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1.3.CALL 第2期: コミュニカティブアプローチと PC の時代 ー CAI から CALL へ ー
1980 1990
CAI CALL
multimedia hypermedia
1.3.1.CALL 第2期の教授理論的な背景60
1970 80
CAI (Hart 1995; 32) CALL
1 LL
(Richards/Rodgers 2001; 65) (Johnson/Johnson 1998; 22) (Underwood 1984;
35)( / / 1989; 57)
Chomsky
Chomsky
(functional linguistics) (social linguistics)
(pragmatics) (discourse
analysis)
(communicative
competence) Chomsky
2
(linguistic competence) Hymes (1972: 278)
1971
Modern Languages CEFR(Common
European Framework of References for Languages)
EU
van Ek Wilkins2
(Notional-Functional Syllabus) (van Ek 1975)(Wilkins 1976)
(discourse)
(Widdowson
1978) task-based
Total Physical Response the Silent
Way Community Language Learning Suggestopedia
1970 80
(Krashen/Terrell 1983)3
the Natural Approach4 Total Physical Response the
Silent Way Community Language Learning Suggestopedia
(Richards/Rodgers 2001: 71)
alternative approaches
and methods (Underwood 1984) (Ahmad
et al 1985) (Higgins/Jones 1984) CALL
(form) (meaning) (sentence)
(test/context) (accuracy) (fluency)
3
(Richards/Rodgers 2001: 156)
M. Finocchiaro C. Brumfit (Finocchiaro/Brumfit 1983)
Functional-Notional Methodology
(Finocchiaro/Brumfit 1983: 91)
No. Audio Lingual Method Functional-Notional Methodology
1. Attends to structure and form morethan meaning.
Meaning is paramount.
2. Demands memorization of structure-based dialogs.
Dialogs, if used, center aroundcommunicative functions and are notnormally memorized.
3. Language items are not necessarilycontextualized.
Contextualization is a basic premise.
4. Language Learning is learningstructures, sound, or words.
Language Learning is learning tocommunicate.
5. Mastery, or “over-learning” is sought. Effective communication is sought.6. Drilling is a central technique. Drilling may occur, but peripherally.7. Native-speaker-like pronunciation is
sought.Comprehensible pronunciation issought.
8. Grammatical explanation is avoided. Any device which helps the learners isaccepted varying according to theirage, interest, etc.
9. Communicative activities only comeafter a long process of rigid drills andexercises.
Attempts to communicate may beencouraged from the very beginning.
10. The use of student’s native language isforbidden.
Judicious use of native language isaccepted where feasible.
11. Translation is forbidden at early levels. Translation may be used where studentsneed or benefit from it.
12. Reading and writing are deferred tillspeech is mastered.
Reading and writing can start from thefirst day, if desired.
13. The target linguistic system will belearned through the overt teaching ofthe patterns of the system.
The target linguistic system will belearned best through the process ofstruggling to communicate.
14. Linguistic competence is the desiredgoal.
Communicative competence is desiredgoal (i.e., the ability to use the linguisticsystem effectively and appropriately).
15. Varieties of language are recognizedbut not emphasized.
Linguistic variation is a central conceptin materials and methodology.
4
16. The sequence of units is determinedsolely by principles of linguisticcomplexity.
Sequencing is determined by anyconsideration of content, function, ormeaning which maintains interest.
17. The teacher controls the learners andprevents them from doing anything thatconflicts with the theory.
Teachers help learners in any way thatmotivates them to work with thelanguage.
18. “Language is habit” so errors must beprevented at all costs.
Language is created by the individualoften through trial and error.
19. Accuracy, in terms of formalcorrectness, is a primary goal.
Fluent and acceptable language is theprimary goal: accuracy is judged not inthe abstract but in context.
20. Students are expected to interact withthe language system, embodied inmachines or controlled materials.
Students are expected to interact withpeople, either in the flesh, through pairand group work, or in their writings.
21. The teacher is expected to specify thelanguage that the students are to use.
The teacher cannot know exactly whatlanguage students will use.
22. Intrinsic motivation will spring from aninterest in the structure of the language.
Intrinsic motivation will spring from aninterest in what is being communicatedby the language.
No. Audio Lingual Method Functional-Notional Methodology
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
5
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
6
ideal teacher taskmaster
facilitator ideal teacher taskmaster
CAI 20
CALL
CAI5
1.3.2.CALL第2期の情報技術的な背景60 70 CAI
(mainframe)
(minicomputer)
(microcomputer)
706
CAI
7
8
(O’Shea 1983 98) CAI9
1975
(Beatty 2003: 23)
10
CAI
7
70 80
CALL
(Davies/Higgins1985: 9) (Underwood 1984: 43)
CALL
teacher
programmer
Basic teacher
programmer
PILOT
MICROTEXT (Davies/Higgins 1985: 72)
CALL
10 CAI
(Wyatt 1984: 47) CAI (Ahmad
et al 1985: 36) dilettantism
CAI
(Davies/Higgins1985: 56)11
CAI CALL
CALL
8
CALL
CALL
Athena Language
Learning Project (Beatty 2003: 26) (Levy 1997: 27)(Morgenstern 1986)
Montevidisco Project (Beatty 2003: 25) (Wyatt 1984: 102) (Davies/Higgns
1985: 41) (Schneider/Bennion 1983)
CALL
teacher programmer
(Wyatt 1984:
102) (Davies/Higgins 1985: 41) (Higgins/Johns 1985)(Underwood
1984)(Kenning/Kenning 1983)(Ahmad et al 1985)(Levy 1989)
(text manipulation) (simulation)
AI CALL12
1.3.3.CALL第2期の事例
テキスト操作プログラムCloze
test
(text deletion) (jumbler)
5 11 7
13
CLOZEWRITE (Graham Davies )
9
18 120 2 9
CLOZEMASTER (Chris Johns )
50 300 5
15 (Davies/Higgins 1985: 113)
(“~”)
TEXTBAG(Tim Johns )
(Higgins/Johns 1985: 56)
STORYBOARD(John Higgins )
Hangman
top-down
STORYBOARD
10
14 (Levy 1997: 24)
STORYBOARD
COPYWRITE(Graham Davis/John Higgins )
(Higgins/Johns 1985: 57) (Davies/Higgins 1985: 133)
John Higgins CLOSE-UP
TEXTBAG
(Higgins/Johns 1985: 57)
(Davies/Higgins 1985: 112)
(Davies/Higgins
1985: 50)
CAI The Stony Brook Project
SENTENCE SEQUENCING (Aconrsoft/ESN )
SATZSALAT 15
JUMBLER(Tim Johns )
16 SHUFFLER(John Higgins )
(Higgins/Johns 1985: 58)
11
DIALOGUE-SHUFFLER
CAI
top-down
シュミレーション型プログラム
real-time
move-base
(role-play)
(branching
stories)
(register)
(FrancisDrake1543?-1596) DRAKE
CLASSIC ADVENTURE
THA DARK CASTLE
12
(authentic)
(Davies/ Higgins 1985: 40) (Higgins/Johns 1985: 64) (Wyatt 1984: 89)(Underwood
1984: 94)17 move-base
CALL
FAST-FOOD (Davies/Higgins 1985: 118)
LONDON ADVENTURE (Davies/Higgins 1985: 46)
British Council Granville
GRANVILLE Cambridge Micro Software (Davies/
Higgins 1985: 28)
MURDER(John Higgins )
(Higgins/Johns 1985: 69)
creative reading
ACTION MAZES(Mario Rinvolucri ) text mazes
(Davies/ Higgins 1985: 29) (Higgins /Johns 1985: 65)18
STORYWRITER BRANCHING STORY(Davies/ Higgins 1985: 133, 111)
(motivation) (concentration)
13
ゲーム型教材
Hangman
ANAGRAM WORD SEQUENCE ANAGERM
WORTSALAT (Davies/Higgins 1985: 109,138,139)
(vocabulary Learning) Goethe-Institut
MEMORY (Davies/Higgins 1985: 126)
NAME THE OBJECT (Davies/Higgins 1985: 128)
JACKPOT(Chris
Jones ) (Higgins/Johns 1985:
47)
FACEMAKER(ASK ) (Higgins/Johns
1985: 118)
QUELLE TETE KOPFJÄGER (Homerton College )
PHOTOFIT(JOHN HIggins ) PHOTOFIT
compare
task transfer (Widdowson 1978 98)
14
Intelligent CALL50
(Artficial Intelligence)
Joseph Weizenbaum 1966
ELIZA DOCTOR
(Weizenbaum 1976)
Alan Turing Turing (Turing
1950)
19
ELIZA DOCTOR
FAMILIA(John Underwood )(Underwood 1984: 75)
SPION(Ruth
Sanders )20
Terry Winograd 1972
SHRDLU(Winograd 1972)
15
A B C
A
C B
Winograd SHRDLU
GRAMMARLAND
JOHN AND MARY(John Higgins/Tim Johns )
16
QUESTION(Underwood )(Underwood 1984: 72)
(Twenty Questions)
ANIMALS
ANIMALS JACKASS
(Higgins/Johns 1985: 81) GETRÄNKE
(Ahmad
et al 1985: 112)
fuzzy matching
(ellipsis)
SHRDLU
17
自己発見学習型プログラム(explorative)
(generative program)
Intelligent CALL
morphology
S-ENDING(John Higgins/Tim Johns )
A/AN(Tim Johns ) (Daies/Higgins 1985: 109, 131)
syntax
WALTER(Mike Sharples )
(Ahmad et al 1985: 111) (pragmatics)
100
LOAN Tim Johns
(Higgins/Johns1985: 73)
APOLOGIES John Higgins
(Higgins/Johns1985: 73) Intelligent CALL
(language awareness)
A/AN
S-ENDING
(Davies/Higgins 1985:52)
MADLIB
18
リスニング
Kreshan
global listening
selective listening intensive listening21
global listening
selective listening
intensive listening
Storyboad
80
CAI
CAI
ワープロ
19
その他の萌芽的事例CALL
LAN (Local Area Network)
CAI
Geroge Orwel 1984 Big Brother
(Higgins/Johns 1985: 28)(Ahmad et al 1985: 115)
LAN email
(Underwood
1984: 66)(Staton 1983)(Wyatt1984: 113)
(Higgins/Johns 1985: 88)
(autonomous) (explorative)
90 CALL
マルチメディア環境の出現と HyperCardの登場teacher programmer
80
20
Farington
(1989) 80 CALL hobbyist programmer DIY CALL
Do It Yourself CALL
OS
CUI (Character User Interface) MS-DOS GUI (Graphical
User Interface) OS
80 HyperCard
80 90
teacher programmer
HyperCard Apple 1987
HyperCard
HyperCard
(layer)
21
Cyber Physical Response22
Word
Picture Type (Wyatt 1984: 101)
HyperCard HyperTalk
1)
2)
3) if repeat
4) random
5)
6)
Farington (1989)
80 CALL
HyperCard GUI
GUI HyperCard
BASIC
80
90 CALL
22
CALL 第2期の事例の意義CAI CALL CALL
23
CALL
CALL
ideal teacher CAI
(Levy
1997; 178)
(2003.8.20. )
/ (2002):
Turing, A. M.(1950): Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind LIX (236).
Weizenbaum, J. (1976):Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to
Calculation. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Winograd, T.(1972): Understanding Natural Language. New York: Academic Press.
Staton, J.(1983): Dialogue Journals: A new Tool for Teaching Communication. In:
ERIC/CLL News Bulletin 6.2:1-2, 6.
Hymes, D. (1972): On communicative competence. In: J.B.Pride/J. Holmes(eds)
Sociolinguistics, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 269-93.
Richards, J. C./ Rodgers, T. S. (2001):Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching(2nd ed). Cambridge ; New York, Cambridge University Press.
/ / (1989): .
NAFL 10. .
Rüschoff & Wolff (1999
Rüschoff & Ritte(2001)
Legutke (1998)
Pennington, M. C.(1996): The Power of the Computer in Language Education. in The
23
Power of CALL, Pennington, M. C.(Ed.), 1-14.
Davies, G./Higgins, J.(1985): Using Computers in Language Learning: A Teacher’s
Guide. Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research.London.
Gueulette, D.G.(ed.) (1982): Microcomputers for Adult Learning. Chicago: Follett.
(1992):
(1996): .
87. .
Widdowson, H. G. (1978): Teaching language as Communication. Oxford: Pxford
University Press.
Kemmis, S./Atkins, R./Wright, E. (1977): How do Students Learn? -Working papers on
Computer Assisted Learning Occasional Paper 5, Centre for Applied Research in
Education, University of East Anglia.
Kenning, M.J./ Kenning, M.M.(1983): Introduction to Computer Assisted Language
Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kiesler, S., Siegel,J. and McGuire,T.(1984): Social psychological aspects of computer-
mediated communications. Ameirrcan Psychologist, 39, 1123-1134
Sproull, L. and Kiesler, S.(1986): Reduced social context cues: Electronic mail in
organizational communication. Management Science, 32, 1492-1512
Birdwhistell, R.(1970): Kinesics and Context, Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania
Press.
Mehrabian, A.(1968): Communication without Words, in Psychology Today, II
(September 1968), 52-55.
Rivers(1964): The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher,Univerity of
Chicago Press.
Johnson, K./ Johnson H. ed.(1998): Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
(2001)
Wilkins, D. A.(1976):Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
van Ek, J. A. (1975): The Threshold Level in a European Unit/Credit System for
Modern Language Teaching by Adults. Systems Development in Adult Language
Learning. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Underwood, J. H.(1984):Linguistics, Computers, and the Language Teacher: A
Communicative Approach. Pergamon Institute of English.
24
Ahmad, K./Corbett, G./Rogers, M./Sussex R.(1985): Computers, Language Learning
and Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(1977) . .
Chapelle, C. / Jamieson,J.(1984): Language Lessons on the PLATO IV System. In:
Wyatt, D. H.(1984a), 13-20.
Wyatt, D. H.(1984a):Computer-Assisted Language Instruction. Pergamon Institute of
English.
Wyatt, D. H. (1984b): Computers and ESL. Prentice-Hall.
Hardisty, D./ Windeatt, S.(1989):CALL. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
Merrill, M. D. (1983): Component Display Theory. In: Reigeluth,C. M. (1983):
Instructional-Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their Current Status.
London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 279-333.
(1995): . .
Heermann, B.(1988): Teaching and Learning with Computers : A Guide for College
Faculty and Administrators. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.
O'Shea, T./ Self, J.(1983): Learning and Teaching with Computers : Artificial
Intelligence in Education. Brighton : Harvester.
Skinner, B. F. (1957) Verbal Behaviour.
T , J (1984) :
. . : .
Hart, R. S. (1995): The Illinois PLATO Foreign Languages Project, in CALICO Journal
12.4: 15-37, 1995.
Loritz, D.(1995): The Adolescence of CALL, Donald Loritz, in CALICO Journal 12.4:
47-56, 1995.
Borchardt, F. L. (1995): Language and Computing at Duke University: or, Virtue
Triumphant, for the Time Being, in CALICO Journal 12.4: 57-83, 1995.
Jones, R. L. (1995): TICCIT and CLIPS: The Early Years, in CALICO Journal 12.4: 84-
96, 1995.
Künzel S. (1995): Processors Processing: Learning Theory and CALL, in CALICO
Journal 12.4: 106-113, 1995.
Elling, B. (1995): The Stony Brook “Experiment” and How it Grew: An Interview with
John R. Russell, in CALICO Journal 12.4: 128-136, 1995.
Ruplin, F. A. (1995): From #2 Pencil to #2 Pencil: Some Musings About the Stony
25
Brook Project, in CALICO Journal 12.4: 137-143, 1976.
Boyle, T. A. / Smith, W. F. / Eckert, R. G.(1976): Computer-mediated testing: A
Branched Program Achievement Test, in Modern Language Journal 60.8: 428-440,
1976.
Decker, H. W. (1976): Computer-aided Instructionin in French Syntax, in Modern
Language Journal 60.5/6: 263-267, 1976.
Allen, J. R. (1972): Individualizing Foreign Language Instruction with Computers at
Dartmouth, in Foreign Language Annals 5.3: 348-349, 1972.
Nelson, G. E./Ward, J. R. / Desch, S. H. /Kaplow, R. (1976): Two New Strategies for
Computer-Assisted Language Instruction, in Foreign Language Annals 9.1: 28-37,
1976.
Turner, R. C. (1970): “CARLOS”: Computer-Assisted Instruction in Spanish, in
Hispania 53: 249-252, 1970
Langr, B. J.,/Seybolt, R. A.(1976): A Computerized Universal Spanish Grammar Drill
Program, in: Seventh Conference on Computers in the Undergraduate Curricula,
Binghamton, State University of New York, 1976, edited by Willoughby, T. C.
Skinner, B. F. (1954): The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching. Harvard
Educational Review, 24:86-97. Reprinted in Lumsdaine, A.A./Glaser, R. edit. (1960):
Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning: A Source Book. Washington,
Department of Audio Visual Instruction, National Education Association of the United
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Skinner, B. F. (1957): Verbal Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall.
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Research Council.
Hammond, A. L. (1972): CAI: Many Efforts, Mixed Results, Science, 176, 1005-06.
1
2
Situational Language Teaching
26
(Richards/Rodgers 2001:153)3 (Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis)
(Monitor Hypothesis) (natural Order Hypothesis) (Input Hypothesis) (Affective Filter Hypothesis)
(Richards/Rodgers 2001: 178-) ( 1995:162-)4 input Natural Approach
5 CAI
(Heermann 1988:5 Gueulette 1982: 181 ) 1980
teaching machine(Heermann 1988)
6
1968 A. C. Kay 1996: 45
1992: 1996: 42 1971
4
7 CAI PLATO TICCIT
8 (Nelson et al. 1976; 30) (Hammond 1972; 1006) The Stanford
Project
9(O’Shea 1983 98) PLATO IV35 70 1.17
(BPAT)Branched ProgramAchievement Test
(Boyle et al 1976)10 Apple II BBC micro IBM PC RML
27
380z/480z Commodore PET Commodore 64, Commodore 4032, Commodore VIC TRS-80Sinclair Spectrum Electron11 90 CALL
12 1980 (Davis/Higgins
1985) (p.109-9.144)
13
14
15 WORD SEQUENCING(Aconrsoft/ESN ) WORTSALAT16
17
( 2001?) 18 80 CALL
Hypertext19 Alan Turing(1912-1954)
Turing machine
20
DIALOG-CRIT(Burckhardt Leuschner )
STORTMAKER(DanielChandler )
(Higgins/Johns 1985:60)21
SPEEDREAD(Arthur Rope )(Davies/Higgins 1985: 70)(Wyatt 1984: 56)note taking testing
(Wyatt 1985: 105)22 Mario Rinvolucri 2000 JALT
Total Physical Response Virtual Physical
28
Response23 (Underwood 1984: 52) communikative CALL
13