1.4 NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe non-experimental methods Outline important differences between

experimental and non-experimental methods Explain ethical issues related to interview,

observations and case studies.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS Qualitative Researchers are interested in

How people explain everyday experiences Occurs in a natural setting:

How do people work in teams in the workplace? How do women experience the transition to

motherhood How do college students adjust to independent living?

Qualitative research is guided by one or more research questions. Inductive reasoning: This is an open approach. Where as hypothesizing is deductive reasoning.

A claim that can be rejected or accepted.

INDUCTIVE APPROACH No defined variables Researchers gather information and assess

what they have. Goal: to describe the meanings attributed to

events by the research participants. (Not to find a cause and effect) Findings are more subjective

WAYS OF KNOWINGEXPERIMENTAL VS. NON-

EXPERIMENTAL

Hypothesis Variables Deductive approach Objective Quantitative data Cause & effect Statistical analysis

Open research question

No defined variables Inductive approach Subjective Qualitative Data Identify

meanings/experience

Interpretive analysis

Experimental Non-experimental

TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Interviews Observations Case Studies

INTERVIEW Most common way of gathering qualitative

data Interviewing requires training and skill:

Verbal skills Establish a positive relationship Interpret non-verbal cues React to unconscious signs. participant bias: participants respond the way

they think is appropriate for the interview Social desirable bias: most people put their

best face on – many won’t reveal the truth. Interviewer effects: age, sex ethnicity, of

the interviewer that could interfere with the study

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS Structured Interview Unstructured Interview Semi-structured interview

ETHICS INVOLVED Informed consent Confidentiality Right to withdraw

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW The schedule and topic of the interview is the

only established guideline

Pros: Open ended questions, leads to interests and motivation of the interviewee.

Cons: difficult to analyze.

SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW Preferred method: combines a set of

questions, that permits for open response.

Pros: there will be a number of closed questions that can be easily analyzed.

Cons:

STRUCTURED INTERVIEW

Questions are clearly established Order of questions are established Setting is highly controlled

Pros – easy to analyze and compare Cons – may appear to be artificial

BE A RESEARCHER You have been commissioned to carry out

research using interviews on one of the following issues:1. Positive and negative experiences in CAS projects2. What is it like to live in a foreign country3. Teenagers and drug use and abuse4. Prejudice in the classroom

Choose one from the list and consider the following questions.1. How would you carry out the research?2. How would you obtain your sample?3. What potential difficulties do you anticipate in

carrying out your interview?

OBSERVATION Observations – describes behavior without

trying to establish cause-and-effect relationship.

Naturalistic Observations take place in a natural setting. Data collected: visual, auditory or written

Types of Observations Non-participant observations Participant observations

CHALLENGES INVOLVING OBSERVATIONS Impossible to record everything observed. Researcher Bias: observer sees what they

expect to see. Inter-observer reliability: several

observers work in tandem. This helps to overcome researcher bias.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS Participant observation

The researcher is part of the group being observed Nonparticipant observation

The researcher is not part of the group being observed

Covert observation: participants do not know they are being observed Rosenhan 1973, On Being Sane in an Insane Place.

(Pg.34) Festinger et al.’s When Prophecy Fails (pg 103)

Overt observations participants know that the observer is a researcher

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION The researcher becomes part of the group. The researcher experiences the situation with

the group What are some issues “covert participant

observers” must deal with? Recording information accurately Maintaining objectivity

NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION The researcher is not part of the group being

observed Participants are expected to act in a natural/normal

manner. This may trigger reactivity, a change of behavior

Can you think of any issues that might occur in data gathering as a result of non-participant observation? Demand characteristics? The Hawthorne Effect? Researcher bias?

How could you overcome these bias effects?

POINTS TO CONSIDER IN OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH1. Is the observation structures or

unstructured?2. Is the observation covert or overt?3. Does the observation take place in a natural

or artificial setting?

ETHICS OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH1. Must have informed consent.2. Debriefs the participants after the event3. To carry out covert observations, proposal

must be approved by ethics committee1. Will the research provide information that will

benefit others?

COVERT PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION ROSENHAN 1973 (PG 34-35) After reading and viewing the experiment:1. What are the ethical issues involved in

Rosenhan’s study?2. Was the use of covert observations

justified?

CASE STUDIES Case studies rely on real life data

Behavior Feelings Experiences Thoughts

Measurements may include: IQ Blood testing Survey data memory

ADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDY Allows for detail study/in-depth investigation with large

group participants with the aim of averaging the findings. Example: brain damage and memory loss Twin separation and cognitive development

Data Collection: Interviews Observations Surveys Questionnaires Physical exams

Can you replicate a case study? No – therefore the reliability of your findings are said to be

low.

ETHICAL ASPECTS OF CASE STUDIES1. Protecting the identities of the participants

is vital.2. Informed consent3. No deception4. Right to withdraw5. Debriefing6. Confidentiality

RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY PG. 37 Read the case (Prezi): Documentary1. Complete a key study sheet on the study2. Outline 2 ethical problems in this case3. What could be the reason that Money

continues to use this case as evidence of his theory of gender neutrality?

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