the burgeoningliterature on the subject. For different approaches to Weltmusik see KarlheinzStockhausen, `Telemusik', in Stockhausen, Texte zur Musik 19631970: Ein-

fuhrungen und Projekte, Kurse, Sendungen, Standpunkte, Nebennoten, Vol. 3(Cologne: DuMont, 1971), pp. 758; `Weltmusik', in Stockhausen, Texte zurMusik 19701977: Werk-Einfuhrungen, Elektronische Musik, Weltmusik,

Vorschlage und Standpunkte, zum Werk Anderer, Vol. 4 (Cologne: DuMont,1978), pp. 46876; `Hymnen Nationalhymnen (zur elektronischen Musik 1967)',CD booklet Stockhausen 10. Hymnen, pp. 3145, reprinted in Rudolf Frisius,Karlheinz Stockhausen: Einfuhrung in das Gesamtwerk, Vol. 1 (Mainz: Schott,1996), pp. 273 ff; Henri Pousseur, Composer (avec) des identites culturelles (Paris:Institut de pe dagogie musicale et chore ographique, 1989); and Pousseur, `A BriefAppraisal of an Investigation as Obstinate as it is Meandering', in Michel Butor etal., Inter Disciplinas Ars (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1998), pp. 4178. Fora critical introduction to the concept, see Peter Auslander and Johannes Fritsch(eds.), Weltmusik (Cologne: Feedback Papers Studio Verlag, 1981).

17. Quoted in Klu ppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, p. 110.

18. For Kantrimiusik, see Klu ppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, pp. 1219 and Ge rardConde , `La Charrue avant les boeufs: essai sur Kantrimiusik', Musique en jeu, 27(1977), pp. 5871, an appropriately funny `analysis' of the piece.

19. Quoted in Klu ppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, p. 123 (my translation, italics in the

original).

20. On Kagel's serial tonality, see Werner Klu ppelholz and Mauricio Kagel, `. . ./1991:ein Gesprach zwischen Mauricio Kagel und Werner Klu ppelholz', in WernerKlu ppelholz (ed.), Kagel ... /1991 (Cologne: DuMont, 1991), pp. 2636 andWieland Reich, Mauricio Kagel: Sankt-Bach-Passion. Kompositionstechnik unddidaktische Perspektiven (Saarbru cken: Pfau, 1995). An early account of some of thetechniques involved is presented by Rudolf Frisius, `Komposition als Kritik anKonventionen: Tendenzen in neueren Stu cken von Mauricio Kagel und ihreBedeutung fu r den Rudolf Musikunterricht', Musik und Bildung, 11 (1977),pp. 600606. For a discussion of the aesthetic consequences of serial tonality, seemy `Collage vs. Compositional Control: the Interdependency of Modernist andPostmodernist Approaches in the Work of Mauricio Kagel', in Joseph Auner andJudy Lochhead (ed.), Postmodern Music/Postmodern Thought (New York:Routledge, 2002), pp. 28799 and ``Kopien ohne Vorbild: Kagel und die A sthetikdes Apokryphen'', Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik, 162/vi (2001), pp. 1015.

21. Quoted in Klu ppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, p. 129 (my translation).

22. See Klu ppelholz, Mauricio Kagel, pp. 1338 and Kagel, Das Buch der Horspiele,ed. Klaus Scho ning (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1982).


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23. See Viktor Shklovsky, `Art as Technique', in Russian Formalist Criticism: FourEssays, trans. and ed. Lee T. Lemon and Marion J. Reis (Lincoln, NE:University of Nebraska Press, 1965), pp. 524.

24. For discussion of Kagel's aesthetics of the apocryphal, see my `Kopien ohneVorbild'.

25. See Jean Baudrillard, Simulacres et simulation (Paris: Galile e, 1981).

26. Many influential texts by Fanon and Said had appeared before this, but they wereyet to have a major impact on the general debate in Germany.

27. See particularly Bruno Nettl, The Western Impact on World Music: Change,Adaptation, and Survival (New York: Schirmer, 1985) and Mark Slobin,Subcultural Sounds: Micromusics of the West (Hanover, NH: University Pressof New England, 1993).

28. A prominent model for employing sketch studies for the analysis of cross-culturalinteraction can be seen in Richard Taruskin's discoveries of the sources toStravinsky's The Rite of Spring; see `Russian Folk Melodies in The Rite ofSpring', Journal of the American Musicological Society, 33 (1980), pp. 50143 and`The Rite Revisited: the Idea and Sources of the Scenario', in Maria RikaManiates and Edmond Strainchamps (eds.), Music and Civilization: Essays inHonor of Paul Henry Lang (New York: Norton, 1984), pp. 183202. It is all themore surprising, then, that the value of such studies is not more generallyrecognised.

29. Bakhtin first developed his theory of dialogics in Mikhail Bakhtin, Problems ofDostoevsky's Poetics, ed. and transl. Caryl Emerson, introduction by Wayne C.

Booth (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984); the most condensed

and most widely read version of it is his `Discourse in the Novel', in TheDialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. Caryl Emerson

and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992). In recent

decades, Bakhtinian dialogics has been among the most influential methods in

the humanities, as evidenced by a flood of publications. A concise introduction

to both Bakhtin's own theory of dialogics and later developments of it can be

found in Lynne Pearce, Reading Dialogics (London: Arnold, 1994). Among the

most far-reaching attempts to employ dialogics in musicology are Robert

Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven: Markedness, Correlation, and

Interpretation (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Ken Hirschkop,

`The Classical and the Popular: Musical Form and Social Context', in

Christopher Norris (ed.), Music and the Politics of Culture (London: Lawrence& Wishart, 1989), pp. 283304; and Kevin Korsyn, `Beyond Privileged

Contexts: Intertextuality, Influence, and Dialogue', in Nicholas Cook and

Mark Everist (eds.), Rethinking Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),

pp. 5572.

30. See Edward Said, Orientalism, 2nd reprint with a new afterword (New York:Penguin, 1995); Orientalism Reconsidered', Cultural Critique, 1 (1985), pp. 89107;and Culture and Imperialism.



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31. Bakhtin did not distinguish between author and narrator, which is an innovationin later literary theory. Bakhtin's àuthor' would in most cases be called `narrator'nowadays.

32. Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, p. 195. `Double-voicedness' is elsewhere definedas `discourse with an orientation toward someone else's discourse' (Problems,p. 199).

33. This is clearly shown by Hatten's and Korsyn's applications of dialogics toBeethoven and Brahms respectively: see Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethovenand Korsyn, `Beyond Privileged Contexts'. Furthermore, Leonard G. Ratner'sand Kofi Agawu's `topics' can be described as represented discourses, thus con-firming the applicability of Bakhtinian thought to earlier repertoire; see Ratner,Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer, 1980) andAgawu, Playing with Signs: a Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1991). Representations of street music in Stravinsky,Mahler and Ives are another field where a dialogical investigation may prove

fruitful.

34. See Shklovsky, Àrt as Technique'. The reason for my preferring Bakhtin's termover Shklovsky's has simply to do with consistency. There are grounds to believethat Bakhtin was profoundly influenced by Shklovsky's concept.

35. This appears to be common knowledge but is also supported by the literature onthe subject, in particular by Karl Kogler, `Das Salonorchester: Entstehung,Besetzung und Repertoire', in Paul v. Fu rst (ed.), Zur Situation der Musiker inO sterreich. Referate der Musik-Symposien im Schlo Schlohof (198992) (Vienna:Institut fu r Wiener Klangstil, 1994), pp. 3936. See also Andreas Ballstaedt,`Salonmusik', in Ludwig Finscher (ed.), Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart:

Allgemeine Enzyklopadie der Musik, 2nd edn., Vol. 8 (Kassel: Barenreiter/Metzler,1998), pp. 85467; Andreas Ballstaedt and Tobias Widmaier, Salonmusik: zurGeschichte und Funktion einer burgerlichen Musikpraxis (Wiesbaden: Archiv fu rMusikwissenschaft, 1989); and Tobias Widmaier, `Salonmusik', in Hans HeinrichEggebrecht (ed.), Handworterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie, Vol. 5 (1989),pp. 116.

36. Mark Slobin (ed.), Old Jewish Folk Music: the Collections and Writings of MosheBeregovsky (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982).

37. Is it therefore tongue-in-cheek when Kagel annotates his klezmer representationof Ex. 1 with ìnventado por mi' (sic) (ìnvented by me') in the sketch to the

passage the same sketch that contains the quotations?

38. See Max Nyffeler, `Fragen wird es immer genug geben', n. p.

39. The transcription is from Hans Helfritz, `Besuch bei den Hochland-Indianern:Musik und Tanze der Aimara und Quechuas'. The photocopy contained in thesketch material does not indicate where the article appeared.

40. The transcription is from Gerhard Kubik, Ostafrika (Leipzig: Deutscher Verlagfu r Musik, 1982), p. 116.


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41. The distinction between perceptual and conceptual representation is roughlyanalogous to the one between `superficial' and `structural' influence drawn bySteve Reich in his `Postscript to a Brief Study of Balinese and African Music', inReich, Writings about Music (London: Universal Edition, 1974), pp. 3840. I donot follow Reich's value judgement, however.

In actual fact, conceptual and perceptual representation do not so muchrepresent different degrees but different kinds of stylisation. However, it seemsunnecessary to complicate matters further.

42. See Slobin, Old Jewish Music, pp. 146, 428, 438, 439, 464, 469 and 502.

43. Telephone conversation, 11 July 2000.

44. Borges himself is often described as a magical realist; in an influential article,Angel Flores has even hailed him as the founder of the movement. This, however,is disputed by other scholars; see Angel Flores, `Magical Realism in SpanishAmerican Fiction', Hispania, 38 (1955), pp. 18792; R. J. Christ, The NarrowAct: Borges' Art of Illusion (New York: New York University Press, 1969),p. 105; and Lois Parkinson Zamora and Wendy B. Faris (eds.), Magical Realism:Theory, History, Community (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995). I amgrateful to Pablo Jivotovschii and Mara Angell for their advice on this question.

45. See Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1964).

46. The sketches show a reference to `Koch' which appears to relate to Gerd Kochwho wrote Die materielle Kultur der Ellice-Inseln (Berlin: Museum fu r Vo lker-kunde, 1961) and with Dieter Christensen co-authored Die Musik der Ellice-Inseln (Berlin: Museum fu r Vo lkerkunde, 1964). Many aspects of `Su dwesten' aredirectly influenced by these books; for instance the use of the radio, annotatedwith `acculturation' in the sketch, appears to relate to Christensen and Koch'sdeploring the destructive effect of Western media on Tuvaluan music (Die Musik,57), and the instrumentation of the piece is also partly derived from thesesources.

47. See Alejo Carpentier, La Musica en Cuba (Mexico City: Fondo de CulturaEconomica, 1956) and Claus Schreiner, Musica Latina: Musikfolklore zwischenKuba und Feuerland (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1982).

48. Kagel made the connection during an unpublished discussion with David Sawerin the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London on 13 October 1999.

49. See Shklovsky, `Art as Technique'.

50. Interview; see `Transcending Quotation'.



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