Upload
haduong
View
221
Download
3
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Chapter-2 Literature Review
44
CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Plants under study
2.1.1 Genus Cassia
Cassia Linn, a genus of ornamental herbs, shrubs & trees widely distributed
predominantly in tropical & warm temperate regions. Genus Cassia consists of
around400 species and only 45 are found in India. (Kritikar and Basu, 2003;
Anonymous, Wealth of India, 1992; Mittal, 2011).
Several species of Cassia are grown as ornamental for their white, yellow, pink or red
flower. The best known is the GOLDEN SHOWER - C. fistula. The most Cassia
species bloom during the summer (like C. fistula, C. occidentalis, C. tora), few bloom
during the winter (like C. alata, C. multijuga) and some blooms throughout the year
C. siamea (Anonymous, Wealth of India, 1992).
Cassia species require tropical and sub-tropical climate for proper growth. The
propagation the common method is through seeds. When seeds are scarce then other
methods are used like layering, grafting
Several species of Cassia produce timber, tannins, dyes, fodder, vegetables, fruits and
medicines. Seeds of some species are used as substitute for coffee (e.g. C. tora seeds)
and source of gum (e.g. C.alata, C. javanica, C. pumila and C. grandis). The genus
Cassia has many pharmacological activities including wound healing. Therefore,
three species of Cassia has been selected in the present study.
Taxonomic classification (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassia (genus))
Kingdom : Plantae – Plants
Subkingdom : Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Super division : Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division : Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class : Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Subclass : Rosidae
Order : Fabales
Family : Fabaceae
Sub family : Caesalpiniacaeae
Genus : Cassia
Chapter-2 Literature Review
45
Species of Cassia under study:
(i) C. fistula Linn.
Common name: Golden Shower, Indian Laburnum
(ii) C. occidentalis Linn.
Common name: Coffee-senna, Negro-coffee
(iii) C. tora Linn.
Common name: Sickle sennna, Foetid cassia
Literature Reviewed
∗∗∗∗ Singh V (1976) presented the brief description of diagnostic characters with
their local names, uses, flowering and fruiting time of various species of genus
Cassia found in Rajasthan. This study helps in correct identification,
nomenclature and taxonomic status of these species.
∗∗∗∗ Elujoba et al. (1989) investigated the anthraquinone content and of 10 species
of Cassia, grown in Nigeria. They also evaluated the laxative activity of these
species in male albino rats and compared with Senna leaves. They found that C.
podocarpa and C. alata had higher anthraquinone content. The laxative activity
of C. podocarpa was same as that of standard i.e. Senna leaves. From this study
it was concluded that these two species of Cassia can be used for drug
development in Nigeria that can be used as laxative.
∗∗∗∗ Joshi and Jafar (1993) studied and evaluated the marginal trichome which is a
diagnostic character in the identification of some closely related species of
genus Cassia Linn. They found that shape and type of marginal trichomes were
highly specific in identification of medicinally important species of Cassia viz.
C. alata, C. auriculata, C. bifliora, C. glauca, C. grandis, C. fistula and C.
siamea.
∗∗∗∗ Rai PP (1993) determined quantitative numerical values of fresh leaves of
different Cassia species such as stomatal number, stomatal index, palisade ratio,
vein-islet number and vein-termination number. These values have been
regarded as diagnostic constant for identification of these Cassia species.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
46
∗∗∗∗ Agarkar and Jadge (1999) reviewed the phytochemical and pharmacological
investigation of genus Cassia. In this review they described the phytochemical
and pharmacological investigations carried out on various species of Cassia. In
this study they observed that about 26 species of Cassia contain anthracene
derivatives. Some of the species showed diuretic, antidiabetic antibiotic,
antipyretic, antiasthmatic, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, antibronchitis
activities.
∗∗∗∗ Ganapaty et al. (2002) presented a review on phytoconstituents and biological
activities of Cassia species. They found that there are about 580 species of this
genus distributed all around the world and only 46 species have been studied
phytochemically. From this study they concluded that Cassia species are still
potential source of many phytoconstituents that may have biological activities.
∗∗∗∗ Oladunmoye et al. (2007) studied the effect of methanolic extracts of leaves of
six Cassia species on release of proteins, sodium and potassium ions by some
pathogenic bacteria in broth culture containing these extracts. They found that
Cassia auriculata showed maximum leakage of these ions and proteins whereas
Cassia mimosoides showed the minimum leakage. From these studies they
concluded that antimicrobial activity of these extracts may be due to leakage of
these cellular constituents.
∗∗∗∗ Ogundipe et al. (2009) studied morphological and anatomical characters of
foliar epidermal cells and petiole in some Nigerian species of Senna (synonym:
Cassia) belonging to family Caesalpiniaceae. The species they selected for this
study were S. occidentalis, S. hirsute, S. alata, S. podocarpa, S. sophera and S.
nodosa. The results of this study are helpful in identification of these plants and
in prevention of adulteration especially in the pharmacognostic research.
∗∗∗∗ El-Hashash et al. (2010) investigated antioxidant activity of methanolic extract
of the leaves of seven Egyptian Cassia species using DPPH and
Phosphomolybdate assay method. They also determined total phenolic and
flavonoid content of the extracts. The results showed that C. glauca has
maximum antioxidant activity than other extracts. This potent extract was
subjected to fractionation using chloroform, ethyl acetate and butanol. They
Chapter-2 Literature Review
47
determined the antioxidant activity of these fractions and found that ethyl acetate
fraction has high activity. From this study they concluded that antioxidant
activity increases with increase in total phenolic content.
∗∗∗∗ Chanda et al. (2012) evaluated antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of stem
and leave of four Cassia species viz. C. auriculkata, C. fistula, C. siamea and C.
tora. For this study they prepared acetone, methanol and aqueous extracts. The
antioxidant activity was determined using DPPH, superoxide and hydroxyl anion
radical scavenging assay and reducing assay methods. They also determined
total phenolic and flavonoid contents. They found a direct correlation between
antioxidant activity and phenol contents. For antimicrobial activity they used 8
bacterial and 4 fungal strains. From this study they concluded that C. auriculata
showed substantial antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.
∗∗∗∗ Dave H and Ledwani L (2012) presented a review on anthraquinones isolated
from different species of Cassia along with their applications. They concluded
that plants of Cassia species can serve as a commercial source for naturally
occurring anthraquinones.
∗∗∗∗ Tripathi and Mondal (2012) studied stomatal characters of six species of
Cassia which are medicinally important in South West Bengal region. They
performed leaf epidermal studies that includes presence of stomata, types of
stomata, stomatal number stomatal index and shape of the epidermal cells They
compared qualitatively as well as quantitatively all the six species of Cassia they
studied. They found that paracytic stomata are more common in Cassia species.
∗∗∗∗ Veerachari et al. (2012) investigated comparative qualitative phytochemical
studies on six species of Cassia. In this study they prepared ethanolic,
methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts of leaves of C. alata, C. surratensis, C.
occidentalis, C. auriculata, C. sericea and C. tora using maceration method.
These extracts were subjected for qualitative phytochemical studies for the
presence of various phytoconstituents like alkaloids, tannins, carbohydrates,
proteins, anthraquinones, phenolic flavonoids, saponins, flavonoids,
anthocyanosides, cardiacglycosides and phlobatannins. The results showedthe
Chapter-2 Literature Review
48
presence of all of the said constituents excluding saponins, anthraquinones,
anthocyanosides and phenolic flavonoids in some extracts.
∗∗∗∗ Singh et al. (2013) reviewed various Cassia species for their pharmacological,
traditional and medicinal values in various developing countries. They provided
compiled information for the development of new drug molecules from different
Cassia species for the treatment of various disorders and concluded that Cassia
species have immense biological potential for unexplored activities. In this
review, they found 57 endangered species of Cassia and 52 Cassia species with
their geographical distribution and synonyms. They also mentioned 10 Cassia
species with their chemical constituents and medicinal activity.
∗∗∗∗ Singh et al. (2013) presented a comprehensive review on pharmacological,
medicinal and traditional value of plants of Cassia species (Caesalpiniaceae) in
developing countries.
∗∗∗∗ Sushma Rani and Sardana S (2014) evaluated and compare three species of
Cassia viz. C. fistula, C. occidentalis and C. tora for pharmacognostic
parameters. The result reveals that these species differ in macro- and
microscopic characters and physico-chemical constants. Thus, helpful in
identification and standardization of quality and purity of these species.
2.1.2 Cassia fistula Linn.
Cassia fistula Linn. is a moderate sized deciduous tree up to 15 m in height and 1.8 m
in breadth . It is cultivated as ornamental tree because of attractive yellow flowers
blooms in the form of pendant racemes. It is the national tree of Thailand, and its
flower is Thailand's national flower. It is also the state flower of Kerala in India. It is a
popular ornamental plant and also used in herbal medicine.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassia_fistula)
Common name: Golden Shower, Indian Laburnum, Purging Cassia or Fistula
(Anonymous, Wealth of India, 1992).
Chapter-2 Literature Review
49
Vernacular Names of Cassia fistula Linn.
Languages Vernacular Names
Assamese Sonaru
Bengali Amaltas, Bandarlathi
English Indian Laburnum, Purging cassia, Golden Shower
Guajarati Garmala, Garmalo
Hindi Amaltas, Bandarlauri
Malaya Sonawir
Malayalam Kanikonna, Svarnaviram
Marathi Bahava, Bhawabaya
Punjabi Alash, Kaniar
Sanskrit Nripadruma, Argwadha
Tamil Konnei, Shrakkannai
Telugu Aragvadhamu, Suvarnamu
Oriya Amaltas, Sunari
Urdu Amaltas
Chapter-2
Botanical Description:
Barkis greyish and smooth when young and dark brown and rough when old.
Leaves are pinnately compound 20 to 40 cm long, rachis and petioles are glandless.
Leaflets are 4 to 8 pairs, ovate, acute, and bright green and glabrous above and pale
and densely pubescent underneath.
Flowersare bright yellow in colour and are in axillary lax
racemes, blooms in the month of April to June when it is leafless.
Fruits / Ripe Pods are cylindrical, straight or slightly curved, smooth dark brown or
black in color, 30 to 60 cm long and 2
Seeds are biconcave,
dark colored sweetish pulp and completely separated by transverse
dissepiments.
Root is reddish brown and rough externally with horizontal lenticels and smooth and
light pink internally.
50
Plate 2.1: Aerial parts of Cassia fistula Linn.
Botanical Description:
is greyish and smooth when young and dark brown and rough when old.
are pinnately compound 20 to 40 cm long, rachis and petioles are glandless.
are 4 to 8 pairs, ovate, acute, and bright green and glabrous above and pale
and densely pubescent underneath.
are bright yellow in colour and are in axillary lax pendulous or hanging
racemes, blooms in the month of April to June when it is leafless.
are cylindrical, straight or slightly curved, smooth dark brown or
black in color, 30 to 60 cm long and 2-2.5 cm in diameter.
broadly ovate, light brown, 40 to 80 in numbers immersed in
dark colored sweetish pulp and completely separated by transverse
reddish brown and rough externally with horizontal lenticels and smooth and
light pink internally.
Literature Review
Linn.
is greyish and smooth when young and dark brown and rough when old.
are pinnately compound 20 to 40 cm long, rachis and petioles are glandless.
are 4 to 8 pairs, ovate, acute, and bright green and glabrous above and pale
pendulous or hanging
racemes, blooms in the month of April to June when it is leafless.
are cylindrical, straight or slightly curved, smooth dark brown or
broadly ovate, light brown, 40 to 80 in numbers immersed in
dark colored sweetish pulp and completely separated by transverse
reddish brown and rough externally with horizontal lenticels and smooth and
Chapter-2 Literature Review
51
Parts used:
Pods, Fruit pulp, Flowers, Bark, Leaves and Roots.
Distribution:
It is distributed throughout larger part of India, goes up to an altitude of 1220 m in the
Sub-Himalayan tract and outer Himalaya, abundant in forest tracts throughout upper
Gangetic plain of Bengal, Central India and deciduous
Cultivation:
It is cultivated as an ornamental plant for attractive yellow blossoms in pendant
racemes forests of South India. This tree is commonly planted on roadsides and in the
gardens. It grows under a varied range of climatic variations. In its natural
environment it can grow at absolute maximum shade temperature from 35oC to
47.5oC and absolute minimum temperature from 0 oC to 17.5 oC. The annual rainfall
from 450 to 3000 mm can be tolerable but flourishes best when rainfall is in between
750 – 1900 mm.
It can be cultivated by natural regeneration or artificial regeneration (Anonymous,
the wealth of India, 1992).
In natural regeneration the ripe pods fall on the ground and regenerated by their own.
In artificial regeneration, the plant can be cultivated through direct sowing or
transplanting the nursery raised saplings or stump-planting.
Seeds can be sawn in March- April, sprouting appears early during the rains and some
germinate in the next year. Weeding is important than watering as it is sensitive to
weeds than drought. The fruits are collected when ripe and kept under soil for seven
days and dried in the sun. The pulp is separated and stored in air tight containers.
Chemical constituents: (Chatterjee A and Pakrash SC, 2006)
Seeds:Sugar and galactomannan
Flowers:Ceryl alcohol, fistulin, Leucopelargonidin trimer and tetramer, Kaemferol,
rhein, dianthraquinone glucoside, fistulin rhamnoside, aurantiamide acetate,
stigmasterol, 28-isofucosterol, sitosterol, methyl eugenol and gibberellic acid.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
52
Fruit Pulp: Proteins, carbohydrates, amino acids, arginine, leucine, methionine,
phenylalanine, tryptophan, aspartic, glutamic acid, glucose, sucrose and
fructose.
Pods: 1,4-dihydroxy-6, 7-dimethoxy-2-methyl-anthraquinone-3-carboxylic acid
(fistulic acid). Pulp contains sennosides A and B, rhein and its glucoside
Stem Bark: (+) Catechin, epicatechin, Kaempferol, Lupeol, β-sitosterol and
hexacosanol.
Leaves: Chrysophanol, physcion, Kaempferol, quercetin, (-)-epiafzelechin and its
glucopyranoside, isomer of epiafzelechin, epicatechin, sennoside A and B,
gallic, protocatechuic, ellagic, citric, malic and succinic acid.
Plant: Seven bioflavonoids, two triflovonoids, clitorin, chrysophanic acid, emodine,
epicatechin, kaempferol-3-β- glucoside, kaempferol-3-neohesperidoside and
procyanidin.
Chemical structure of important phytoconstituents present in Cassia fistula
Linn. (Bahorun et al. 2005)
CH2OH
OHOOH
O
Aloe-emodine
O OH
CH3
OH
O
1,3-Dihydroxy-2-methyl anthraquinone (Rubiadin)
Chapter-2 Literature Review
53
OH OHO
OR2 R1
CH3H
COOH HCH3 OHCH3 -OCH3
OH OHO
O
CH3
OH
COOHMeO
MeO
O
O
OH
OH
HH
COOH
COOH
R1 R2
Chrysophanol
RheinEmodinPhyscion
Fistulic acid
B-D-glc-O
B-D-glc-O
10
10'
C -10 C -10'
Sennoside A R RSennoside B R S
Chemical structures of main anthraquinone derivatives present in
Cassia fistula Linn.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
54
O
OH
OH
O
OH
OH
OHO
OH
OH
O
OH
OH
OH
O
OH
OHOH
OH
OH
O
OH
OHOH
OH
OH
O
OH O
OH
OR
MeO
OH
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
H
H
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
H
H
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
Procyanidin B2
O
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
OH
Kaempferol
(+) epiafzelechin
(-) epiafzelechin
R = Gentiobiose
Rhamnetin 3-O-Gentiobioside
(+) Catechin (+) Epicatechin
Quercetin
Chemical structures of main flavonols and flavonol derivatives present in C.
fistula Linn.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
55
Traditional uses: (Sharma et al, 2005; Database on Medicinal Plants, Vol 2,
CCRAS, New Delhi, pp 29-48)
Roots:Roots and its bark possess astringent, cooling, tonic, purgative, anti-
inflammatory properties and also useful in dyspepsia, flatulence, abdominal
distention, hepatobiliary disorders, constipation, skin diseases, wounds,
ulcers, leprosy, tubercular lymphagitis, syphilis, fever, heart diseases and
UTI
Leaves: Laxatives, anti-inflammatory, ulcers healing, rheumatism, skin diseases,
Flowers: Cooling, astringent, demulscent, bitter, acrid and have lubricating effect.
They are used in dry cough and bronchitis,
Fruits: It is used as digestant, purgative, antipyretic, blood purifier, emollient and
diuretic. It is also used in jaundice, leprosy and abdominal pain. Fruit pulp is
sweet, cooling with pleasant taste. It is applied externally for gout,
rheumatism, snake bite etc.
Seeds: Sweet, laxative, carminative, cooling, antipyretic and emetics. It also improve
appetite. Seed powder is used in amoebiasis.
Substantiated pharmacological activities:
� Hypoglycaemic activity
� Anticancer activity
� Abortifacient activity
� Anticolic activity
� Antifertility activity
� Estrogenic activity
� Laxative activity
� Purgative activity
� Antimicrobial activity
� Antibacterial activity
� Antipyretic activity
� Anti-inflammatory activity
� Antitussive activity
� Analgesic activity
Chapter-2 Literature Review
56
� Antifungal activity
� Hepatoprotective activity
� Antioxidant activity
Marketed Formulations containing Cassia fistula (Thirumal et al. 2012)
Sr.
No. Formulation
Therapeutic
Use Manufacturer
1 Constivac Bowel regulator Lupin Herbals
2 Pilex Piles Himalaya Drug Company
3 Purian Detoxifier Himalaya Drug Company
Literature Reviewed:
∗∗∗∗ Prasad CB. (1982) studied 75 plants for mean survival time of mice infected
intracerebrally with vaccinia virus and found that Cassia fistula bark increases
the mean survival time (MST) of infected mice.
∗∗∗∗ Mahesh et al. (1984) reported presence of kaempferol and mixture of
anthraquinone such as chrysophanol, rhein and physcion on phytochemical
examination of ethanol extract of leaves of C. fistula.
∗∗∗∗ Shukla et al. (1988) studied amoebicidal and cysticidal activity of whole seed
powder of Cassia fistula. They cured experimental caecal amoebiasis of rat,
hepatic amoebiasis of golden hamster and intestinal amoebiasis of man.
∗∗∗∗ Esposito et al. (1991) evaluated aqueous extract fraction of leaves and stem of
Cajanus cajan L. and Cassia fistula L. on carbohydrate metabolism in mice.
They found that Cajanus cajan extract at a dose of 300mg/kg showed
hypoglycaemia for a short time but at high dose i.e. 500 and 1000mg it
showed hyperglycaemia. On the other hand Cassia fistula produced significant
hypoglycaemia.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
57
∗∗∗∗ Singh et al. (1992) studied the effect of aqueous extract of Cassia fistula
flowersat dose of 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight when administered for 15
days in reproductive organs of female albino rats. They found that this extract
showed follicular atresia and absence of corpus luteum at 200mg/kg.
∗∗∗∗ Barthakul et al. (1995),analysed the fruit of C. fistulafor organic and mineral
nutrients. They found that these fruits contains good amount of Iron, Calcium
and Manganese which are even higher than that present in common fruits like
apple, peach, apricot, pear and orange.They also found thatthis fruit had high
energy content. From this study they concluded thatit can be a good source of
important nutrients and energy for humans.
∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al. (1997) reported the hypoglycemic effect of the methanolic
extract of Cassia fistula leaves in alloxan induced diabetic rats. The extract
showed significant decrease in blood glucose concentration in diabetic rats.
∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al.(1998) evaluated methanolic extract of leaves of C. fistula Linn.
for wound healing activity in excision and incision wound models in the form
of ointment. The 5% and 10% w/w ointment was used for wound healing
activity. The result showed substantial wound healing activity in both models.
∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al. (1998) investigated methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia
fistula for antitussive activity in sulphur dioxide gas induced cough model in
mice. The extract exhibited momentous antitussive activity on oral
administration. The maximum inhibition of cough occurred by 44.44% and
51.85% at dose of 400 and 600 mg/kg respectively with respect to control.
∗∗∗∗ Kumar et al. (1998) studied Leukotriene inhibitory activity of methanol
extract prepared from fruits of C. fistula by inhibiting 5-lipoxygenase enzymes
in bovine polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
∗∗∗∗ Mazumdar et al. (1998) evaluated analgesic and sedative activity of methanol
extract of seeds of Cassia fistula in mice. They found that methanol extract
potentiated the sedative actions of sodium pentobarbitone, diazepam,
meprobamate and chlorpromazine and analgesic action of morphine and
Chapter-2 Literature Review
58
pethidine significantly. The potentiation of sedative and analgesic effect
increases with increase in dose.
∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al. (1999) investigated the hepatoprotective activity of leaves of
Cassia fistula in rats. They used n-heptane extract of leaves for activity. The
hepatotoxicity was induced using carbon tetrachloride and liquid paraffin in
the ratio of 1:1. The extract showed significant hepatoprotective activity at 400
mg/kg which causes significant decrease in serum level of transaminases
(SGOT and SGPT), bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase when compared with
control group.
∗∗∗∗ Gupta et al. (2000) studied the antitumor activity of methanolic extract of
seeds of C. fistula L. on growth of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and life span of
mice having tumor. The extract showed increase in life span and decrease in
volume of tumor and viable tumor cell count in tumor bearing mice. It also
causes enhancement in Hb content, RBC and bone marrow cell count.
∗∗∗∗ Bhakta et al. (2001) studied the hepatoprotective activity of the n-heptane
extract of leaves of Cassia fistula in rats. Hepatotoxicity was induced by
Paracetamol. They found that extract, at a dose of 400 mg/kg when
administered orally, showed substantial hepatoprotective activity.
∗∗∗∗ Luximon et al. (2002) estimated antioxidant activity and total phenolic
content, proanthocynidine and flavonoid content in vegetative and
reproductive organs of Cassia fistula. They found that antioxidant activity was
higher in reproductive organs including fruits than vegetative parts. They also
correlate the antioxidant activity with total phenols.
∗∗∗∗ Siddhuraju et al. (2002) studied antioxidant activity of ethanolic extracts
(90%) of leaves, stem bark, pulp and flowers of C. fistula L. The antioxidant
activity was determined using different methods viz. thiocyanate assay
method, reducing power assay method, superoxide radical scavenging and
DPPH radical scavenging assay methods. They also determined total phenolic
content in all extracts. The antioxidant activity and total phenolic contents
Chapter-2 Literature Review
59
were found to be higher in stem bark and minimum in flowers and pulp. They
linked antioxidant activity with total phenolic content.
∗∗∗∗ Manonmani et al. (2005) studied aqueous extract of C. fistula flowers for
antioxidant activity in heart tissue of alloxane induced diabetic rats. They
found that activity of antioxidant enzymes come to normal level after
treatment with aqueous extract which was decreased in diabetic rats.
∗∗∗∗ Muthusamy et al. (2006) studied the wound healing activity of alcoholic
extract of leaves of C. fistula in infected wound model in albino rats. They
also investigated antibacterial activity of extract against Staphylococcus
aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. For wound healing activity they applied
the formulated ointment on infected dermal wound and estimated various
parameters and found that Cassia fistula can be used in the management of
infected wounds.
∗∗∗∗ Duraipandiyan (2007) evaluated antibacterial and antifungal activity of
different extracts of flowers of C. fistula using disc diffusion method. All
tested extracts showed antibacterial activity against all Gram positive
organisms and only one Gram negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeroginosa)but
ethyl acetate extract showed maximum activity. Therefore, they fractionated
this extract. The fraction of ethyl acetate extract also showed antifungal
activity.
∗∗∗∗ Sartorelli et al. (2007) isolated sterol, clerosterol, from hexane extract of
fruits of C. fistula. They evaluated the antileishmanial activity of isolated
stereol and crude extract against visceral form of leishmaniasis. From these
studies they found that extract and isolated compound had high sensitivity
against leishmaniasis and less toxic to mammalian cells than standard drug
pentamidine.
∗∗∗∗ Einstein et al. (2008) studied the protective effect of flowers, leaves and bark
of Cassia fistula on human umbilical vein endothelial cells against glycated
protein induced toxicity in vitro. The protective effect of extracts was
Chapter-2 Literature Review
60
estimated by tryptan blue exclusion and MTT assay method. Hence these
extracts can be used in prevention of diabetic angiopathies.
∗∗∗∗ Nafisa Hasan Ali et al. (2008) studied immunomodulatory effect of aqueous
extract of fruits of C. fistula and its synergistic effect with amoxicillin i.e.
‘Amoxy – cassia (patent # 1371240, Government of Pakistan) on humoral
immune system of balb/c mice. For immunomodulatory effect, they
immunized the mice with sheep RBCs (SRBC) and determined number of
activated anti-SRBC producing cells in spleen which is calculated by
haemolytic plaque assay and haemoagglutination test. The results showed that
both Amoxy-cassia and aqueous extract of C. fistula stimulates immune
system by activating anti RBC producing cells in the spleen but highest
activity was observed in Amoxy-cassia treated mice.
∗∗∗∗ Gupta and Jain (2009) evaluated hypolipidemic activity of 50% alcoholic
extract of legume of C. fistula in rats. They induced hyperlipidemia by
administering cholesterol orally in a dose of 500mg/kg body weight per day
for 90 days. Concurrently they also administered alcoholic extract at different
dose levels to test groups. They found that extract inhibit the increase in serum
lipid level i.e. LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides levels but increases the HDL-
cholesterol level when compared with control group. The hypolipidemic effect
increases with increase in dose.
∗∗∗∗ Patwardhan et al. (2009) evaluated hepatoprotective activity of ethanolic
extract of bark of Cassia fistula against CCl4 induced hepatic damage in rats.
The hepatoprotective activity was assessed by measuring various biochemical
parameters for LFT and histopathological examination of liver. They found
that extract of bark of Cassia fistula at dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg
significantly decreased all the elevated biochemical parameters in comparison
to control group, therefore can be used as hepatoprotective drug.
∗∗∗∗ Sakulpanich and Gritsanapan (2009) determined anthraquinone glycoside
content in C. fistula leaves collected from ten different locations in the
Thailand. The total anthraquinone glycosides were determined by using UV-
Visible Spectrophotometer in leaf extract prepared by decoction method in
Chapter-2 Literature Review
61
terms of rhein. They found that rhein content was greater in leaves collected
from region where the weather was hot in summer and minimum in those
collected from region where the climate was cool and rainy whole of the year.
∗∗∗∗ Silawat et al. (2009) studied the mechanism of hypoglycemic effect of
hydroalcoholic extract of leaves of C. fistula at 200 and 400 mg/kg body
weight in alloxan induced diabetic rats. They used glibenclamide as standard
(0.5 mg/kg body wt.). The extract showed hypoglycemic and antidiabetic
effect and therefore can be used in Type I and Type II diabetes.
∗∗∗∗ Awal et al. (2010) studied antibacterial activity of alcoholic extracts of leaves
and roots of C. fistula against five Gram-positive and nine Gram-negative
bacteria using disc diffusion method. The results of the studies showed that
leaf extract at concentration of 200µg/disc showed better antibacterial activity
than root extract against tested microorganisms.
∗∗∗∗ Gobianand et al. (2010) evaluated Anti-inflammatory and Antipyretic
activities of Cassia fistula Linn. (Golden Shower) in wistar albino rats. For
anti-inflammatory activity, carrgeenan induced Inflammation (rat paw edema)
and cotton pellet granuloma models were used and for antipyretic activity
TAB Vaccine induced pyrexia model was used. Extract showed analgesic and
antipyretic effect.
∗∗∗∗ Karthikeyan and Gobianand (2010) evaluated antiulcer activity of ethanol
extract of leaves of cassia fistula in pylorus ligated rats. They found that at
dose of 750 mg/kg it produced maximum antiulcer activity. The antiulcer
activity was assessed by decrease in gastric acid secretion, inhibition of free
radical generation, prevention of lipid peroxidation and antioxidant activity of
the extract.
∗∗∗∗ Patel et al. (2010) studied antipyretic activity of petroleum ether, chloroform
and methanol extracts of bark of Cassia fistula in albino rats at dose of
300mg/kg orally after 19 hrs. of induction of pyrexia. Pyrexia was induced by
administering 10ml/kg of 15% suspension of yeast s/c. All these extracts
Chapter-2 Literature Review
62
showed significant antipyretic activity but methanol extract had maximum
antipyretic activity.
∗∗∗∗ Adnan et al. (2011) determined reno-protective effect of ethanolic extract of
leaves of C. fistula against diabetic nephropathy in rats. Diabetic nephropathy
was induced using single i.p. injection of streptozotocin. Before inducing
diabetes they estimated various biochemical parameters viz. serum glucose,
serum urea, serum creatinine, total urinary protein, microalbuminuric levels
and body weight. After inducing diabetes the drug was administered for 8
weeks and all parameters were compared with positive and negative control.
For standard they used Glibenclamide. After 60 days of drug administration
they found that extract at dose of 500 mg/kg reduced all parameters and
showed reno-protective effect on streptozotocin induced diabetic nephropathy
in rats.
∗∗∗∗ Aneja et al. (2011) evaluated antimicrobial activity of methanol, ethanol,
acetone and aqueous extracts of flowers, leaves and bark of Cassia fistula
against pathogens causing otitis externa using agar well diffusion method.
They found that organic extracts had antimicrobial activity against all tested
pathogens and acetone extract of flowers showed maximum zone of inhibition
against S. aureus.
∗∗∗∗ Bhalodia and Shukla (2011) investigated antibacterial and antifungal
activities of hydroalcoholic extract of leaves of C. fistula against Gram +ve,
gram –ve and fungal strains. The maximum antibacterial and antifungal
activity was found in E. coli and C. albicans respectively.
∗∗∗∗ Danish et al. (2011) reviewed the phytochemical and pharmacological
properties of C. fistula and found that it consists of tannins, flavones and
glycosides and have hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antitussive,
antifungal and wound healing activities.
∗∗∗∗ Jothi et al. (2011) investigated acute oral toxicity of methanolic extract of
seeds of Cassia fistula in mice. They found that at maximum dose of
5000mg/kg when administered orally for 14 days did not produce any
mortalities or significant adverse effects.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
63
∗∗∗∗ Jothi et al. (2011) investigated antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of
seeds of Cassia fistula using DPPH radical scavenging assay and Xanthine
oxidase inhibition assay methods. They found that extract showed 59.58%
antioxidant activity in DPPH assay method.
∗∗∗∗ Md Irshad et al. (2011) evaluated anticandidal activity of fruit pulp and seed
extract of Cassia fistula on Candida albicans, C. glabrata and C. tropicalis.
The activity was determined by measuring MIC, Growth curve studies and
estimation of ergosterol. From studies, they concluded that these crude
extracts can be a good source of anticandidal compound.
∗∗∗∗ Panda et al. (2011) evaluated preliminary phytochemical and antibacterial
activity of different extracts i.e. petroleum ether, chloroform, ethanol,
methanol and water, of leaves of Cassia fistula (Linn.) against different
bacterial strains. The results showed that all extracts had antibacterial activity
against tested bacteria. The maximum activity was observed in ethanol extract
and found that MIC ranged from 94 to 1500 µg/ml. The TLC bioautography
and time-kill study against Staphylococcus epidermidis were performed on
Ethanol extract. From these studies they revealed that alcoholic extract of
leaves of C. fistula has broad spectrum antibacterial activity and can be used in
the treatment of infectious diseases.
∗∗∗∗ Ziyaurrhman et al. (2011) studied the hydroalcoholic extract of leaves of C.
fistula Linn against neuropathic pain in albino rats exposed to alcohol and
acrylamide induced peripheral neuropathy. The result showed that the extract
was unable to protect the animals from acrylamide induced peripheral
neuropathy whereas it reverses the alcohol induced peripheral neuropathy in
dose dependent manner.
∗∗∗∗ Bhalerao and Kelker (2012) extensively reviewed the Cassia fistula and
describe comprehensive review on its morphology, traditional uses,
phytochemical constituents and various pharmacological activities.
∗∗∗∗ Bhalodia et al. (2012), screened antimicrobial activity of hydroalcoholic and
chloroform extract of fruit pulp of C. fistula against two Gram-positive, two
Chapter-2 Literature Review
64
Gram-negative human pathogenic bacteria and three fungi by disc diffusion
method. The antimicrobial activity was found to be dose dependent and
hydroalcoholic extract showed significant antibacterial and antifungal activity
whereas chloroform extract was found to be more active against fungal strains.
∗∗∗∗ Daisy et al. (2012) evaluated hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective and renal
damage restoring activities of catechin isolated from stem of Cassia fistula in
STZ induced diabetic male albino rats. They found that orally administered
catechin at dose of 20mg/kg b wt. had hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic,
hepatoprotective and renal damage restoring activities.
∗∗∗∗ Daisy et al. (2012) isolated catechin from methanolic extract of stem bark of
Cassia fistula. They studied the glucose tolerance pattern of catechin in
streptozotocin induced diabetic male albino rats on oral administration
(20mg/kg b.wt.) for 60 days. They also studied hypoglycaemic and insulin
mimetic activity using computer aided drug development, in which they used
ligand based drug design, structure based drug design and quantitative SAR
(structure activity relationship) and SPR (structure property relationship). The
3D structure was docked with PPAR (Peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptor gamma) and insulin receptors and found that catechin can be
developed as potential oral hypoglycaemic drug.
∗∗∗∗ Daisy et al. (2012) studied the hypoglycemic effects of aqueous extract and
gold nanoparticles synthesized from stem bark of Cassia fistula in rats. The
hypoglycemic activity was studied in both normal and diabetic rats. The
diabetes was induced using streptozotocin. The results of the study showed
that animals with streptozotocin induced diabetes showed significant decrease
in blood glucose levels after 4 weeks of continuous administration of aqueous
extract and gold nanoparticles prepared from stem bark. The gold
nanoparticles showed better results than aqueous extract of the same plant
part.
∗∗∗∗ Daisy et al. (2012) studied the hypoglycaemic and insulin-mimetic effect of
catechin isolated from methanolic extract of stem of cassia fistula in
streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. They observed that oral administration of
Chapter-2 Literature Review
65
catechin increase tissue glycogen and 14C-glucose oxidation without affecting
plasma insulin and C-peptide. Catechin also re-established the altered
Glucokinase, glucose-6 Phosphatase, Glycogen Synthase and Glycogen
Phosphorylase enzymeslevels to normal. Thus they concluded that catechin
can be used in diabetes.
∗∗∗∗ Grace et al. (2012) studied in vitro antiplasmodial activity of crude extracts
from leaves, bark and fruits against the chloroquine sensitive strain of
Plasmodium falciparum. They found that leaf extract showed maximum
antiplasmodial activity. They also isolated three antiplasmodial constituents
from leaf extract.
∗∗∗∗ Irshad et al. (2012) evaluated and compared antioxidant potential of
methanolic and hexane extract of pulp and seeds of C. fistula using DPPH,
FRAP, Fe3+ reducing power, and hydrogen peroxide scavenging assay
methods. The results showed that methanolic extract of pulp had maximum
antioxidant activity.
∗∗∗∗ Rajshree et al. (2012) evaluated Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity of
methanolic extract of roots of C. fistula using Ellman’s colorimetric assay
method. They found that at concentration of 0.1mg/ml the extract showed 60-
65% Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. The activity was found to be due
to presence of alkaloids that was confirmed by TLC.
∗∗∗∗ Agnihotri and Singh (2013) evaluated anti-hyperglycemic effect of alcoholic
extracts of stem bark of Tamarindus indica and Cassia fistula in alloxan
induced diabetes in rats and in vitro antioxidant activity. They found that both
the extracts were safe up to 2000mg/kg body weight on oral administration
and showed significant antioxidant and antidiabetic activity. These extracts
also had protective effect on renal complications associated with diabetes.
∗∗∗∗ Chewchinda et al. (2013) quantitatively analyzed the rhein content by HPLC
method in decoction prepared from pod pulp under different storage
conditions. They also evaluated antifungal activity of extract and its
hydrolysed mixture against dermatophyte. They concluded that both extract
and hydrolysed mixture have antifungal activity.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
66
∗∗∗∗ Eiestein et al. (2013) investigated antidiabetic effects of methanolic and
aqueous extracts of different parts of Cassia fistula, viz. Bark, leaf, flowers
and pods, in Streptozotocin- nictotinamide induced Type 2 diabetic rats. They
found that methanolic extracts of bark and leaves at dose of 500 mg/kg have
significant antihyperglycemic and antilipidemic activity in the STZ-
nictotinamide induced diabetic rats.
∗∗∗∗ Irshad et al. (2013) studied composition and antifungal activity of Cassia
fistula pulp and seed oil in Candida albicans. GC-MS analysis of Cassia
fistula oil showed presence of antimicrobial compounds like beta-sitosterol,
stigmasterol, ergosterol, lupeol, fucosterol, alpha-amyrin and friedelin. They
revealed that mechanism of antifungal activity was due to decrease in
biosynthesis of ergosterol in Candida cell wall.
∗∗∗∗ Shailajan et al. (2013) developed and validated chromatographic, HPTLC,
method for estimation of rhein in different parts of the plant. They also studied
variation in rhein content in fruit pulp obtained from different geographical
region. From this study they concluded that rhein content was maximum in
leaves followed by fruit pulp, flowers and seeds. The variation in rhein content
was found obtained from different region. The rhein content was maximum in
sample obtained from Mumbai and minimum in that obtained from Dehradun.
∗∗∗∗ Ahmed et al. (2014) studied antimicrobial activity of leaves and bark of C.
fistula against pathogenic microorganisms. They prepared aqueous and
alcoholic extract for antimicrobial activity. Antimicrobial activity was
evaluated by disc diffusion method. From this study they found that alcoholic
extract of bark had more antimicrobial activity than leaf extract against P.
aerogenosa and S. aureus. The antimicrobial activity was more than standard
antibiotic streptomycin.
∗∗∗∗ Irshad et al. (2014) evaluated anticancer activity of ethyl acetate and n-
butanol extract of seeds and fruit pulp against human cervical cancer (SiHa)
and breast cancer (MCF-7) cell lines. The results of the study showed that all
the extracts inhibited MCF-7 and SiHa cells growth by modulating the
expression of apoptosis-regulatory genes and caspase enzymes.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
67
∗∗∗∗ Jaffary et al. (2014) studied the antileishmanial activity on topical application
of concentrated boiledextract and hydroalcoholic extract of C. fistula in 165
patients having positive leishmanias smear test and compared with
intraleishnal injection of Meglumine antimoniate. They observed lesion at
1,2,3,4 and 16 weeks and found that at 16 weeks the lesions were resolved in
65.5%, 40% and 36.4% of the patient treated with Meglumine antimoniate,
concentrated boiled extract and hydroalcoholic extract respectively.
∗∗∗∗ Seyyednejad et al. (2014) evaluated antibacterial activity of ethanol and
methanol extracts of flowers of C. fistula against gram positive and gram
negative pathogenic bacteria using disc diffusion method. They found that
extracts are effective against tested microorganisms and can be used as
antibacterial agents.
∗∗∗∗ Choopani et al. (2015) reviewed pharmacological treatment of catarrh
(common cold) in Iranian traditional medicine (ITM). In this review they
gathered the information from the known sources of ITM and physician about
medicinal plants used in the treatment of catarrh and they found that 10
medicinal plants including C. fistula can be used in modern treatment of
Catarrh.
∗∗∗∗ Handa and Sharma (2015) studied antifungal activity of different extracts
prepared by cold maceration (100% alcohol, 50% alcohol and 100% aqueous
extracts) and successive continuous soxhlation (Pet. Ether, Benzene,
Chloroform, Acetone, Alcohol, Methanol and water extracts) of fruit pulp of
C. fistula against Alternaria solani using disc diffusion method. The results
showed that maximum zone of inhibition were observed with 100% crude
alcoholic extract and chloroform extract against Alternaria solani.
∗∗∗∗ Kulkarni et al. (2015) studied methanol extract of whole plant of C. fistula
for GC-MS analysis and anticancer activity on human prostate cancer line and
identified 10 different phyto-constituents from GC-MS analysis. The
methanolic extract also showed significant anticancer activity in MTT assay.
∗∗∗∗ Kulkarni et al. (2015) performed phytochemical analysisof petroleum ether,
methanol and aqueous extracts of whole plant of Cassia fistula for presence of
Chapter-2 Literature Review
68
various phytoconstituents. They also performed in vitro studies of these
extracts for antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. From
studies they found that methanolic extracts showed maximum activities due to
presence of more total phenolic content followed by aqueous and pet. ether
extracts.
∗∗∗∗ Sutar et al. (2015) investigated hypolipidemic activity of methanolic and
aqueous extracts of leaves of C. fistula in male Sprauge–Dawley rats. They
induced hyperlipidemia by using atherogenic diet and found that both extracts
showed significant hypolipidemic activity in a dose dependent manner but
aqueous extract at dose of 400mg/kg showed better effect than methanolic
extract.
∗∗∗∗ Tram et al. (2015) investigated anti-psoriatic activity of hydrophilic cream of
methanolic extract of ripe fruit of C. fistula on psoriasis form lesions in mice
induced by Di-n-Propyl Disulphide (PPD). The results revealed that C. fistula
incorporated cream at a concentration of 6.25% had highest anti-psoriatic
activity.
2.1.3 Cassia occidentalis Linn.
Cassia occidentalis is an erect, foetid, annual herb or under shrub, 60-150 cm in
height, found all over India up to an altitude of 1500m during rainy season and
blooms in the month of July- august.
Common name:
Coffee senna, Foetid cassia, Negro-coffee, Stinging weed (Anonymous, The Wealth
of India, 1992, 349-352)
Vernacular names of C. occidentalis
Languages Vernacular name
Bengali Kalakashunda
English Fetid Cassia, Negro-Cassia
Guajarati Kasodari, Kasundari
Chapter-2
Hindi
Malaya
Malayalam
Marathi
Punjabi
Rajasthani
Sanskrit
Tamil
Telugu
Oriya
Urdu
Plate 2.2: Aerial parts of
69
Hindi Barikasondi, Chakunda, Kasondi
Malaya Kanchang kota
Malayalam Karintakara, Natramtakara
Marathi Kasoda, Rankasvinda
Punjabi Phanachhatra
Rajasthani Chakundra
Sanskrit Kasamarda,
Tamil Nattandagarai, Ponnavarai
Telugu Kasinda, Peddakasinda
Oriya Kasundri
Urdu Kasonji
Plate 2.2: Aerial parts of Cassia occidentalis Linn.
Literature Review
Barikasondi, Chakunda, Kasondi
Linn.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
70
Habitat:
It is a common weed scattered from the Himalayas to the Western Bengal, South
India, Burma and Ceylon (Indian Material Medica pp 289-290). Plant springs up
abundantly after the rains almost everywhere on waste land and on garbage heaps and
vanish on the commencement of cold weather.
Parts used:
Leaves, seeds and roots
Plant description:
Branches are subglabrous furrowed often purplish.
Stem is reddish purple in colour. Young stems are four sided and with age becomes
smooth-edged.
Leavesare paripinnate, 15-20 cm long having 3 to 5 pairs of opposite leaflets. Rachis
have a single purplish gland at its base.
Leaflets are 3 to 5 pairs, opposite, ovate to lanceolate having pointed tip. Leaflets are
glabrous above and pubescent below.
Flowers are yellow in color in short racemes, blooming in the month of July to
August.
Pods are recurved, glabrous and compressed. These are 10-12.5 cm long and 5mm.
thick.
Seeds are 20 to 30 in number, 6mm long and 4mm broad, dark olive-green in colour,
ovoid, hard, smooth and shiny in appearance. Seeds are compressed at one end
and rounded at other end.
Chemical constituents: (Yadav et al., 2010)
The important chemical constituents present in C. occidentalis are emodin, aloe-
emodin, anthraquinones, anthrone, cassioline, chrysoobtusin, chrysophanol, essential
Chapter-2 Literature Review
71
oils, funiculosin, kaempferol, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, manitol, obtusiline, obtusin,
physion, quercetin, rhein, sitosterol and tannins.
Whole plant: Three C-glycosidic flavonoids (Cassiaoccidentalin A, Band C)
(Hatano et al., 1999)
Seeds: Seeds contain sennosides, N-Me-morphidine,tannic acid, toxalbumin,
chrysophanic acid, campesterol, chrysophanol, Physcion, emodin,
cardinolides, sugar, gum, starch, cellulose, fatty matters (olein and margarin)
and traces of calcium sulphate and phosphate, sodium chloride, magnesium
sulphate, iron.
Leaves: Leaves contain C-glycoside of Apigenin, vitexin, chrysophanol, emodin and
their glycosides, physcion, cartbartin, Bianthraquinone (1,1-bi-4,4’,5,5’-
tetrahydroxy-2,2’-dimethyl anthraquinone), Flavon (metterucinol-7-O-α-L-
rhamnoside). Others compounds present in leaves are alkaloids, flavonoids,
tannins, phlobatannins and Occidentalin A and B
Roots: Roots contain a resin, rhein, aloe-emodin and their glucosides, emodine,
Physcion, pinselin, β-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, 1,8-
dihydroxyanthraquinoe, chrysophanol, quercetin, toxalbumin, Occidentalol-1,
and Occidentalol-2.
Pods/Fruits: Pods contain flavonoid glycosides 3,5,3’,4’-tetrahydroxy-7-
methoxyflavone-3-O-(2’-rhamnosylglucoside) and 5,7,4’-trihydroxy-3,6,3’-
trimethoxyflavon-7-O-(2’- rhamnosylglucoside), 1,8-dihydroxy-2-methyl
anthraquinone, physcion, rhein, aloe-emodine, chrysophanol and steroidal
glycosides.
Flowers: Flowers contain anthraquinones, β-sitosterol, emodine, physcion and its β-
glucopyranoside.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
72
Chemical structures of some phytoconstituents present in Cassia occidentalis Linn.
OH OHO
O
CH3H
COOH H
CH3 OHCH3 -OCH3
CH2OH H
OH
OH OH O
O OHH
H
OHOH
CH3
CH3
MeO
OMe
OH
OH OH O
O OHH
CH3
OHOH
CH3
CH3
MeO
OMe
O OH
OHO
OHB-D-glucopyranosyl
OH
OH
OH
O
O
O
OOH
CH3
CH3
OMe
Rham- OO
O
O
O
OH O
H
OH
OH
CH3
Chrysophanol
Rhein
EmodinPhyscion
Aloe- emodin
Occidentol-I Occidentol-II
Vitexin Apigenin
Matteucinol- 7- rhamnoside
R2
OR1
R3
36
8
2
5'
6'
2''
3''
5''
4''
R1
R1 R2
=
= = ; R3 = Rha
R1 R2= =OH ; R3 = RhaH,
R2 =OH ; R3 = RhaCH3 ,
HA:
B:
C:
1''
R2 R1
R1 R2
Cassiaoccidatalins
6'
A, B and, C
Chapter-2 Literature Review
73
Traditional uses: (Anonymous, Wealth of India, 349-352)
Whole plant: Purgative, tonic, expectorant, diuretic and febrifugal.
Roots: Purgative, wound healing, diuretic, in ringworm and snake bite, skin
diseases. Root bark is used in fever, neuralgia. Infusion of root is used as
antidote to various poisons.
Leaves: Laxatives, purgative, antiasthmatic, antipyretic, anthelmintic, ulcers healing,
diuretic and cutaneous diseases. In Guinea, paste of fresh leaves is applied
on wounds. Paste of fresh leaves with calcium hydroxide when applied on
abscesses help in pus clearance.
Fruits: Scorpion sting.
Seeds:Winter cough, cutaneous diseases, blood tonic, diuretic, antidiabetic and
purgative. In Konkam, seeds are used as a cure for convulsions in children.
Roasted seeds are used as a substitute for coffee.
Substantiated pharmacological activities:
� Antimicrobial activity
� Antimalarial activity
� Anti-inflammatory activity
� Antimutagenic activity
� Anticarcinogenic activity
� Anticonstipating/ purgative activity
� Immunostimulant activity
� Hepatoprotective activity
� Abortifacient activity
� Wound healing activity
� Diuretic activity
� Analgesic and antipyretic activities
� Antianxiety activity
� Antidepressant activity
� Neuroprotective activity
Chapter-2 Literature Review
74
Marketed preparations containing C. occidentalis
Sr. No. Formulation Therapeutic Use Manufacturer
1. Liv 52 Drop
Liver disorder
Himalaya drug Co. , Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
2. Liv 52 Syrup
Liver disorder
Himalaya drug Co. , Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
3. Liv 52 tab
Liver disorder
Himalaya drug Co. , Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
4. Liv 52 DS
Liver disorder
Himalaya drug Co. , Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
5. Herbolax
Chronic
Constipation
Himalaya drug Co. , Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
6.
Geriforte
Syrup, tablet
Rejuvinates both
body and mind
Himalaya drug Co. , Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
7. Acilvan
Liver disorder Acis Lab. , Kanpur , U.P , India
8. Hipex Liver disorder H.V. Pharma. Pvt. Ltd., Rajkot,
gujarat, India
9. Livomyn Liver disorder Charak Pharma. Pvt. Ltd.
Umbargaon, Gujarat , India
10. Livex Liver disorder Bhartiya Aushidhi Nirmanshala,
Rajkot, India
11. Neoliv 100 Liver disorder Bharat Pharm. , Delhi, India
12. Syliv Liver disorder Systemic Pharm. , Allahabad,
U.P, India
13 Jigrin Liver disorder
Hamdard wakf
Laboratory,
Delhi
Chapter-2 Literature Review
75
Literature Reviewed:
∗∗∗∗ Ginde et al. (1970) isolated and investigated chrysophanol, physcion, emodin,
cassiollin and phytosterol (α-3-sitosterol) from Cassia occidentalis.
∗∗∗∗ Kim et al. (1971) isolated N-Methylmorpholine from seeds of Cassia
occidentalis. The isolated compound was confirmed by comparing melting
point, IR and mass spectra with standard, N-Methylmorpholine
Hydrochloride.
∗∗∗∗ Dhurandhar J (1973) studied the effect of Bonnisan, new indigenous
metabolic corrective in gastrointestinal disorders in newborn and infants
developed by Himalaya Drug Co. Pvt. Ltd. Bonnisan consists of many herbal
drugs including Cassia occidentalis. They observed the effect of Bonnisan in
infants of two weeks old for two months and found that infants who are on
Bonnisan therapy showed feeling of well-being, enhancement in appetite,
digestion, less distension and flatulence and grow and develop healthier than
babies taking other therapies.
∗∗∗∗ Gupta et al. (1975) isolated and characterized various oligosaccharides
obtained from the partial hydrolysis of the galactomannan from Cassia
occidentalis seeds
∗∗∗∗ Tiwari et al. (1977) reported the presence of two flavonoid glycosides namely
Matteucinol-7-rhamnoside and Jaceidin- 7-rhamnoside from the ethanolic
extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis.
∗∗∗∗ Sethi JP (1978) reported the effect of Liv-52 containing Capparis spinosa,
Cichorium intybus Solanum nigrum, Cassia occidentalis, Terminalia arjuna,
Achillea millefolium and Tamarix gallica, in promoting early recovery from
severe acute hepatic failure
∗∗∗∗ Rai et al. (1983) isolated anthracene derivatives both in free and combined
forms from leaves, root and seed of Cassia occidentalis
Chapter-2 Literature Review
76
∗∗∗∗ Singh and Singh (1985) isolated two flavanoid glycoside namely 3,5,3′,4′-
tetrahydroxy-7-methoxyflavone 3-O-(2″-rhamnosyl glucoside) and 5,7,4′-
trihydroxy-3,6,3′-trimethoxy-flavone 7-O-(2″-rhamnosyl glucoside) from the
ethanolic extract of pods of Cassia occidentalis for the first time.
∗∗∗∗ Kudav and Wader (1987) isolated pinselin and 1, 7-dihydroxy-3-
methylxanthone from the roots of Cassia occidentalis.
∗∗∗∗ Hussain, et al. (1991) screened alcoholic extracts of some plants used in Kano
ethnomedicine for antimicrobial activity. They found that ethanolic extract of
leave of Cassia occidentalis showed significant antimicrobial activity against
A. niger, Lactobacillus sp., Mucor sp., Neisseria sp., and Salmonella sp., but
seeds did not show any antimicrobial activity
∗∗∗∗ Saraf et al. (1994) evaluated ethanolic extract of leaves of C. occidentalis for
antihepatotoxic activity in rats using carbon tetrachloride and thioacetamide
(100 mg/kg) induced liver damage and found that extract showed significant
hepatoprotective activity in both models.
∗∗∗∗ Gupta et al. (1995) determined the structure of galactomannan from the seeds
of Cassiaoccidentalis by NMR spectral analysis.
∗∗∗∗ Jain et al. (1998) studied antimicrobial activity of C. occidentalis against
human pathogenic bacteria and fungi. For antimicrobial activity, they used
ethanolic extracts of leaves, pods, flowers and the callus of Cassia
occidentalis, petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform, ethanol and water extracts
of whole plant and metabolite-rich fractions (anthraquinones, sennosides and
flavonoids) of leaves, pods flowers and callus. They found that anthraquinones
were more active against E. coli and S. aureus while the sennosides were more
active against A. flavus. Ethanolic extract of whole plant was also tested
against selected viruses and for antitumour and cytotoxic activitybut no
antiviral, antitumour or cytotoxic effect was produced against the test
organisms.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
77
∗∗∗∗ Hatano et al. (1999) isolated three new C-glycosidic flavonoids,
Cassiaoccidentalins A, B and C from the aerial parts of Cassia occidentalis,
and structures with a 3- keto sugar were established on the basis of
spectroscopic and chemical evidence.
∗∗∗∗ Jafri et al. (1999) analysed the hepatoprotective activity of aqueous-ethanolic
(50%v/v) extract of C. occidentalis leaves on paracetamol and ethyl alcohol
induced liver damage in rats by monitoring serum transaminases, alkaline
phosphtase, serum cholesterol, serum total proteins and histopathological
alterations. The extract produced significant hepatoprotection.
∗∗∗∗ Sandhir and Gill (1999) studied the hepatoprotective effects of Liv-52 on rats
in ethanol induced liver damage. The hepatoprotective action of Liv-52 may
be due to inhibition of lipid peroxidation and protective effect on antioxidant
enzymes.
∗∗∗∗ Bin-Hafeez et al. (2001) reported the protective effect of Cassia occidentalis
L. on cyclophosphamide (CP) -induced suppression of humoral immunity in
mice. Animals treated with Cassia occidentalis showed improvement in CP-
induced immunopathy in different organs.
∗∗∗∗ Bhattacharya et al. (2003) investigated hepatoprotective activity of Himoliv,
a polyherbal ayurvedic formulation, which contains C. occidentalis, in rats
against carbon tetra chloride induced hepatotoxicity. They found that Himoliv
decreases the increased levels of lipid peroxidation products due to
administration of carbon tetra chloride and increased in the level of protective
enzymes in liver homogenate of rats such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and
catalase.
∗∗∗∗ Purwar et al. (2003) isolated two new flavonoid glycosides 3,2’-dihydroxy-
7,8,4’-trimethoxy-flavone-5-O-{β-D-glucopyranosyl (1→2)}-β-D
galactopyranoside 1 and apigenin-7-O-β-D-allopyranoside 2 from whole plant
of Cassia occidentalis
Chapter-2 Literature Review
78
∗∗∗∗ Saganuwan et al. (2006) evaluated in-vitro antimicrobial activity and
phytochemical constituents in leaves of C. occidentalis. The results showed
that all extracts of the plant were active against E. coli but inactive against P.
multocida, S. typhi, S. typhimurium, S. pyogenes, S.pneumoniae and K.
pneumoniae. Phytochemical analysis showed the presence of alkaloid, tannin,
saponin, glycoside and flavonoid but steroid was absent.
∗∗∗∗ Ahmad et al. (2006) investigated pharmacological activity of C. occidentalis
and reported antidiarrhoeal, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-
dermatophytic, antiplasmodial, anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet and
antimutagenic activity of the plant.
∗∗∗∗ Chukwujekwu et al. (2006) isolated and identified emodin from the ethanolic
root extract of Cassia occidentalis and reported antibacterial activity of
isolated emodin against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus
∗∗∗∗ Usha et al. (2007) studied the hepatoprotective effect of aqueous extracts of
roots of Hygrophila spinosa and Cassia occidentalis on carbon tetrachloride
induced liver damage in rats. The increased levels of serum marker enzymes
Aspartate transaminase, Alanine transaminase and Gama Glutamyl after liver
damage with carbon tetrachloride were reduced near to normal values on
treated with aqueous extracts of roots.
∗∗∗∗ Sheeba et al. (2009) evaluated the wound healing activity of methanolic crude
extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis and chrysophanol isolated from the
extract in albino rats. For wound healing activity they used excision, incision
and dead space wound models. From studies it was found that Chrysophanol
has more significant wound healing property than crude extract.
∗∗∗∗ Arya et al. (2010) screened antimicrobial activity of petroleum ether, benzene,
chloroform, methanol and water extracts of leaves of Cassia occidentalis
against seven human pathogenic bacteria and two fungal strains by disc
diffusion method. From studies they found that aqueous and methanol extracts
showed significant antimicrobial activity.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
79
∗∗∗∗ Bhagat and Saxena (2010) evaluated alcoholic, hydro-alcoholic and aqueous
extracts of whole plant of Cassia occidentalis for in vitro cytotoxicity against
human cancer cell lines from six different tissue and antibacterial activity
against four bacterial strains. They observed that aqueous extract of whole
plant had more activity against human cell lines than hydroalcoholic and
alcoholic extract at 10µg/ml.
∗∗∗∗ Chinnala et al. (2010) evaluated antibacterial and antifungal activities of
different extracts of roots Cassia occidentalis against Bacillus polymexia,
Streptococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella
typhi, Vibrio cholerae, Shigella dysenteriae, Escherichia coli, Pencillium
notatum and Candida albicans at concentration between 25 and 450 µg/ml
using disc diffusion method. The results showed that extracts were more
effective against Gram +ve bacteria than gram –ve bacteria.
∗∗∗∗ Sreejith et al. (2010) investigated anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory and anti-
lipid peroxidant effects of ethanolic extract of whole plant of Cassia
occidentalis and found that extract alleviated immediate hypersensitivity
reaction by inhibiting mast cell degranulation and stabilizing human red blood
cells membrane. The extract also inhibited carrageenan induced rat paw
oedema.
∗∗∗∗ Verma et al. (2010) evaluated antidiabetic activity of petroleum ether,
chloroform and aqueous extract of whole plant of Cassia occidentalis in
normal and alloxan–induced diabetic rats at a dose of 200mg/kg. They found
that aqueous extract showed significant hypoglycemic activity in normal and
diabetic rats. The results also showed improvement in body weight and lipid
profile. Histopathological studies showed regeneration of β-cells of pancreas.
∗∗∗∗ Yadav et al. (2010) presented a review on C. occidentalis which is used to
cure various diseases in traditional medicine. From literature they reported that
plant possess antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, anticancer, antimutagenic
and hepatoprotective activity. From the plant wide range of chemical
constituents including achrosin, aloe-emodine, emodine, anthraquinone,
chrysophanol etc. have also been isolated.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
80
∗∗∗∗ Sastry et al. (2011) evaluated hepatoprotective activity of aqueous extract of
seeds of Cassia occidentalis and also isolated new compound, anthraquinone
glycoside from the extract. Hepatoprotective activity was studied on rat liver
in which hepatotoxicity was induced by paracetamol and found that seeds
produced significant hepatoprotection.
∗∗∗∗ Basha et al. (2011) screened the ethanolic extract of seeds of C. occidentalis
for anti-inflammatory activity on carrageenan induced rat paw oedema and
cotton pellet granuloma animal models at dose of 500 and 1000 mg/kg body
weight orally and found that extract showed significant anti-inflammatory
activity in both the models.
∗∗∗∗ Daniyan et al. (2011) evaluated in vitro antibacterial activity of chloroform
and aqueous extracts of flowers of Cassia occidentalis against Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa using agar well diffusion method. The results
revealed that both extracts had significant activity against Klebsiella
pneumoniae at a concentration of 30-90mg/ml but no antibacterial activity
against other test microorganisms.
∗∗∗∗ Mittal et al. (2011) studied acute toxicity and diuretic activity of alcoholic
extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis in rats. The extract was found safe up
to 2000mg/kg body weight and also increased urinary electrolyte
concentration along with urine volume.
∗∗∗∗ Sini et al. (2011) evaluated the ethanol and water extract of Cassia
occidentalis leaves for analgesic activity using acetic acid induced writhing
test and tail immersion test in mice and antipyretic activity using yeast induced
pyrexia method in rats at 150 and 300 mg/kg. Both the extracts showed
significant dose dependent analgesic and antipyretic effect.
∗∗∗∗ Gowrishi et al. (2012) evaluated in vivo anti-oxidant and nephroprotective
activities of hydro-alcoholic extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis against
Gentamicin induced nephrotoxicity in rats at dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg. The
nephroprotective activity was determined by estimating different parameters
Chapter-2 Literature Review
81
like urinary creatinine, urinary glucose, urinary sodium, potassium, blood
urea, serum creatinine levels and body weight of the animals. In vivo
antioxidant activity was determined by estimating the tissue levels of GSH,
SOD, catalase and lipid peroxidation. The results revealed that the extract had
nephroprotective effect against gentamicin induced nephrotoxicity.
∗∗∗∗ Kathirvel et al. (2012) studied phytochemical and antioxidant activity of
petroleum ether, chloroform and methanolic extracts of seeds and flowers of
Cassia occidentalis. They found that all extracts contains flavonoids,
alkaloids, phenolic compounds, tannins, steroids, glycosides and
anthraquinones. The antioxidant activity was studied using DPPH and
reducing power assay methods. The antioxidant activity was higher in
chloroform extract of seeds than flowers.
∗∗∗∗ Onakpa and Ajagbonna (2012) evaluated hypoglycemic activity of
methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis in alloxan induced diabetic
mice at dose of 300 and 450 mg/kg orally. The results of the study revealed
that methanolic extract of Cassia occidentalis had significant hypoglycaemic
activity in diabetic mice
∗∗∗∗ Shafeen et al. (2012) evaluated antianxiety and antidepressant activity of the
ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Cassia occidentalis leaves in rodents.
Antianxiety activity was tested by using elevated plus maze model and
actophotometer and antidepressant activity by using despair swim test and tail
suspension methods. From studies they concluded that ethanolic and aqueous
extracts of Cassia occidentalis leaves had antianxiety and antidepressant
activities at dose of 500mg/kg p.o. but ethanolic extract showed more
significant activity than aqueous extract.
∗∗∗∗ Arya et al. (2013) studied the anti-diabetic activity of aqueous and methanolic
extracts of aerial parts viz. leaves, stem and seeds of Cassia occidentalis in
alloxan induced animal model and found that all extracts showed anti-diabetic
activity. The aqueous extracts of leaves had maximum anti-diabetic activity
followed by aqueous extracts of seeds and stem. Methanolic extract of aerial
parts could not bring back the elevated sugar level to normal.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
82
∗∗∗∗ Delmut et al. (2013) evaluated wound healing activity of hydro-alcoholic
extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis on skin wounds induced by the venom
of Bothrops moojeni in mice and found that the plant can be used as an
alternative product to treat wounds caused by this snakebite.
∗∗∗∗ Gbadegesin and Odunola (2013) investigated 70% ethanolic extract of
leaves of Cassia occidentalis for antioxidant and free radical scavenging
activities and hepato-protective effect against sodium arsenite-induced
hepatotoxicity in male rats. The antioxidant and free radical scavenging
activities were determined using four different methods viz. total reducing
power assay, total antioxidant activity, DPPH radical and hydrogen peroxide
scavenging assay. The hepatotoxicity was induced by administration of
sodium arsenite at 2.5mg/kg p.o. for two weeks. The mechanism of
hepatotoxicity was generation of free radicals by sodium arsenite. The results
revealed that at concentration of 25, 40 and 50 µg/ml, extract exhibited
antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities. The pretreatment with
alcoholic extract at dose of 200 mg/kg for 2 weeks showed significant
hepatoprotection against sodium arsenite induced hepatotoxicity in male rats.
∗∗∗∗ Kanakam et al. (2013) evaluated analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of
leaves extract of Cassia occidentalis. Leaf extract was prepared by cold
maceration using mixture of petroleum ether, ethyl acetate and methanol in the
ratio of 1:1:1. For anti-inflammatory activity, carrageenan induced rat paw
oedema model and for analgesic activity, acetic acid-induced writhing test and
tail flick time models were used. The results showed that at dose of 400mg/kg
the extract showed significant (p<0.001) anti-inflammatory and analgesic
activities.
∗∗∗∗ Vijaylakshmi et al. (2013) reviewed pharmacological profile of Cassia
occidentalis L. Based on extensive literature survey, they found that C.
occidentalis had wide pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial,
larvicidal, antioxidant, antimalarial, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressant,
antianxiety, antidepressant, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, analgesic and
antipyretic.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
83
∗∗∗∗ Choudhary and Nagori (2014) evaluated the in vitro antimalarial activity of
alcoholic extract of leaves of C. occidentalis on Plasmodium falciparum
strain. They also fractionated the compound quinine and found that the
antimalarial activity may be due to this compound.
∗∗∗∗ Kateregga et al. (2014) studied acute toxicity and anthelmintic activity of
70% methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis L. against Ascaridia
galli and Heterakis gallinarum. For anthelmintic activity the worms were
isolated from fresh intestines of local chicken and exposed to 8, 12, 16, 20 and
24 mg/ml concentration of extract and percentage worm mortality was
determined at interval of 12hrs. Acute toxicity was determined in mice at
concentration of 5,000, 10,000, 15,000, 20,000 and 25000 mg/kg. The results
showed that worm mortality was higher at concentration of 16 and 20mg/ml
(p<.0.05) and extract was safe even at 25,000 mg/kg.
∗∗∗∗ Kumar et al. (2014) evaluated larvicidal activity of whole plant of C.
occidentalis against larvae of Bancroftian filariasis and vectorCulex
quinquefasciatus. They used petroleum ether and n- butanol extracts for
larvicidal activity. They found that at 200 and 300ppm both extracts showed
100% mortality and concluded that C. occidentalis can be used safely against
mosquitoes.
∗∗∗∗ Silva et al. (2014) studied neuroprotective activity of 70% alcoholic extracts
of leaves and stalk of Cassia occidentalis in male rats. The neurodegenerative
changes, i.e. neurobehavioural and biochemical changes were induced by
administration of 3-nitropropionic acid in a dose of 30mg/kg i.p. for five days.
The systemic administration of 3-nitropropionic acid produced decrease in
locomotion, muscle incoordination and deficit memory and increased lipid
peroxidation and decreased superoxide dismutase activity. The administration
of extract of Cassia occidentaalis at dose of 400 and 800 mg/kg orally for 14
days produced significant neuroprotection and decreases the dysfunctional
behaviour induced by 3-nitropropionic acid. They also found that extract had
significant in vitro antioxidant activity. From this study they concluded that
the neuroprotective activity may be due to antioxidant activity of extract.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
84
∗∗∗∗ Garba et al. (2015) evaluated methanolic extract of root bark of Cassia
occidentalis on body weight and different biochemical parameters in alloxan
induced diabetic rats. The extract was administered at dose of 300, 400 and
600 mg/kg for 14 days. They estimated different biochemical parameters and
found that extract had significantly reduced blood glucose, triglycerides, total
cholesterol and LDL level and significantly increased total protein, albumin
and HDL level. They concluded that methanolic extract of root bark had
hypoglycaemic activity and also corrected the dyslipidaemia that was
associated with hyperglycaemia.
∗∗∗∗ Neboh et al. (2015) investigated myeloprotective activity of methanolic crude
extract of leaves of Cassia occidentalis in cyclophosphamide-induced bone
marrow suppression in wistar rats. For this study, they divided the animals into
three groups. In Group 1 and 2 they induced myellosuppression by
administering 3mg/kg of cyclophosphamide i.p. for 3days. Group 2 and 3
received 250mg/kg of crude methanolic extract of C. occidentalis orally for
12days. On 15th day they carried out haematological analysis in which they
measured haemoglobin (Hb) Hematocrit (Hct) and Total White Blood Cells
(TWBC) count. Group 2 and 3 showed significant increase in Hb, Hct and
TWBC when compared to group 1. From this study, they found that crude
extract has myeloprotective activity when administered orally in
cyclophosphamide-induced bone marrow suppression.
2.1.4 Cassia tora Linn.
Cassia tora Linn. is an annual foetid, erect herb or under shrub 30 to 90 cm. tall,
found as a weed on waste places along roadside during rainy season all over India up
to an altitude of 1550 m and bloom in the months of August to October.
(Anonymous, Wealth of India, 1992 pp 368-370; Varier, 1995)
Common name:
Foetid Cassia, Sickle Senna, Chakvad
Chapter-2 Literature Review
85
Vernacular names of C. tora Linn.
Languages Vernacular names
Bengali Chakunda, Panevar
English Foetid Cassia
Guajarati Kawario, Konariya
Hindi Chakavat, Chakund, Panevar
Malaya Chowkeat
Malayalam Chakramandrakam, Takara
Marathi Takala, Tarota
Punjabi Chakunda, Pawar
Rajasthan Chakuada, Pumaria
Sanskrit Ayudham, Chakramardaka
Tamil Senavu, Tagarai
Telugu Tagirise, Tellakasinda
Oriya Chakunda
Chapter-2
Plate: 2.3 Aerial parts of
Habitat:
Cassia tora grows all over the tropical parts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and West
China in warm moist soil.
Parts Used:
Leaves, Roots and Seeds.
Description of plant:
It is a foetid herb with pinnate leaves.
Leaves: Leaves are pinnate, ovate, 6.0
Leaflets: 3pairs, 3-5cm.long, membranous, obovate
between two lowest pairs of leaflets.
Flowers: Flowers are yellow, usually in subse
and blooming in the month of August to September.
Pods/Fruits: 15 to 25 cm. long. Flat or four angled and sickle shaped, therefore
known as sickle pod or sickle senna.
Seeds: Seeds are 25-30 in numbers, rhombohedral and green in color.
86
Plate: 2.3 Aerial parts of Cassia tora Linn.
grows all over the tropical parts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and West
China in warm moist soil.
Leaves, Roots and Seeds.
with pinnate leaves.
Leaves are pinnate, ovate, 6.0-12.5cm long. Rachis are grooved.
5cm.long, membranous, obovate, oblong with conical gland
between two lowest pairs of leaflets.
Flowers are yellow, usually in subsessile pairs on the short axillary stalks
and blooming in the month of August to September.
to 25 cm. long. Flat or four angled and sickle shaped, therefore
known as sickle pod or sickle senna.
30 in numbers, rhombohedral and green in color.
Literature Review
grows all over the tropical parts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and West
12.5cm long. Rachis are grooved.
oblong with conical gland
ssile pairs on the short axillary stalks
to 25 cm. long. Flat or four angled and sickle shaped, therefore
30 in numbers, rhombohedral and green in color.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
87
Chemical constituents: (Jain et al., 2010, Chaudhary et al., 2011)
Roots: Choline, 1, 3, 5-trihydroxy-6, 7-dimethoxy-2-methylanthraquinone,
Chrysophanic acid, Physcion, Rubrofusarin and its 6β gentiobioside,
Toralactone and β-sitosterol.
Stem:Chrysophanol, emodine, β-sitosterol, 1-hydroxy-5-methoxy-2-
methylanthraqunone and its glycoside, Tigonelline, choline, rhein and
3,5,8,3’4’,5’-hexahydroxyflavone.
Leaves: Polyphenols, Emodine, Kaempferol-2-diglucoside, chrysophanol, Ale-
emodine, Rhein, Trigonelline, β-sitosterol and choline.
Seeds: Anthraquinones (aurantio-obtusin, chryso-obsutin, obtusin, physcion, emodine
and chrysophanol), Brassinosteroids (Brassinolide, castasterone, typhasterol
and teasterone), Phenolic glycosides (Rubrofusarin triglucoside, nor-
rubrofusarin gentiobioside, torachrysone gentiobioside). It also contains
Rhein, Aloe-emodine, gums and mucilage
Flowers: Kaempferol and Leucopelargonidine.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
88
Chemical structures of some important phytoconstituents present in C. tora
Linn.(Choudhary et al., 2011)
O
OH
OHOH
OH
OH
CH3
CH3C2H5
CH3
CH3
OH
CH3
O
O
CH3
O
MeO
O
OH
OHOH
CH2O
O
OHOH
CH2OH
OH
O
OH
OHOH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OHOH
OH
OMe
Leucopelargonidin
Kaemferol Stigmasterol
Toralactone-9-O-B-D-gentiobioside
.H2O
Ononitrol monohydrate(6-methoxy cyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5-pentol hydrate)
Chapter-2 Literature Review
89
OHO
OCH3
OMe
OH O
OOH
OH CH3
O5H11C6O
C2H5
OH
O
O
OHOH
CH3
O
OCH3
OMeOH
MeO
MeOOMe
OH O
O
OC6H11O5
CH3
OMe
O
OOH
CH3MeO CH3
CH3
OOH OH
MeO
Questin Cassiaside
B- Sitosterol
Chrysophanol Chryso-obtusin
Obtusifolin-2-B-D-glucoside
TorachrysoneToralactone
Chapter-2 Literature Review
90
OH OHO
OR
Aloe-emodin: R = CH2OH
Rhein: R = COOH
O
CH3
OHOH
OH
O
CH3
OH OMeOH
O
O
CH3
Oglc
O
OHOMe
EmodinObtusifolin
Chryso-obtusin-2-O-B-D-glucoside
Chemical structures of some important phytoconstituents present in
C. tora Linn. plant
Traditional uses:
Roots: Bitter tonic, stomachic
Leaves: Skin diseases, mild laxative (In Nigeria), anthelmintic and antileprotic. It is
also used in fever that occurs during teething in children, bronchitis, cough,
dyspepsia, gout, joint pain liver disorders and cardiac disorders
Seeds: Skin diseases, eye diseases, improves vision (externally as well as internally),
liver disorders, anthelmintic, antileprotic, asperient, diuretic, in bronchitis,
cough, dyspepsia and cardiac disorders. It also lowers the cholesterol level
and blood presser. Seeds are also used as substitute for tea or coffee.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
91
Pods : Dysentery and eye diseases.
Substantiated pharmacological activities:
� Hypolipidemic activity
� Antitumour activity
� Antigenotoxic activity
� Anti-inflammatory activity
� Antihepatotoxic activity
� Antifungal activity
� Antioxidant activity
� Antimutagenic activity
� Antibacterial activity
� Anthelmintic activity
� Antinociceptive activity
� Hypotensive activity
� Spasmogenic activity
� Immunostimulatory activity
� Purgative activity
� Antidiabetic activity
� Antiulcer activity
� Antiplasmodial activity
Marketed preparations containing Cassia tora
Ayurvedic preparations Uses
Dadrughan-vati Ringworm, Leucoderma
Chakramardha tailamu Eczema, Ringworm and other Skin diseases
Chapter-2 Literature Review
92
Literature Reviewed:
∗∗∗∗ Varshney et al. (1973) isolated new water soluble complex polysaccharides
from defatted seeds of Cassia tora. The complex polysaccharides consisting of
D-galactose, D-glucose, D- mannose and D-xylose in the molar ratio of
2:2:7:1.
∗∗∗∗ Singh et al. (1981) isolated oil from petroleum ether extract of the seeds and
described its physicochemical properties. They also isolated and identified
Glucose, Galactose, Xylose and raffinose from the seeds of Cassia tora.
∗∗∗∗ Chakrabarty et al. (1983) reported the presence of 3, 5, 8, 3', 4', 5'-
hexahydroxyflavone and hydroxyl coumarin aurapterol from Cassia tora stem
bark.
∗∗∗∗ Wong et al. (1989) isolated three new anthraquinone glycosides from seeds of
Cassia tora. Their structures were elucidated by spectral analysis. Two
compounds showed weak protective activity on primary cultured hepatocyte
against carbon tetrachloride induced toxicity.
∗∗∗∗ Mukherjee et al. (1996) evaluated antifungal activity of dealcoholized extract
of leaves of Cassia tora by turbidity and spore germination method against
five different fungal organisms. The leaf extract showed significant antifungal
activity against tested microorganisms.
∗∗∗∗ Choi et al. (1997) investigated antimutagenic activity of anthraquinone
aglycones and naphthopyrone glycosides isolated from methanol extract of
seeds of Cassia tora against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The methnol extract was
fractionated sequentially with dichloromethane, n-Butanol and water. Out of
these three fractions, aqueous extract was inactive. They isolated
chrysophanol, chryso-obtusin and aurantio- obtusin from the CH2Cl2 fraction
and cassiaside and rubro-fusarin gentiobioside from the n-BuOHfraction. All
these isolated compounds showed significant antimutagenic activity.
∗∗∗∗ Maity et al. (1998) studied anti-inflammatory effect of the methanol extract of
the leaves of Cassia tora. The inflammation was induced using carrageenan,
histamine, serotonin and dextran in rat hind paw. The maximum inhibition of
inflammation (53.57%) was observed in histamine induced rat hind paw at
dose of 400mg/kg at the end of 3h.
Chapter-2 Literature Review
93
∗∗∗∗ Chidume et al. (2002) had studied smooth muscle contractile activity of
methanolic extract of Cassia tora leaves in guinea pig ileum, rabbit jejunum;
intestinal transit time in mice and antinociceptive activity in mice. They found
that extract had reduced the number of acetic acid induced abdominal
constrictions in mice.
∗∗∗∗ Patil et al. (2004) investigated ethanolic extract of seeds of Cassia tora L. and
its ether soluble and water soluble fractions for hypolipidemic activity on
triton induced hyperlipidemia. They found that ethanolic extract and ether
soluble and water soluble fraction decreased serum level of total cholesterol
and triglyceride level whereas increased the serum HDL level.
∗∗∗∗ Yunfeng zhang et al. (2007) isolated volatile oil from seeds of Cassia tora by
supercritical fluid extraction method using CO2 and analyzed by gas
chromatography and GC-Mass spectroscopy. They found that volatile oil was
rich in aliphatic acids and anthraquinones and showed significant antioxidant
activity with IC50 value of 137µg/ml.
∗∗∗∗ Deorse et al. (2009) investigated anthelmintic activity of aqueous and
alcoholic extracts of seeds of Cassia tora against Pheretima posthuma and
Ascardia galli at 25, 50 and 100 mg/ml concentration. The activity was
determined by measuring the time of paralysis and time of death of worm.
Both the extracts showed significant anthelmintic activity at 100 mg/ml.
∗∗∗∗ Rejiya et al. (2009) analysed methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia tora in
cancer therapeutic and found it was significantly effective.
∗∗∗∗ Vetrivel et al. (2009) studied the hepatoprotective effect of methanolic extract
of leaves of Cassia tora on carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage in
albino rats by estimating serum level of SGOT, SGPT and lactate
dehydrogenase . The extract showed significant hepatoprotective activity.
∗∗∗∗ Sharma et al. (2010) analyzed the antibacterial activity of ethanolic and
aqueous extracts from Cassia tora leaves and found that both extracts
exhibited significant antibacterial activity.
∗∗∗∗ Gill et al.(2011) studied the methanolic extract of seeds of Cassia tora for
antioxidant and antiulcer activity at concentration of 200 µg/ml. The extract
possessed potent antiulcerogenic activity in pyloric ligation and non-steroidal
Chapter-2 Literature Review
94
anti-inflammatory induced mucosal damage on albino rats due to its
antioxidant property.
∗∗∗∗ Chaudhary et al. (2011) summarized the traditional use, phytochemical
studies and pharmacological profile of Cassia tora and found that wide range
of chemical compound have been isolated from this plant having variety of
pharmacological activities.
∗∗∗∗ Chaurasia et al. (2011) evaluated methanolic extract of seeds of Cassia tora
and its fractions for their phytochemical and antidiabetic activity in alloxane
induced diabetic rats. They prepared methanolic extract by soxhlation and then
fractionated by extracting its aqueous suspension successively with ethyl
acetate, chloroform, n-butanol and dichloromethane. The n-butanol extract
showed maximum antidiabetic activity in acute and prolonged treatment in
diabetic rats as compared to other extracts. This extract was further
fractionated using TLC technique and six fractions were obtained. They
labelled these fractions as F-a to F-f. The fraction F-f showed significant
antidiabetic activity on prolonged treatment and almost equal to that of
standard drug Glibenclamide. They found that this fraction was naphthopyrone
glycoside on spectroscopic analysis.
∗∗∗∗ Das et al. (2011) evaluated Cassia tora stem bark for pharmacognostic and
phytochemical studies. In pharmacognostic studies, they evaluated the plant
for macroscopy, microscopy, various physico-chemical parameters and
behaviour of bark powder with different chemical reagents. The
phytochemical studies of different extracts showed the presence of
carbohydrate, glycosides, alkaloids, steroids, flavonoid, tannins & phenols.
They described that these standards will be helpful in authentication of Cassia
tora Linn.
∗∗∗∗ Park and Kim (2011) isolated and identified antitumor promoting compound
from methanolic extract of Cassia tora seeds. The methanolic extract was
partitioned with diethyl ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and water. They
studied the antitumor-promoting activity of these fractions which was
determined by -inhibition of Epstein – Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA)
activation induced by teleocidin B-4 in Raji cells. They found that diethyl
ether and chloroform fractions and hydrolysate of ethyl acetate fraction had
Chapter-2 Literature Review
95
strong inhibitory activity. They obtained three active compounds from ethyl
acetate fraction (obtusifolin-2-glucoside, chryso-obtusin-6-glucoside, and
norrubrofusarin- 6-glucoside) and two compounds (questin and chryso-
obtusin) from chloroform fractions.
∗∗∗∗ Pawar et al. (2011) presented the overview of Cassia tora Linn. In this review
they described pharmacognosy, phytochemistry and biological potential of
Cassia tora. The biological potential may provide strong evidence for its use
in different medicines.
∗∗∗∗ Bhasker et al. (2012) isolated Ononitrol monohydrate from ethyl acetate
extract of Cassia tora and assessed for antifeedant, larvicidal and growth
inhibitory activities at concentrations of 125, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm against
insects Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera litura. They found that this
compound prolonged larval-pupal duration of insects and concluded that this
can be used in pesticidal formulations.
∗∗∗∗ Dhanasekaran et al. (2012) isolated Ononitol monohydrate from leaves of
Cassia tora L. and evaluated for hepatoprotective activity against CCl4
induced hepatotoxicity in rats. They found that at concentration of 20mg/kg it
decreased the levels of serum transaminase, lipid peroxidation and TNF-α but
increased the levels of antioxidant and hepatic glutathione enzyme activities
when compared with standard reference compound Silymarin and showed
hepatoprotective activity.
∗∗∗∗ Singhal et al. (2012) evaluated the antipsoriatic activity of O/W cream
formulated from methanolic extract of leaves of Cassia tora L. by using
ultraviolet –B induced psoriasis in rat. The extract and cream showed
significant reduction in percentage of relative epidermal thickness and spleen
index when compared with control group. From this study they concluded that
Cassia tora extract and cream prepared from it had strong antipsoriatic activity
in ultraviolet-B-induced psoriasis in rat.
∗∗∗∗ Suranaet al. (2012) demonstrated the hepatoprotective effect of petroleum
ether, methanol and aqueous extracts of seeds of C. tora in paracetamol
induced liver injury. They found that aqueous and methanolic extract had
significant hepatoprotective activity as these extracts decrease the level of
SGOT, SGPT and SALP. Histopathological studies showed that these extracts
Chapter-2 Literature Review
96
were not able to completely revert the hepatic injury induced by paracetamol.
∗∗∗∗ Tamhane et al. (2012) evaluated the anti-asthmatic activity of aqueous extract
of Cassia tora in isolated goat tracheal chain preparation using histamine as
standard. The extract significantly inhibited the contractions produced by
histamine and showed potent bronchodilator activity at 1500 µg/ml.
∗∗∗∗ Gupta et al. (2013) evaluated the in vivo antioxidant activity of methanolic
extract of Cassia tora leaves and different concentrations of O/W creams of
extract in UV-B induced oxidative stress in rats by measuring the various
parameters like lipid peroxidation, reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase
and catalase levels in the blood sample. They observed that extract and
different concentration of cream of the extract prevented the UV-B-induced
oxidative stress in rats.
∗∗∗∗ Kawade et al. (2013) described pharmacognostical profile of Cassia tora
leaves. They also performed preliminary phytochemical studies on different
extracts and evaluated anthelmintic activity of petroleum ether extract against
earth worm, Pheritima posthuma. The anthelmintic activity was studied at
concentration of 25, 50 and 100 mg/ml of extract and compared with standard
Piperazine citrate (10mg/ml). The result of the study showed that petroleum
ether extract had anthelmintic activity against tested worm and activity
increases with increase in concentration in dose dependent manner.
∗∗∗∗ Mate et al. (2013) evaluated anthelmintic activity of aqueous extract of leaves
of Cassia tora against Pheretima posthuma, obtained from soil, at
concentration of 10, 25 and 50 mg/ml. The anthelmintic activity was assessed
by observingthe time taken for paralysis and death of worm.The results
showed that at concentration of 25 and 50mg/ml the anthelmintic activity was
more than that of standard i.e. Albendazole (10 mg/ml).
∗∗∗∗ Rao and Suresh (2013) studied the effect of petroleum ether, ethyl acetate
and methanol extracts of leaves of C. tora and C. sophera on reducing
cytotoxicity and angiogenesis using in vitro and in vivo methods. They used
Colon cancer (HCT15) and hepatocarcinoma (Hep G2) cell lines for in vitro
studies and chicken egg chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) for in vivo studies.
They found that all the tested extracts were toxic to both the tested cell lines
and having antiproliferative activity and anti-angiogenesis activity in CAM
Chapter-2 Literature Review
97
model .The ethyl acetate extract of C. tora showed most potent activity against
Hep G2 cell lines.
∗∗∗∗ Patil et al. (2014) prepared petroleum ether extract of aerial parts (i.e. leaves,
seeds and flowers) of C. tora and developed its HPTLC fingerprint profile.
The HPTLC fingerprint profile of leaves, seeds and flowers showed 10, 7 and
11 constituents respectively. HPTLC method was used for separation,
identification and quantification of non-polar phytoconstituents present in
petroleum ether extracts.
∗∗∗∗ Sarwa et al. (2014) described phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of
Cassia tora. For review article, they collected the data from recent literature
sources and described various phytoconstituents present in different parts of
the plant and substantiated pharmacological activities like antioxidant,
antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, antihyperlipidemic, hypotensive, antidiabetic,
immunomodulatory, spasmogenic, anti-inflammatory, larvicidal and
antiplasmodial activities.
∗∗∗∗ Shelke et al. (2015) evaluated analgesic activity of petroleum ether and
methanolic extracts of roots of Leucas aspera and Cassia tora using Acetic
acid induced writhing in mice at a dose of 200, 400 and 600 mg/kg orally.
They used acetic acid as pain stimuli in a dose of 0.1 ml/10g (0.7% solution)
and diclofenac sodium (10 mg/kg i.p) as standard. The analgesic activity was
assessed by decreased in abdominal constriction and hind paw stretching in
Acetic acid writhing test. The results revealed that both extracts had
significant analgesic activity in dose dependent manner but methanolic extract
exhibited maximum analgesic activity at 600 mg/kg.
2.2 Reported Ayurvedic Vranaropaka (Wound Healing) plants:
In different Ayurvedic books like Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Astamga
Hridaya, Bhavaprakash Nighantu, DhanwantariNighantu, and Ayurveda Siksha, it
has been described that 70% of the wound healing Ayurvedic drugs are obtained from
plant, 20% from mineral and the remaining 10% from animal products. Scientific
research have been carried out to evaluate the wound healing properties of some of
these drugs. .The plants used in the treatment of wounds and having substantiated
wound healing activity are described in table 2.1 with their botanical name, local
names, family and part used (Biswas and Mukherjee, 2003).
Chapter-2 Literature Review
98
Table2.1: Plants having wound healing activity
S. No. Botanical Name Local Name Family Part used
1 Abies webbiana
Lindl. Talisa Pinacae Leaves
2 Acacia catechu
Willd. Khadira Leguminasae Stem bark
3 Acorus calamus
Linn. Bach Aracaceae
Rhizomes, Leaves
4 Achyranthus aspera Linn.
Apamarga Amaranthaceae Whole plant
5 Adhatoda vasica
Nees. Basak Amaranthaceae Leaves
6 Aegle marmelos
Corr. Bilwa, Bael Rutaceae
Seeds, Roots, Leaves
7 Allium cepa L. Onion Liliaceae Bulbs
8 Aloe vera (L.)
Burm. f. Ghrit kumari Liliaceae
Leaves juice
9 Amomum
subulatum Roxb. Bhadraila Zingiberaceae Seeds
10 Andrographis
paniculata Nees. Kalmegh Acanthaceae Leaves
11 Andropogon
muricantus Retz. Virana Gramineae Roots
12 Angelica glauca
Edgw. Chorak Umbliferraceae Roots
13 Areca catechu
Linn. Betel nut Arecaceae Seeds
14 Artemesia vulgaris
Linn. Nagdari Compositae
Stem, twigs
Chapter-2 Literature Review
99
15 Asparagus
racemosus willd. Satawari Liliaceae Roots
16 Azadirachta indica
A. Juss. Neem Meliaceae
Roots, Leaves
17 Bassia longifolia
Linn. Jalaja Sapotaceae Seeds
18 Bauhinia purpura
Linn. kabidara Leguminosae Gum
19 Berberis aristata
D.C. Daruharidra Berberidaceae Wood
20 Boerhaavia diffusa
Linn. Punarnava Nyctaginaceae
Whole plant
21 Butea
monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze
Palas Fabaceae Leaves,
Bark
22 Calendula
officinalis L. Marigold Asteraceae Flowers
23 Calotropis
gigantea Linn. Rajarka Asclepidiaceae Latex
24 Catheranthus
roseus (L.) G. Don
Rosy periwinkle or
Sadabahar Apocynaceae Leaves
25 Celastrus
panniculatus Willd.
Jyotismati Celastraceae Seeds
26 Centella asiatica
Linn. Brahmi Apiaceae
Flowers, Leaves
27 Cinnamonum tamla Nees.
Patra Lauraceae Stem bark,
leaves
28 Cinnamonum
zeylanicum J. Presi Dalchini Lauraceae Stem bark
29 Citrullus
colocynthis (L) Schrad.
Indrabaruni, Colocynth
Cucurbitaceae Roots, Fruits
Chapter-2 Literature Review
100
30 Citrus decumoona
Linn. Baranimbu Rutaceae
Leaves, Seeds
31 Citrus medica
Linn. Matulunga Rutaceae
Leaves, Seeds
32 Curcuma Longa
Linn. Haridra, Turmeric
Zingiberaceae Rhizomes
33 Cyperus rotundus
Linn. Mustak Cyperaceae
Roots, Leaves
34 Datura alba Linn. Dhatura Solanaceae Leaves
35 Desmodium
gangeticum D.C. Shalaparni Leguminosae
Whole plant
36 Eclipta alba
Hassk. Keshuta Compositae Roots
37 Eletraia
cardamomum Maton.
Choti elaichi Zingiberaceae Seeds
38 Embelia ribes
Burm. Bidanga Myrsinaceae
Leaves, Fruits
39 Emblica
officinalis Linn. Amlaki, Amla Euphorbiaceae
Fruits, leaves
40 Ephedra vulgaris
Hook. Somlata Gentaceae
Green twig
41 Eugenia
jambolana Lam. Jambu Myrataceae
Stem bark, Leaves
42 Euphorbia
nerifolia Linn. Snuhi Euphorbiaceae Latex
43 Euphorbia
thymifolia R.Br. Dugdhika Euphorbiaceae
Whole plant
44 Ficus bengalensis
Linn. Vad Moraceae
Stem bark, Leaves, Roots
Chapter-2 Literature Review
101
45 Ficus hispida
Linn. kakodambara Moraceae Stem bark
46 Ficus religiosa L. Peepal Moraceae Leaves
47 Ficus racemosa
Linn. Jagyadumur Moraceae Leaves
48 Glycyrrhiza glabra
Linn. Liquorice, Jastimadhu
Leguminosae Roots
49 Gymnema
sylvestre R.Br. Madhunaashini
, Gur- mar Apocynaceae Leaves
50 Helianthus annuus
Linn. Sunflower Asteraceae
Leaves, Seeds.
Flowers
51 Heliotropium indicum Linn.
Hatisura Boraginaceae Leaves
52 Holarheena
antidysenterica wall.
Kutaja Apocyanaceae Stem bark
53 Hypericum
mysorenseB. Heyne.
St. John Wort Hypericaceae Leaves
54 Ichnocarpus
frutescens R.Br. Syamlata Apocyanaceae Stem bark
56 Ipomea paniculata
R.Br. Bhumikushma
—nda Convolvulaceae Roots.
57 Jasminum
auriculatum Vahl. Juthika Oleaceae
Leaves, Flowers
58 Jasminum
officinale Linn. Jati Oleaceae Roots
59 Jasminum sambac
Ait. Mallika Oleaceae Leaves
60 Jatropha curcas
Linn. Barbados nut Euphorbiaceae
Leaves, Stem bark
Chapter-2 Literature Review
102
61 Lagenaria vulgaris
Seringe. Ikshaku Cucurbitaceae Seeds
62 Lawsonia innermis
L. Henna Lythraceae Leaves
63 Lippia nodiflora
Mich. Jalapippal Verbenaceae Fruits
64 Loranthus asper
Desr. Bandaka Loranthaceae
Whole plant
65 Martynia diandra
Glox. Bhaghnakhi Mertyneaceae
Fruits,flower
66 Mimosa pudica
Linn. Lajjalu Mimosoidae
Whole plant
67 Momordica charantia L.
Karela Cucurbitaceae Fruits, Leaves
68 Moringa oliefera
Lam. Syn. Sajina Morigaceae
Roots, Leaves
69 Musa paradisaca
Linn. Kadali Musaceae Stem Juice
70 Nardostachys
jatamansi D.C.
Jatamansi Valerianaceae Roots
71 Nelumbo nuciera
Willd. Pundariya Nymphacaeae Stem stalk
72 Nerium indicum
Mill. Karabi, Kaner Apocynaceae Roots
73 Ocimum sanctum
Linn. Tulsi Lamiaceae
Whole plant
74 Odina woodier
Roxb. Jingira Anacardiaceae Stem bark
75 Oledelandia biflora Linn.
Khetpapra Rubiaceae Whole plant
76 Oryza sativa Linn. Shetashalitand
—ula Graminae Seeds
Chapter-2 Literature Review
103
77 Papaver
somniferum Linn. Apiphena,
Poppy Papaveraceae Seeds
78 Phyllanthus embilica L.
Amla Euphorbiaceae Fruits
79 Picorrhiza kurroa Royle. Ex. Benth.
Katuki Scrophulariaceae Rhizomes
80 Pinus longifolia
Roxb. Saralkastha Pinaceae Resins
81 Piper longum
Linn. Pipalli, Long
pepper Piperaceae Roots
82 Piper nigrum
Linn. Pepper Piperaceae Fruits
83 Pisum sativum
Linn. Harenu Verbenaceae Leaves
84 Plumbago
zeylanicum Linn. Chita Plumbaginaceae Roots
85 Prunus cerasus
Linn. Elabaluka Rosaceae Seeds
86 Prunus puddum
Roxb. Padmakastha Rosaceae
Smaller stem
branches
87 Prunus mahaleb
Linn. Priyangu Rosaceae Roots
88 Psidum guajava
Linn. Guava Myrtaceae Leaves
89 Psoralia
corylifolia Linn. Bakuchi Leguminosae Seeds
90 Punica granatum
L. Pomgranate Punicaceae Flowers
91 Radix paeoniae
Rubra Peony root Paeoniaceae Roots
92 Randia
dumentorum Linn. Madan Rubiacaeae
Stem, Root
Chapter-2 Literature Review
104
93 Rannunculus
scleratus Linn. Kandira Rannunculaceae
Whole plant
94 Rhizophora mangle L.
Red mangrove Rhizophoraceae Bark
95 Rubia cordifolia
Linn. Manjistha Rubiaceae Roots
96 Rumex crispa
Linn. Betas Aristolochiaceae
Whole plant
97 Salix tetrasperma
Roxb. Jalabetas Salicaceae
Stem bark, flower
98 Saltalum album
Linn. Swetchandana Santalanaceae Wood
99 Saraca indica
Linn. Ashoka Leguminosae Stem bark
100 Sessanum indicum
L. Tila Pedaliaceae Seed oil
101 Sida cordifolia
Linn. Bala Malvaceae Roots
102 Sida spinosa Linn. Chakule Malvaceae Roots
103 Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.
Mundi Asteraceae Flowers
104 Swertia
chiratabuch Ham. Chireta Gentianaceae
Stem, Leaves
105 Tephrosia
purpurea Linn. Pers.
Sarapunkha Legumisae Whole plant
106 Terminalia
chebula Retz. Haritaki, Harad Combretaceae
Whole plant
107 Terminaliraia belerica Roxb.
Bibhitaka Combretaceae Fruits
108 Tinospora cordifolia
(Thumb.) Miers Giloe Meninspermaceae Leaves
Chapter-2 Literature Review
105
109 Tinospora
tomentosa Colebr. Padmagu-
lancha Menispermaceae Stem
110 Tricosanthes dioica Roxb.
Patolpatra Cucurbitaceae Leaves,
Stem bark
111 Vateria indica
Linn. Sarja Dipterocarpaceae Latex
112 Vitex negundo
Linn. Nishinda Verbenaceae Leaves
113 Wedelia
calendulacea Less. Bhringaraj Compositae Leaves
114 Withania
somnifera Dunal Ashwagandha Solanaceae
Tuberous roots
115 Zingiber Officinale
Rosc. Sunthi Zingiberaceae Rhizomes