13강. 20th-C Modernism: T.E. Hulme, T.S. Eliot & Virginia Woolfgradlms.knou.ac.kr/weblms/grad/contents/106605/week13/... · 2013-02-04 · [영국문화론] 13강. 20th-C Modernism:

[영국문화론] 13강. 20th-C Modernism: T.E. Hulme, T.S. Eliot & Virginia Woolf

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13강. 20th-C Modernism: T.E. Hulme, T.S. Eliot &

Virginia Woolf

◈ 담당교수: 김문수

◉ 세부목차

1. 20세기 Modernism 해설

1) Modernism의 개요와 제요소

2) T.E. Hulme, T.S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf 해설

2. Hulme's "Romanticism and Classicism" 강의

3. Eliot's "Tradition and the Individual Talent" 강의

4. Woolf's "Modern Fiction" 강의

5. Modernism 보충자료


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용어 해설

Modernism20세기 초반의 새로운 문화 및 문학 현상으로서 낭만주의 후기의

지나친 주정주의(emotionalism)와 느슨한 표현을 배격한다.

ImagismHulme, Pound, F.S. Flint 등이 주도한 시 운동으로서 감상적이고

느슨한 표현 대신 hard, clear, precise image를 중시한다.

VorticismImagism의 정적인 한계성을 인식한 Pound와 Wyndham Lewis가

작품에서 소용돌이(vortex) 같은 내적 역동성을 추구한 운동이다.

Stream of

Consciousness

Modernism 소설의 가장 특징적인 기법으로서, 현실과 내면의식이

뒤섞이며, 연대기적 시간개념을 무시하는 서술방식이다.

Fragmentary MethodModernism 시에서 체계적인 서술을 거부하고, 단편적인 이미지들

을 중첩시키는 방식으로서 Montage, Collage 수법으로도 불린다.

학습에 앞서

■ 학습개요

제13강에서는 20세기 초반의 주도적 문화 현상인 Modernism에 대해서 알아본다. 20

세기는 세계대전 등으로 인해 기존의 문화와 의식이 붕괴된 불연속성의 시대이며, 기

존의 종교적, 사상적 확실성에 심각한 회의를 품은 불확실성의 시대이다. 이러한 달라

진 시대적 상황에서 발생한 모더니즘은 새로운 주제의식과 새로운 형식을 강조한다.

강의 후반부에서는 T.E. Hulme, T.S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf의 대표적인 평론을 통해 모

더니즘의 제요소를 구체적으로 살펴본다.

■ 학습목표

1 20세기 초반의 사회적 변화에 대해서 정리한다.

2 Modernism의 발생과 전개과정을 알아본다.

3 Hulme, Eliot의 평론을 통해 Modernism 시의 특성을 알아본다.

4 Woolf의 평론을 통해 Modernism 소설의 특성을 알아본다.

■ 주요용어


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학습하기

1. 20세기 Modernism 해설

1. Modernism의 개요와 제요소

1) Modernism의 여러 의미

1. ⓐ Modern thought, character, or practice. ⓑ Sympathy with or conformity to

modern ideas, practices, or standards.

2. A peculiarity of usage or style, as of a word or phrase, that is characteristic of

modern times.

3. The deliberate departure from tradition and the use of innovative forms of

expression that distinguish many styles in the arts and literature of the 20th

century.

4. A Roman Catholic movement .... (American Heritage Dictionary)

2) 20세기의 급격한 변화

At the beginning the twentieth century, traditions and boundaries of many kinds

were under assault across the Western world. Rapid developments in science and

technology were transforming the texture of everyday life and conceptions of the

universe; psychology, anthropology, and philosophy were challenging old ways of

conceiving the human mind and religion; empire, migration, and city life were forcing

together peoples of diverse origins. (Norton Anthology, p.1996)

cf. Nietzsche의 철학, Freud의 심리학, Frazer의 인류학, Einstein의 물리학


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<Sigmund Freud(1856-1939)> <James Frazer(1854-1941)>

3) Modernism의 개요

Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice.

More specifically, the term describes both a set of cultural tendencies and an array of

associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching

changes to Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The

term encompasses the activities and output of those who felt the "traditional" forms

of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization and daily life were

becoming outdated in the new economic, social and political conditions of an

emerging fully industrialized world. (Wikipedia, "Modernism")

4) Modernism의 시작과 지속기간

<시작>

-Picasso's Cubism(1907), F.T. Marinetti's Futurism(1909), Stravinsky's music(1911)

-미국 작가들의 런던도착: Pound(1908), Eliot(1914), H. D.(1911)

-Hulme's poem and essay(1912); F.S. Flint's Imagiste(1913)

-Vorticist magazine Blast(1914) by Wyndham Lewis

<지속>

①1910년대~1920년대(High Modernism)

②1914년(1차대전 발발)~1939년(2차대전 발발)


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<Ezra Pound(1885-1972)> <BLAST(1914)의 표지>

5) Modernism 시의 특징

Modernist poetry is a mode of writing characterised by two main features: the first

is technical innovation through the extensive use of free verse and the second a move

away from the Romantic idea of an unproblematic poetic "self" directly addressing an

equally unproblematic ideal reader or audience. (Wikipedia, "Modernist poetry in

English")

-Fragmentary method (montage, collage, juxtaposition)

-Imagism (hard, clear, precise image)

-Influence of Metaphysical poetry, French Symbolism

-Classical allusions

-Tonal shift: irony, colloquialism

6) Modernism 소설의 특징

(cf. Wikipedia, "Modernist Literature")

ⓐFormal/Stylistic Characteristics

-Free indirect speech

-Stream of consciousness

-Juxtaposition of characters

-Wide use of classical allusions

-Symbolic representation

-Discontinuous narrative

-Multiple narrative points of view

ⓑThematic characteristics


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-Breakdown of social norms

-Sense of alienation

-Rejection of the history

-Objection of the religious thoughts

-Substitution of a mythical past

7) 주요 Modernism 작가

-Imagism 관련 문인: T.E. Hulme, Ezra Pound, F.S. Flint, H. D., Amy Lowell

-과격 혁신성의 시인: T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound

-중도 혁신성의 시인: Thomas Hardy, W.B. Yeats

-과격 혁신성의 소설가: James Joyce, Virginia Woolf

-중도 혁신성의 소설가: Joseph Conrad, D.H. Lawrence

<William Butler Yeats(1865-1939)> <James Joyce(1882-1941)>

8) 20세기 초반의 연표

ⓐcontexts

1901-10: Reign of Edward VII

1910-36: Reign of George V

1914-18: World War I

1916: Easter Rising in Dublin

1917: Russian Revolution

1928: Women twenty-one and over granted voting rights

1929: Great Depression begins.

1933: Hitler comes to power in Germany

1936-39: Spanish Civil War


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1939-45: World War II

ⓑtexts

1911(1912): Hulme, "Romanticism and Classicism"

1913: Pound, "A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste"

1914-15: Blast

1916: Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

1917: Eliot, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"

1919: Eliot, "Tradition and the Individual Talent"; Woolf, "Modern Fiction"

1920: Lawrence, Women in Love

1922: Joyce, Ulysses; Eliot, The Waste Land

1927: Woolf, To the Lighthouse


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2. T.E. Hulme, T.S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf 해설

1) T.E. Hulme(1883-1917)의 생애와 문학

-시인, 철학자, 비평가; 모더니즘(이미지즘)의 이론가.

-Cambridge 대학에서 퇴학

-Pound, F.S. Flint 등과 교유; Eliot, Wyndham Lewis에 영향

-1차대전에 참가하여 전사함

-"Romanticism and Classicism"(1911 or 1912)

:낭만주의를 spilt religion으로 비난

:dry, hard, classical verse의 도래를 예언

2) Hulme의 문학사적 위치

The origins of Imagism and cubism are to be found in two poems by T. E. Hulme

that were published in 1909 by the Poets' Club in London. Hulme was a student of

mathematics and philosophy who had established the Poets' Club to discuss his

theories of poetry. The poet and critic F. S. Flint, who was a champion of free verse

and modern French poetry, was highly critical of the club and its publications. From

the ensuing debate, Hulme and Flint became close friends. They started meeting with

other poets at the Eiffel Tower restaurant in Soho to discuss reform of contemporary

poetry through free verse and the tanka and haiku and the removal of all unnecessary

verbiage from poems. (Wikipedia, ""Modernist poetry in English")


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3) T.S. Eliot(1888-1965)의 생애와 문학

-미국 출생이나 영국 귀화

-Harvard에서 다양한 철학, 문학, 언어 공부

-1914: 영국 정착 후 문학에 전념

-1917: Prufrock and Other Observations

-1922: The Waste Land (서구의 몰락을 다양한 신화·고전 인용하여 표현)

-1927: 영국 귀화, 영국 국교로 개종(이후 종교적 주제; 전통·권위 인식)

-1930: The Ash-Wednesday

-1943: Four Quartets

("Burnt Norton," "East Coker," "The Dry Salvages,"Little Gidding")

-극시: Murder in the Cathedral

(비평)

-반낭만주의, 지성·전통·객관성 중시

-New Criticism의 선구: 언어적 구조, irony, paradox, tension 분석 치중

-Impersonal Poetry: 개성보다 전통의 중시, 감성보다 지성의 중시

:"Tradition and the Individual Talent"

-Objective Correlative: 객관성 강조

-Dissociation of Sensibility: 형이상학파의 통합적 감수성 강조

4) Eliot의 문학사적 위치

As modernism developed, the flashy, aggressive polemics of Lewis and Pound

were replaced by the more reasoned, essayistic criticism of Pound’s friend and

collaborator T. S. Eliot. Eliot’s Waste Land and James Joyce’s Ulysses were

technically innovative and initially controversial (Ulysses was banned in the United

States and Great Britain), but their eventual acceptance as literary landmarks helped

to bring modernism into the canon of English literature. In the decades to come, the


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massive influence of Eliot as a critic would transform the image of modernism into

what Eliot himself called classicism, a position deeply rooted in a sense of the literary

past and emphasizing the impersonality of the work of art. (Norton Topics Online,

"Modernist Experiment: Overview")

5) Virginia Woolf(1882-1941)의 생애와 문학

-부친 Leslie Stephen(비평가)의 지적 영향

-Bloomsbury Group의 일원(전위적이기도 했지만 귀족주의적 바탕)

-남편 Leonard Woolf(저널리스트)의 도움 많이 받음

-1941년 자살(일생의 정신적 위기, 집필의 중압감, 전쟁의 공포)

(소설)

-1922: Jacob's Room(Modernism 기법)

-1925: Mrs Dalloway

-1927: To the Lighthouse

-1931: The Waves

(이상 대표작 3부작: 의식의 흐름 수법, 시적 산문, 인간관계 주제)

-1928: Orlando

(평론)

-1919: "Modern Fiction"

(내면의식을 새로운 수법[의식의 흐름 수법]으로 써야함)

-1925, 1932: The Common Reader(문학 평론)

-1929: A Room of One's Own(여성주의 평론)

6) Woolf의 문학사적 위치

Woolf is considered one of the greatest innovators in the English language. In her

works she experimented with stream-of-consciousness and the underlying


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psychological as well as emotional motives of characters. Woolf's reputation declined

sharply after World War II, but her eminence was re-established with the surge of

Feminist criticism in the 1970s. (Wikipedia, "Virginia Woolf")


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2. Hulme's "Romanticism and Classicism" 강의

*text: http://www.english.ccsu.edu/jones/resources/romanticismandClassicism.pdf

*"This attack upon Romanticism, and attempt to state the dispute between

Romanticism and Classicism in fundamental religious and political terms, expresses in

extreme form ideas that were important for many 'modernist' writers. It was written

before the First World War, though not published till after Hulme's death. (Twentieth

Century Poetry: Critical Essays and Documents ed. by Graham martin and P.N.

Furbank)" 3개의 Section 중에서 Section A만 음성으로 강의한다.

1. Section A(음성강의)

I want to maintain that after a hundred years of romanticism, we are in for a

classical revival, and that the particular weapon of this new classical spirit, when it

works in verse, will be fancy. And in this I imply the superiority of fancy--not superior

generally or absolutely, for that would be obvious nonsense, but superior in the sense

that we use the word good in empirical ethics--good for something, superior for

something. I shall have to prove then two things, first that a classical revival is

coming, and, secondly, for its particular purposes, fancy will be superior to

imagination.

So banal have the terms Imagination and Fancy become that we imagine they

must have always been in the language. Their history as two differing terms in the

vocabulary of criticism is comparatively short. Originally, of course, they both mean

the same thing; they first began to be differentiated by the German writers on

aesthetics in the eighteenth century.1)

*Notes

(1) they first ... century: Imagination의 ‘유기체적 창조성’을 강조하기 위해 Fancy를

‘기계적 기억성’으로 폄하한 이 견해는 영국에서는 Coleridge의 Biographia Literaria에서 두

드러졌다.

*Points

(1) attack on Romanticism & praise on Classicism

(2) opposition to the Romantic idea of superiority of Imagination over Fancy

2. Section B(자습부분)

There was,1) and here I get my definition of romanticism. They had been taught by

Rousseau that man was by nature good, that it was only bad laws and customs that

had suppressed him. Remove all these and the infinite possibilities of man would have

a chance. This is what made them think that something positive could come out of

disorder, this is what created the religious enthusiasm.2) Here is the root of all


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romanticism: that man, the individual, is an infinite reservoir of possibilities; and if you

can so rearrange society by the destruction of oppressive order then these possibilities

will have a chance and you will get Progress.

One can define the classical quite clearly as the exact opposite of this. Man is an

extraordinarily fixed and limited animal whose nature is absolutely constant. It is only

by tradition and organization that anything decent can be got out of him.

*Notes

(1) There was: ‘프랑스 혁명에 열광한 당대 사람들에게는 어떤 관념이나 대의가 있었

다’는 의미임.

(2) the religious enthusiasm: 프랑스 혁명에 대한 열광을 부정적으로 표현한 것임.

*Points

(1) Romanticism vs Classicism == man's infiniteness vs. man's finiteness

(2) Hatred to Revolution leads to hatred to Romanticism.

3. Section C(자습부분)

I object even to the best of the romantics. I object still more to the receptive1)

attitude. I object to the sloppiness which doesn't consider that a poem is a poem

unless it is moaning or whining about something or other ....

The thing has got so bad now that a poem which is all dry and hard, a properly

classical poem, would not be considered poetry at all. How many people now can lay

their hands on their hearts and say they like either Horace or Pope?2) They feel a kind

of chill when they read them ....

I can now get at that positive fundamental quality of verse which constitutes

excellence, which has nothing to do with infinity, with mystery or with emotions.

This is the point I aim at, then, in my argument. I prophesy that a period of dry,

hard, classical verse is coming. I have met the preliminary objection founded on the

bad romantic aesthetic that in such verse, from which the infinite is excluded, you

cannot have the essence of poetry at all.

*Notes

(1) receptive: 감수성이 예민한(sensitive).

(2) either Horace or Pope: Classical (Roman) poet & Neoclassical (English) poet.

*Points

(1) opposition to Romanticism as "sloppiness, moaning or whining."

(2) "dry, hard, classical verse is coming"

*Question

1. 필자가 낭만주의의 느슨한 감상주의(sloppiness, moaning, whining) 외에 또 반대하

는 낭만주의적 요소를 이 구절에서 지적하시오.

<답> the infinite의 추구


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3. Eliot's "Tradition and the Individual Talent" 강의

*text: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent

*Eliot은 감상적이고 주관적인 낭만주의를 배격하고 역사·전통, 객관성·지성을 중시하는

고전주의적 태도를 견지하였다. 이 평론의 주장은 Impersonal Theory of Poetry(몰개성 시

론)로 불리는데, 이것은 시인은 전통과 선대 작가에 대한 인식, 이른바 역사의식(historical

consciousness)을 가져야 한다는 외적인 측면과, 시를 쓸 때 시인의 주관적 개성이 시의

재료에 섞여서는 안 되고 개성은 오로지 ‘촉매’(catalyst)로서만 작용해야 한다는 내적인 측

면이 있다. 4개의 Section 중에서 Section A의 밑줄 친 부분만 음성으로 강의한다.

1. Section A(밑줄 부분만 음성강의)

Yet if the only form of tradition, of handing down, consisted in following the ways

of the immediate generation before us in a blind or timid adherence to its successes,

"tradition" should positively be discouraged. We have seen many such simple currents

soon lost in the sand; and novelty is better than repetition. Tradition is a matter of

much wider significance. It cannot be inherited, and if you want it you must obtain it

by great labour. It involves, in the first place, the historical sense, which we may call

nearly indispensable to anyone who would continue to be a poet beyond his

twenty-fifth year; and the historical sense involves a perception, not only of the

pastness of the past, but of its presence; the historical sense compels a man to write

not merely with his own generation in his bones, but with a feeling that the whole of

the literature of Europe from Homer and within it the whole of the literature of his own

country has a simultaneous existence and composes a simultaneous order. This

historical sense, which is a sense of the timeless as well as of the temporal and of

the timeless and of the temporal together, is what makes a writer traditional. And it is

at the same time what makes a writer most acutely conscious of his place in time, of

his contemporaneity.

*Points

(1) historical sense: the pastness of the past + the presence of the past

(2) Whole European literature composes a simultaneous order.


No poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone. His significance,

his appreciation is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists. You

cannot value him alone; you must set him, for contrast and comparison, among the

dead. I mean this as a principle of aesthetic, not merely historical, criticism. The

necessity that he shall conform, that he shall cohere,1) is not one-sided; what

happens when a new work of art is created is something that happens simultaneously


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to all the works of art which preceded it. The existing monuments form an ideal order

among themselves, which is modified by the introduction of the new (the really new)

work of art among them. The existing order2) is complete before the new work arrives;

for order to persist after the supervention of novelty, the whole existing order must be,

if ever so slightly, altered; and so the relations, proportions, values of each work of

art toward the whole are readjusted; and this is conformity between the old and the

new. Whoever has approved this idea of order, of the form of European, of English

literature, will not find it preposterous that the past should be altered by the present

as much as the present is directed by the past. And the poet who is aware of ⓐthis

will be aware of great difficulties and responsibilities.

*Notes

(1) that he ... cohere: conform과 cohere 뒤에 to the tradition 혹은 to the dead

poets and artists를 보충해 본다.

(2) The existing order: 기존의 위대한 작품들이 함께 형성하고 있는 질서.

*Points

(1) 작가와 선대 작가와의 관계성 인식: 몰개성 시론의 외적인 측면

(2) conformity between the old and the new: 과거와 현재의 상호작용 개념

*Question

1. 밑줄 친 ⓐ를 설명하시오.

<답> 과거의 모든 문학이 하나의 체계를 이루고 있고, 과거와 현재는 상호 영향을

준다는 사실.


The other aspect of this Impersonal theory of poetry is the relation of the poem to

its author. And I hinted, by an analogy, that the mind of the mature poet differs from

that of the immature one not precisely in any valuation of "personality," not being

necessarily more interesting, or having "more to say," but rather by being a more

finely perfected medium1) in which special, or very varied, feelings are at liberty to

enter into new combinations.

The analogy was that of the catalyst. When the two gases previously mentioned2)

are mixed in the presence of a filament of platinum, they form sulphurous acid.3) This

combination takes place only if the platinum is present; nevertheless the newly formed

acid contains no trace of platinum, and the platinum itself is apparently unaffected;

has remained inert, neutral, and unchanged. The mind of the poet is the shred of (

). It may partly or exclusively operate upon the experience of the man himself; but,

the more perfect the artist, the more completely separate in him will be the man who

suffers and the mind which creates;4) the more perfectly will the mind digest and

transmute the passions which are its material.

*Notes

(1) a more finely perfected medium: 더욱 정교하게 완성된 매개물. 뒤에 나오는


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catalyst(촉매)와 같은 개념임.

(2) the two gases previously mentioned: 산소(oxygen)와 이산화황(sulphur dioxide)을

지칭함.

(3) sulphurous acid: 아황산

(4) the man ... creates: 개인적 주관성과 객관적 지성의 구분임.

*Points

(1) 몰개성 시론의 내적인 측면: 시 자체에 시인의 주관성이 개입되지 않아야 함

(2) 백금 촉매의 비유: 시인의 정신은 화학작용을 일으키되 불변하는 ‘백금 촉매’여야 함

*Question

1. 문맥상 괄호 속에 적합한 것은?

<답> platinum

4. Section D(자습부분)

The business of the poet is not to find new emotions,1) but to use the ordinary

ones and, in working them up into poetry, to express feelings which are not in actual

emotions at all. And emotions which he has never experienced will serve his turn as

well as those familiar to him. Consequently, we must believe that "emotion recollected

in tranquillity" is an inexact formula.2) For it is neither emotion, nor recollection, nor,

without distortion of meaning, tranquillity. It is a concentration, and a new thing

resulting from the concentration, of a very great number of experiences which to the

practical and active person would not seem to be experiences at all; it is a

concentration which does not happen consciously or of deliberation. These

experiences are not "recollected," and they finally unite in an atmosphere which is

"tranquil" only in that it is a passive attending upon the event. Of course this is not

quite the whole story. There is a great deal, in the writing of poetry, which must be

conscious and deliberate. In fact, the bad poet is usually unconscious where he ought

to be conscious, and conscious where he ought to be unconscious. Both errors tend

to make him "personal." ⓐPoetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape

from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality.

But, of course, only those who have personality and emotions know what it means to

want to escape from ⓑthese things.

*Notes

(1) The business ... new emotions: 얼마나 색다른 시의 재료(emotions and feelings)

를 찾느냐가 중요한 것이 아니라, 어떤 재료라도 그것을 얼마나 강렬하게 변형시키느냐가

관건이라고 Eliot은 주장한다.

(2) we must ... inexact formula: Wordsworth는 "Preface to Lyrical Ballads"에서 자신

의 시는 강력한 정서를 가슴 속에 담아 두었다가 ‘고요한 분위기 속에 회상’을 통해 그 정

서를 되살려서 쓰기 시작한다고 주장했다. 강렬성(intensity)과 집중성(concentration)을 강조

하는 Eliot에게는 Wordsworth의 ‘고요 속의 회상’은 틀린 발상으로 보였다.

*Points


- 17 -

(1) 개인적인 정서(emotion)와 개성(personality)의 극복(ⓐ)→몰개성 시론

(2) Eliot의 반낭만주의: Wordsworth의 시론에 대한 직접적 공격

*Question

1. 밑줄 친 ⓑ가 지칭하는 바는?

<답> personality and emotions


- 18 -

4. Woolf's "Modern Fiction" 강의

*text: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91c/chapter13.html

*Woolf는 판에 박은 플롯에 외적인 삶만을 다루는 기존의 소설가들을 materialist라고

비난하며, 새로운 소설은 삶의 외부가 아니라 인간내면의 무의식의 세계를 그려야 한다고

주장한다. 그리고 서술방식도 이에 맞추어 새로운 시간관과 심리학적 관점을 이용한 방식이

어야 한다고 말한다. Joyce의 Ulysses를 가장 좋은 예로 들고 있는 것으로 보아 Woolf가

생각한 새로운 서술방식은 stream-of-consciousness 기법으로 보인다. 4개의 Section 중

에서 Section A의 밑줄 친 부분만 음성으로 강의한다.

1. Section A(밑줄 부분만 음성강의)

Look within and life, it seems, is very far from being “like this.”1) Examine for a

moment an ordinary mind on an ordinary day. The mind receives a myriad

impressions—trivial, fantastic, evanescent, or engraved with the sharpness of steel.

From all sides they come, an incessant shower of innumerable atoms; and as they

fall, as they shape themselves into the life of Monday or Tuesday, the accent falls

differently from of old; the moment of importance came not here but there;2) so that,

if a writer were a free man and not a slave, if he could write what he chose, not

what he must, if he could base his work upon his own feeling and not upon

convention, there would be no plot, no comedy, no tragedy, no love interest or

catastrophe in the accepted style, and perhaps not a single button sewn on as the

Bond Street tailors would have it. Life is not a series of gig lamps symmetrically

arranged; life is a luminous halo, a semi-transparent envelope surrounding us from

the beginning of consciousness to the end. Is it not the task of the novelist to convey

this varying, this unknown and uncircumscribed spirit, whatever aberration or

complexity it may display, with as little mixture of the alien and external as possible?

We are not pleading merely for courage and sincerity; we are suggesting that the

proper stuff of fiction is a little other than custom would have us believe it.

*Notes

(1) “like this”: materialist로 비난받은 기존 소설가들이 그리는 외적인 삶을 말함.

(2) not here but there: ‘외적인 삶’이 아니라 ‘내적인 삶’을 뜻함.

*Points

(1) 구획된 외부의 삶이 아니라 복잡한 내면의 삶(의식)이 새로운 소설의 소재임


It is, at any rate, in some such fashion as this that we seek to define the quality

which distinguishes the work of several young writers, among whom Mr. James Joyce1)


- 19 -

is the most notable, from that of their predecessors. They attempt to come closer to

life, and to preserve more sincerely and exactly what interests and moves them, even

if to do so they must discard most of the conventions which are commonly observed

by the novelist. Let us record the atoms as they fall upon the mind in the order in

which they fall, let us trace the pattern, however disconnected and incoherent in

appearance, which each sight or incident scores upon the consciousness. Let us not

take it for granted that life exists more fully in what is commonly thought big than in

what is commonly thought small.2) Any one who has read The Portrait of the Artist as

a Young Man or, what promises to be a far more interesting work, Ulysses, now

appearing in the Little Review, will have hazarded some theory of this nature3) as to

Mr. Joyce’s intention. On our part, with such a fragment before us, it is hazarded

rather than affirmed; but whatever the intention of the whole, there can be no

question but that4) it is of the utmost sincerity and that the result, difficult or

unpleasant as we may judge it, is undeniably important. In contrast with ⓐthose

whom we have called materialists, Mr. Joyce is spiritual; he is concerned at all costs

to reveal the flickerings of that innermost flame which flashes its messages through

the brain, and in order to preserve it he disregards with complete courage whatever

seems to him adventitious, whether it be probability, or coherence, or any other of

these signposts5) which for generations have served to support the imagination of a

reader when called upon to imagine what he can neither touch nor see.

*Notes

(1) Mr. James Joyce: (1882-1941) 전통적인 수법의 단편집 The Dubliners(1914)를

발표한 이후, 의식의 흐름 수법을 이용한 The Portrait of the Artist as a Young

Man(1917)을 출판하였다. Ulysses(1922)는 이 수법의 대표적인 예가 된다.

(2) what is commonly thought small: inner life, consciousness.

(3) will have ... nature: 이런 종류의 이론(즉, 새로운 소설의 이론)을 과감히 발표할 것

이다.

(4) there ... but that ...: ~라는 사실에 대해서는 의문의 여지가 있을 수 없다.

(5) these signposts: 기존 소설들의 각종 관습적 장치들을 말함.

*Points

(1) James Joyce의 Ulysses: 새로운 소설의 소재와 형식의 단적인 예

*Question

1. 밑줄 친 ⓐ에 해당하는 인물들을 다른 자료에서 찾아보시오.

<답> H.G. Wells, Arnold Bennett, John Galsworthy


Any method is right, every method is right, that expresses what we wish to

express, if we are writers; that brings us closer to the novelist’s intention if we are

readers. This method has the merit of bringing us closer to what we were prepared to

call life itself;1) did not the reading of Ulysses suggest how much of life is excluded


- 20 -

or ignored, and did it not come with a shock to open Tristram Shandy or even

Pendennis2) and be by them convinced that there are not only other aspects of life,

but more important ones into the bargain.

However this may be, the problem before the novelist at present, as we suppose it

to have been in the past, is to contrive means of being free to set down what he

chooses. He has to have the courage to say that what interests him is no longer

“this” but “that”: out of “that” alone must he construct his work. For the moderns ⓐ

“that”, the point of interest, lies very likely in the dark places of psychology. At once,

therefore, the accent falls a little differently; the emphasis is upon something hitherto

ignored; ⓑat once a different outline of form becomes necessary, difficult for us to

grasp, incomprehensible to our predecessors.

*Notes

(1) life itself: 외부의 삶이 아니라 ‘내면의 삶’ 혹은 ‘의식’을 지칭함.

(2) Tristram Shandy or even Pendennis: 각기 Laurence Sterne(1713-68)과 William

Makepeace Thackery(1811-63)의 소설로서, 관습적인 소설과 전혀 다른 서술방식을 택하

고 있다.

*Points

(1) 현대소설의 소재: the dark places of psychology(ⓐ)

(2) 현대소설의 형식: 자유로운 형식, 기존과 다른 형식(ⓑ)→‘의식의 흐름’ 수법

4. Section D(자습부분)

But any deductions that we may draw from the comparison of two fictions so

immeasurably far apart are futile save indeed as1) they flood us with a view of the

infinite possibilities of the art and remind us that there is no limit to the horizon, and

that nothing—no “method”, no experiment, even of the wildest—is forbidden, but only

falsity and pretence. ⓐ“The proper stuff of fiction” does not exist; everything is the

proper stuff of fiction, every feeling, every thought; every quality of brain and spirit is

drawn upon; no perception comes amiss. And if we can imagine the art of fiction

come alive and standing in our midst, she2) would undoubtedly ⓑbid us break her

and bully her,3) as well as honour and love her, for so her youth is renewed and her

sovereignty assured.

*Notes

(1) save indeed as ...: 정말로 ~할 경우가 아니라면.

(2) she: the art of fiction(소설이라는 예술)이 여성으로 의인화되어 있다.

(3) bid us ... her: ‘우리가 그녀를 부스러뜨리고 괴롭히게 명령한다’는 어구는 ‘소설의

형식과 소재를 무제한으로 추구하는 것’을 말한다.

*Points

(1) 소설의 소재·형식의 무제한성(ⓐⓑ)--이것이 영국소설의 부흥의 길


- 21 -

5. Modernism 보충자료

1. "Modernism and Postmodernism"

(M.H. Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms)

*20세기 초반의 Modernism과 20세기 후반의 Postmodernism을 함께 다룬 이 글을 통

해 20세기의 전반적인 문학사의 흐름을 알아보기 바란다.

The term modernism is widely used to identify new and distinctive features in the

subjects, forms， concepts, and styles of literature and the other arts in the early

decades of the present century, but especially after World War I (1914-1918). The

specific features signified by "modernism" vary with the user, but many critics agree

that it involves a deliberate and radical break with some of the traditional bases not

only of Western art, but of Western culture in general. Important intellectual precursors

of modernism, in this sense, are thinkers who had questioned the certainties that had

supported traditional modes of social organization, religion, and morality, and also

traditional ways of conceiving the human self--thinkers such as Friedrich Nietzsche

(1844-1900), Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, and James G. Frazer, whose The Golden

Bough (1890-1915) stressed the correspondence between central Christian tenets and

pagan, often barbaric myths and rituals.

Some literary historians locate the beginning of the modernist revolt as far back as

the 1890s, but most agree that "high modernism," marked by and unexampled range

and rapidity of change, came after the First World War. The year 1922 alone was

signalized by the simultaneous appearance of such monuments of modernist

innovation as James Joyce's Ulysses, T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land, and Virginia

Woolf's Jacob's Room, as well as many other experimental works of literature. The

catastrophe of the war had shaken faith in the continuity of Western civilization and

raised doubts about the adequacy of traditional literary modes to represent the harsh

and dissonant realities of the postwar world. T. S. Eliot wrote in a review of Joyce's

Ulysses in 1923 that the inherited mode of ordering a literary work, which assumed a

relatively coherent and stable social order, could not accord with "the immense

panorama of futility and anarchy which is contemporary history." Like Joyce and Ezra

Pound in his Cantos, Eliot experimented with new forms and a new style that would

render contemporary disorder, often contrasting it to a lost order and integration that

had been based on the religion and myths of the cultural past. In the The Waste

Land (1922), for example, Eliot replaced the standard flow of poetic language by

fragmented utterances, and substituted for the traditional coherence of poetic structure

a deliberate dislocation of parts, in which very diverse components are related by

connections that are left to the reader to discover, or invent. Major works of


- 22 -

modernist fiction, following Joyce's Ulysses (1922) and his even more radical

Finnegans Wake (1939), subvert the basic conventions of earlier prose fiction by

breaking up the narrative continuity, departing from the standard ways of representing

characters, and violating the traditional syntax and coherence of narrative language by

the use of stream of consciousness and other innovative modes of narration. Gertrude

Stein--often linked with Joyce, Pound, Eliot, and Woolf as a trail-blazing

modernist--experimented with writing that achieved its effects by violating the norms

of standard English syntax and sentence structure. The new forms of construction in

verse, prose, and narrative were emulated and carried further by many poets and

novelists; they have obvious parallels in the violation of representational conventions in

expressionism and surrealism, in the modernist paintings and sculpture of Cubism,

Futurism, and Abstract Expressionism, and in the violations of standard conventions of

melody, harmony, and rhythm by the modernist musical composers Stravinsky and

Schoenberg, and their radical followers.

A prominent feature of modernism is the phenomenon called the avant-garde (a

military metaphor: "advance-guard"); that is, a small, self-conscious group of artists

and authors who deliberately undertake, in Ezra Pound's phrase, to "make it new." By

violating the accepted conventions and proprieties, not only of art but of social

discourse, they set out to create ever-new artistic forms and styles and to introduce

hitherto neglected, and sometimes forbidden, subject matters. Frequently avant-garde

artists represent themselves as "alienated" from the established order, against which

they assert their own autonomy; a prominent aim is to shock the sensibilities of the

conventional reader and to challenge the norms and pieties of the dominant bourgeois

culture ....

The term postmodernism is often applied to the literature and art after World War II

(1939-45), when the effects on Western morale of the first war were greatly

exacerbated by the experience of Nazi totalitarianism and mass extermination, the

threat of total destruction by the atomic bomb, the progressive devastation of the

natural environment, and the ominous fact of overpopulation. Postmodernism involves

not only a continuation, sometimes carried to an extreme, of the countertraditional

experiments of modernism, but also diverse attempts to break away from modernist

forms which had, inevitably, become in their turn conventional, as well as to overthrow

the elitism of modernist "high art" by recourse for models to the "mass culture" in

film, television, newspaper cartoons, and popular music. Many of the works of

postmodern literature--by Jorge Luis Borges, Samuel Beckett, Vladimir Nabokov,

Thomas Pynchon, Roland Barthes, and many others--so blend literary genres, cultural

and stylistic levels, the serious and the playful, that they resist classification according

to traditional literary rubrics. And these literary anomalies are paralleled in other arts

by phenomena like pop art, op art, the musical compositions of John Cage, and the

films of Jean-Luc Godard and other directors.

An undertaking in some postmodernist writing is to subvert the foundations of our


- 23 -

accepted modes of thought and experience so as to reveal the "meaninglessness" of

existence and the underlying "abyss," or "void", or "nothingness" on which any

supposed security is conceived to be precariously suspended. Postmodernism in

literature and the arts has parallels with the movement known as poststructuralism in

linguistic and literary theory; poststructuralists undertake to subvert the foundations of

language in order to show that its seeming meaningfulness dissipates, for a rigorous

inquirer, into a play of conflicting indeterminacies, or else to show that all forms of

cultural discourses are manifestations of the ideology, or of the relations and

constructions of power, in contemporary society.

2. "Modernism"

(The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms--Answers.com)

*백과사전류에서 발췌한 두 개의 글을 통해서 Modernism의 다양한 양상을 알아보기 바

란다.

A general term applied retrospectively to the wide range of experimental and avant‐garde trends in the literature (and other arts) of the early 20th century, including

Symbolism, Futurism, Expressionism, Imagism, Vorticism, Dada, and Surrealism, along

with the innovations of unaffiliated writers. Modernist literature is characterized chiefly

by a rejection of 19th‐century traditions and of their consensus between author and

reader: the conventions of realism, for instance, were abandoned by Franz Kafka and

other novelists, and by expressionist drama, while several poets rejected traditional

metres in favour of free verse. Modernist writers tended to see themselves as an

avant‐garde disengaged from bourgeois values, and disturbed their readers by

adopting complex and difficult new forms and styles. In fiction, the accepted

continuity of chronological development was upset by Joseph Conrad, Marcel Proust,

and William Faulkner, while James Joyce and Virginia Woolf attempted new ways of

tracing the flow of characters' thoughts in their stream‐of‐consciousness styles. In

poetry, Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot replaced the logical exposition of thoughts with

collages of fragmentary images and complex allusions. Luigi Pirandello and Bertolt

Brecht opened up the theatre to new forms of abstraction in place of realist and

naturalist representation. Modernist writing is predominantly cosmopolitan, and often

expresses a sense of urban cultural dislocation, along with an awareness of new

anthropological and psychological theories. Its favoured techniques of juxtaposition and

multiple point of view challenge the reader to reestablish a coherence of meaning

from fragmentary forms. In English, its major landmarks are Joyce's Ulysses and

Eliot's The Waste Land (both 1922). In Hispanic literature the term has a special

sense: modernismo denotes the new style of poetry in Spanish from 1888 to c.1910,

strongly influenced by the French Symbolists and Parnassians and introduced by the

Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío and the Mexican poet Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera. For a

fuller account, consult Peter Childs, Modernism (2000).


- 24 -

3. "Modernism"

(Britannica Concise Encyclopedia--Answers.com)

In the arts, a radical break with the past and concurrent search for new forms of

expression. Modernism fostered a period of experimentation in the arts from the late

19th to the mid-20th century, particularly in the years following World War I. In an era

characterized by industrialization, rapid social change, advances in science and the

social sciences (e.g., Darwinism, Freudian theory), Modernists felt a growing alienation

incompatible with Victorian morality, optimism, and convention. The Modernist impulse

is fueled in various literatures by industrialization and urbanization, by the search for

an authentic response to a much-changed world. Among English-language writers,

the best-known Modernists are T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, and Virginia

Woolf. Composers, including Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, and Anton Webern,

sought new solutions within new forms and used as-yet-untried approaches to

tonality. In dance a rebellion against both balletic and interpretive traditions had its

roots in the work of Émile Jaques-Delcroze, Rudolf Laban, and Loie Fuller. Each of

them examined a specific aspect of dance—such as the elements of the human form

in motion or the impact of theatrical context—and helped bring about the era of

modern dance. In the visual arts the roots of Modernism are often traced back to

painter Édouard Manet, who beginning in the 1860s broke away from inherited notions

of perspective, modeling, and subject matter. The avant-garde movements that

followed—including Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Cubism, Futurism,

Expressionism, Constructivism, De Stijl, and Abstract Expressionism—are generally

defined as Modernist. Over the span of these movements, artists increasingly focused

on the intrinsic qualities of their media—e.g., line, form, and colour—and moved away

from inherited notions of art. By the beginning of the 20th century, architects also had

increasingly abandoned past styles and conventions in favour of a form of architecture

based on essential functional concerns. In the period after World War I these

tendencies became codified as the International style, which utilized simple, geometric

shapes and unadorned facades and which abandoned any use of historical reference;

the buildings of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier embodied this style.

After World War II the style manifested itself in clean-lined, unadorned glass

skyscrapers and mass housing projects.


- 25 -

정리과제

*다음의 과제들에 대해 각각 10행 이내에서 간략히 답안을 작성하여 게시하시오. (분량을

초과하거나, 별도 파일로 첨부하는 것을 피해주기 바람.)

1. 이 강의에서 다루어진 Hulme, Eliot, Woolf의 평론의 내용을 요약하고 간략히 논평

(comment)하시오.

2. 보충자료 등을 이용하여 20세기 Modernism의 특성에 대해서 정리하시오.


- 26 -

참고자료

1. Text

-Hulme's "Romanticism and Classicism"

http://www.english.ccsu.edu/jones/resources/romanticismandClassicism.pdf

-Eliot's "Tradition and the Individual Talent"

http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Tradition_and_the_Individual_Talent

http://www.bartleby.com/200/sw4.html

-Woolf's "Modern Fiction"

http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91c/chapter13.html

2. Criticism and Background

-Wikipedia

("Modernism", "Modernist Literature", "English Literature [Modernism]",

"Modernist poetry in English", "T.E. Hulme", "T.S. Eliot", "Virginia Woolf")

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

-The Modernism Lab at Yale University

http://modernism.research.yale.edu/

-Bryson's Page: Hulme

http://www.brysons.net/academic/hulme.html

-Norton Anthology ("the Twentieth Century and After", "T.S. Eliot", "Virginia Woolf",

"Modernist Manifestos")