12 (2017): 16-44 HARRY S. TRUMAN, “ADDRESS BEFORE THE

VoicesofDemocracy12(2017):16-44

AllisonM.Prasch:[email protected]:December2017VoicesofDemocracy,ISSN#1932-9539.Availableathttp://www.voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/.

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HARRYS.TRUMAN,“ADDRESSBEFORETHENATIONALASSOCIATIONFORTHEADVANCEMENTOFCOLOREDPEOPLE,”WASHINGTON,DC(29JUNE1947)

AllisonM.Prasch

ColoradoStateUniversity

Abstract:HarryS.Truman’skeynoteaddresstotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleattheLincolnMemorialwasawatershedmomentforthepostwarcivilrightsmovement.Inhisspeech,thepresidentdeployedhisownpersonalethos,thephysicallocationofhisaddress,andthecurrentColdWarhistoricalcontextasevidenceforhisargumentthat“allAmericans”wereentitledtothefullbenefitsofcitizenship.ThisessayanalyzesTruman’sspeechwithinitshistorical,political,andspatialcontextstodemonstratehowandwhythisaddresswassoremarkableandrhetoricallysignificant.

Keywords:HarryS.Truman;CivilRights;NAACP;LincolnMemorial;ColdWar

OnJune29,1947,HarryS.TrumanbecamethefirstU.S.presidenttoaddresstheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP)inperson.SpeakingfromthestepsoftheLincolnMemorialattheclosingsessionoftheorganization’sthirty-eighthannualmeeting,TrumanarguedthattheUnitedStateshadamoraldutytoextendthefullbenefitsofcitizenshiptoallcitizens,regardlessofrace,color,religion,orcreed.HistorianDavidMcCulloughwritesthatTruman’sNAACPspeechwas“thestrongeststatementoncivilrightsheardinWashingtonsincethetimeofLincoln,”1andrhetoricalcriticGarthE.PauleyobservesthatTruman’sspeechwassignificantbecausehewas“thefirstpresidenttodefinecivilrightsasacrisis.”2Truman’sargumentforfederalcivilrightslegislationwasnotable,particularlybecausethisspeechcameafullyearbeforehisdecisiontomakeraceacentralissueofhis1948presidentialcampaign.3Farfromsimplyapoliticalcalculation,Truman’sinsistencethattheU.S.governmenttakeactivestepstosecurecivilrightsfor“allAmericans”wasaboldstepaspolicebrutality,lynchings,andJimCrowtranscendedanysupposedpromiseofracialjusticeonbothsidesoftheMason-DixonLine(2).4

Thepresident’saddresstotheNAACPalsorepresentsapivotalmomentinU.S.foreignpolicyastheUnitedStatesstruggledtoformulatearesponsetowhatWinstonChurchillfamouslydescribedasthe“ironcurtain”descendingoverEasternEurope.5Evenashearticulatedhisdomesticcivilrightsprogramtothenationandtotheworld,Trumandirectlyrefutedcritics—mostnotably,theSovietUnion—whoclaimedthattheUnitedStateshadnobusinesspreachingdemocracytotherestoftheworldwhenitdisenfranchiseditsowncitizens.“AtatimewhentheUnitedStateshopedtoreshapethepostwarworldinitsownimage,”writeshistorianMaryL.Dudziak,“theinternationalattentiongiventoracialsegregationwastroublesomeandembarrassing.ThefocusofAmericanforeignpolicywastopromotedemocracyandto‘contain’communism,buttheinternationalfocusonU.S.racialproblems


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meantthattheimageofAmericandemocracywastarnished.”6Thus,whenTrumandeliveredtheclosingaddressattheNAACPconference,hespoketoaglobalaudience—citizensandnationschoosingbetweendemocracyandcommunism,the“twowaysoflife”Trumandescribedinhis“TrumanDoctrine”addresstoCongressonMarch12,1947.7

Inthisessay,IanalyzeTruman’sAddresstotheNAACPandconsiderhowthepresidentdefinedhisauthorityandethos,constitutedhisaudienceasanationofcitizensresponsibleforextendingtherightsofcitizenshipto“allAmericans,”andconstructedthishistorical/temporalmomentasaturningpointinU.S.civilrights.Todothis,IfirstexamineTruman’shistorywiththeissueofracerelationstoexplainwhyhisphysicalpresenceattheLincolnMemorialonJune29,1947wassoremarkable.IalsodescribethesymbolicsignificanceoftheLincolnMemorialwithinU.S.politicalcultureatthetimeofTruman’sspeech,payingparticularattentiontoPresidentWarrenG.Harding’sdedicationofthesitein1922andMarianAnderson’soutdoorconcertin1939.IthenofferaclosereadingofTruman’saddressandanalyzevariousresponsestotheaddressbypoliticalofficials,thenewsmedia,andprivatecitizens.IconcludebyconsideringthesignificanceofthisparticularaddressforthecivilrightsmovementandsuccessivepresidentialaddressesdeliveredattheLincolnMemorial.Ultimately,thisanalysisrevealshowTrumansituatedhisaudienceinplaceandtimebeforeextendingtheserelational,spatial,andtemporalmetaphorsbeyondtheimmediatephysicalsituationandontotheinternationalstageashesetforthavisionforthemetaphoricalplacetheUnitedStateswouldoccupyatthedawnoftheColdWar.

ContextualizingTruman’sSpeechtotheNAACP

WhenTrumandeliveredthekeynoteaddressattheclosingsessionofthethirty-eighth

annualconferenceonJune29,1947,hisphysicalpresence—bothasPresidentoftheUnitedStatesandasborder-stateDemocratwhosegrandparentswereproudslaveowners—lentexecutiveandpoliticalauthoritytotheissueofcivilrightsintheUnitedStates.Indeed,Truman’ssouthernupbringingandhisownhistorywithracerelationsmadethisparticularaddressattheLincolnMemorialtotheNAACPallthemoreremarkable—andtransformative.WilliamE.LeuchtenburgwritesthatTruman“literallylearnedathismother’skneetosharetheSouth’sviewoftheWarBetweentheStates....[and]acquiredanabidingbeliefinwhitesupremacy.”Yearslater,whenTruman’smotherMarthavisitedhersonintheWhiteHouseandwasofferedtheLincolnbedroom,shesaid,“YoutellHarryifhetriestoputmeinLincoln’sbed,I’llsleeponthefloor.”8Truman’sinitialattitudesonracemirroredthoseofhisparentsandgrandparents.PerhapsnowhereelseisthismoreevidentthaninaletterhewrotetoBessWallacein1911:“IamstronglyoftheopinionthatnegrosoughttobeinAfrica,yellowmeninAsia[,]andwhitemeninEuropeandAmerica.”9Shockingasthesecommentsare,however,theyreflectthesocialandpoliticalmoresofIndependence,Missouri.Despitehisfamilialandregionalbackground,Trumantookstepsthatwere,atthetime,notabletowardsecuringcivilrightsforAfricanAmericans,particularlyintheborder-stateofMissouri.10AsaU.S.senator,TrumansupportedaprogressivecivilrightsagendaintheSenate,includinganti-lynchinglegislation,discriminationinthearmedforces,andoutlawingthepolltax.11

WhenTrumanassumedthepresidencyfollowingFDR’ssuddendeathinApril1945,heinheritedFDR’slessthanstellarrecordoncivilrights.ThroughouttheRooseveltAdministration,


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itwasFirstLadyEleanorRooseveltwhochampionedtheissueofcivilrightsandbecamethemoralconscienceofthenation,meetingoftenwithblackpoliticalleadersandurgingherhusbandtosupportanti-lynchinglegislationintheU.S.Congress(somethingthatFDRwouldneveragreetodo).TheNAACPfirstfoundanallyinTrumaninSeptember1946when,afterbriefingthepresidentonthebrutalbeatingsandlynchingsofAfricanAmericansintheSouth(includingU.S.servicemembersreturningfromWorldWarII),thepresidentdecidedtocreatethePresident’sCommissiononCivilRights(PCCR)throughexecutiveorder.12ThisactionwasthefirstofmanyimportantstepsthepresidenttooktoassumefederalresponsibilityfortheissueofcivilrightsintheUnitedStates.13AndalthoughblackpoliticalleadersandtheNAACPwerethrilledtofinallyhaveanallyintheWhiteHouse,southernDemocratswerefurious.AfterTruman’sspecialmessagetoCongressinFebruary1948outliningcomprehensivecivilrightsreform,aU.S.CongressmanfromGeorgiasaidhisstatehadbeen“kickedintheteeth”bythepresident.Rep.WilliamM.Colmer,aCongressmanfromMississippi,stated:“NotsincethefirstgunwasfiredonFortSumter,resultingasitdidinthegreatestfratricidalstrifeinthehistoryoftheworld,hasanymessageofanyPresidentofthesegloriousUnitedStates...resultedinthedrivingofaschismintheranksofourpeople,asdidPresidentTruman’sso-calledcivilrightsmessage.”AnotherCongressmanfromMississippi,Rep.JohnBellWilliams,agreed,statingthatthepresident“has...runapoliticaldaggerintoourbacksandnowheistryingtodrinkourblood.”14

ButTrumanwasresolute,believingthathehadamoraldutytoensurethatallcitizensenjoyedtherightslaidoutintheU.S.Constitution.WhenDemocraticleadersaskedhimtobackdownonhiscivilrightsagenda,thepresidentreplied:“MyforebearswereConfederates....Everyfactorandinfluenceinmybackground—andinmywife’sforthatmatter—wouldfosterthepersonalbeliefthatyouareright.ButmystomachturnedoverwhenIlearnedthatNegrosoldiers,justbackfromoverseas,werebeingdumpedoutofArmytrucksandbeaten.WhatevermyinclinationsasanativeofMissourimighthavebeen,asPresidentIknowthisisbad.Ishallfighttoendevilslikethis.”15Inanotherlettertoasouthernfriend,TrumanreferencedthebeatingandblindingofSergeantIsaacWoodwardbylocalauthoritiesasevidencethat“somethingisradicallywrongwiththesystem.Ican’tapproveofsuchgoingsonandIshallneverapproveofit,aslongasIamhere...Iamgoingtotrytoremedyitandifthatendsupinmyfailuretobereelected,thatfailurewillbeinagoodcause.”16TrumansawtheU.S.Constitutionasasacreddocument,andbelieveditwashisjobasPresidenttoensurethattherightsofcitizenshipextendedtoeveryU.S.citizen,regardlessoftheirrace.Truman’sallegiancetothesefoundingdocumentsandthenationtranscendedanysectionalidentity.HeconsideredhimselfaPresidentofalltheUnitedStates,andtookdecisivestepstoextendcivilrightsto“allAmericans”—aphrasethatTrumanwouldemphasizeoverandoveragaininhisaddresstotheNAACPonJune29,1947,fromthestepsoftheLincolnMemorial(2).

WhenNAACPexecutivesecretaryWalterWhiteaskedthepresidenttokeynotetheclosingsessionoftheorganization’sthirty-eighthannualconference,bothmenundoubtedlyrecognizedthepoliticalrisk.Inhisaddress,Trumanwouldbecomethefirstpresidenttoaddresstheorganizationinpersonsinceitsfoundingin1909and,moreimportantly,the“firstmodernpresidenttomakeanopenandpubliccommitmenttocivilrights.”17InameetingwithTrumanonApril9,1947,Whiteremindedthepresident“howactsofdiscriminationagainstminoritieswerebeingusedabroadtodiscredittheUnitedStatesandconvincethepeopleoftheworld


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thatAmericanswereincurablyaddictedtobigotry.”Accordingly,WhiteurgedTrumantoissue“forthrightandunequivocalstatement...toletthepeopleoftheworldknowthat...wewereconstantlyatworktonarrowthemarginbetweenourprotestationsoffreedomandourpracticeofthem.”18AccordingtoWhite’sautobiography,TrumantoldWhitetosendhimalistoftheitemshethoughtthepresidentshouldemphasizeinhisspeech.“Webothlaughed,”recalledWhite,“asItoldhimthatifheincludedevenonehalfofthethingsIthoughtheoughttosay,theSouthernDemocratswouldprobablywanttorunhimoutofthecountry.”19

Truman’saddresstotheNAACPwouldrufflefeathersnotjustbecauseofwhathesaid,butalsobecauseofwherehewouldspeak—fromthestepsoftheLincolnMemorial.AlthoughcontemporaryaudiencesassociatethesitewiththeCivilRightsMovement,thiswasbynomeanstheoriginalintent.In1912,theLincolnMemorialCommission(LMC)designedamonumentthatwouldhonorAbrahamLincolnasthe“SavioroftheUnion”—notthe“GreatEmancipator.”Becausethe“earlytwentiethcenturycelebratedtheeconomicandpoliticalreunionofNorthandSouth,”writeshistorianScottSandage,“Lincoln’stiestoblackfreedomwanedaspoliticiansandscholarssculptedhimintoa‘pro-Southernconservative’honoredonbothsidesoftheMason-Dixonline.”20TheLMCwasexplicitaboutitsintenttomemorializeLincolnas“SavioroftheUnion,”designingaGreekDorictemplefeaturingthirty-sixcolumns,oneforeverystateintheUnionatthetimeofLincoln’sdeath,andforty-eightmemorialfestoonsrepresentingthenumberofstatesin1922.ThetextinscribedaboveLincoln’sstatuealsounderscoredtheslainpresident’sstatusinnationalmemory:“INTHISTEMPLE/ASINTHEHEARTSOFTHEPEOPLE/FORWHOMHESAVEDTHEUNION/THEMEMORYOFABRAHAMLINCOLN/ISENSHRINEDFOREVER.”Theauthorofthesewords,RoyalCortissoz,explainedtheirsignificancetoarchitectHenryBacon,writing,“Thememorialmustmakeacommongroundforthemeetingofthenorthandthesouth.Byemphasizinghissavingtheunionyouneedtoappealtobothsections.Bysayingnothingaboutslaveryyouavoidtherubbingofoldsores.”21WhenPresidentWarrenG.HardingdedicatedtheMemorialin1922,hewasexplicitaboutrejectingLincoln’sstatusasthe“GreatEmancipator”:“Thesupremechapterinhistoryisnotemancipation.ThesimpletruthisthatLincoln,recognizinganestablishedorder,wouldhavecompromisedwithslaverythatexistedifhecouldhavehalteditsextension....Emancipationwasameanstoagreatend—maintainedunionandnationality.”22Moreover,HardingremindedhisaudiencethatLincolnsaw“deliberatepublicopinionasthesupremepowerofcivilization”andofferedthis“tonic”tothoseimpatientwiththestateofracerelationsintheUnitedStates:“Deliberatepublicopinionneverfails.”23Tounderscorethepoint,theU.S.ParkServicesegregatedseatingarrangementsatthededicationceremony,makingonlyasmallnumberofseatsavailableto“distinguishedColoredticketholders”ina“JimCrowsectionofseats”attheveryback.24

ButwhenTrumanspokefromthestepsoftheLincolnMemorialtwenty-fiveyearslater,heinvokedanaltogetherdifferentinterpretationoftheslainpresident’sstatusinnationalmemoryand,morespecifically,thesymbolismofthisparticularplaceinU.S.nationalmemory.Inthespringof1939,aftertheDaughtersoftheAmericanRevolution(DAR)refusedtoletworld-renownedsingerMarianAndersonperformatConstitutionHallbecauseshewasblack,theNAACPsuggestedtheideaofanoutdoorconcertinstead.InapersonallettertoAnderson,executivesecretaryWalterWhiterecommendedtheLincolnMemorial“becauseofthepeculiarappropriatenessofthatplaceunderthepresentcircumstances.”25FirstLadyEleanorRoosevelt,


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whohadresignedherDARmembershiptoprotesttheorganization’sdecision,workedbehindthescenestolobbyforAnderson’suseofthissymbolicsite,andafterHaroldIckes,theSecretaryoftheInteriorandtheformerpresidentoftheChicagobranchoftheNAACP,gotpermissionfromPresidentRooseveltforthisplan,heannouncedonMarch30thatMarianAndersonwouldsingattheLincolnMemorialtendayslater.26Anderson’sperformancemarkedthefirsttimeanartisthadeversungatthenationalshrine.27TheInteriorDepartmentpredictedthatacrowdof50,000wouldhearAndersonsingonEasterSunday;aftertheevent,theU.S.CapitolParkPoliceputthenumberat75,000.Tothosewhocouldnotattendtheeventinperson,theconcertwasbroadcastliveoverradionetworks.28SecretaryIckesintroducedMarianAndersontothecrowdhimself.HealsotooktheopportunitytomakeapublicstatementonracerelationsintheUnitedStates,statingthat“itisasappropriateasitisfortunatethattodaywestandreverentlyandhumblyatthebaseofthismemorialtotheGreatEmancipatorwhileglorioustributeisrenderedtohismemorybyadaughteroftheracefromwhichhestruckthechainsofslavery.”29ThroughthisEasterSundayconcert,MarianAndersonandtheNAACPshiftedthesite’ssymbolicstatusfromanationalshrinetothe“SavioroftheUnion”toasiteforcivilrightsactivism.AnditwasthisnewmeaningthatTrumanwouldreaffirmwhenhespokeattheclosingsessionoftheNAACP’sthirty-eighthannualconferenceonJune29,1947.AsEdwardS.Caseyobserves,certainplacesprovide“anactivematerialinducement[thatdrawsout]theappropriatememoriesinthatlocation.”30Inthisinstance,Truman’spresenceinthisplacesimultaneouslyrejectedonememory—Harding’s1922dedication—evenasitaffirmedtheother—MarianAnderson’s1939concert.

BoththeNAACPandtheTrumanadministrationrecognizedthesymboliclinkagesbetweenTruman’sJune29,1947addressandtherhetoricalresonancesofthisparticularlocation.AnearlydraftoftheSundayafternoonprogramincludedtenminutesofsingingbynoneotherthanMarianAndersontoopentheevent.IntheirformalpressreleaseannouncingTruman’sparticipation,theNAACPnoted:“ItisexpectedthatanaudienceaslargeasthatwhichheardMarion[sic]Andersonatthehistoric1939EasterSundayconcert,willagainfilltheLincolnMemorial.”31WalterWhiteunderscoredthedomesticandinternationalimplicationsoftheevent,statingthattheNAACPwould“meetinthefittingshadowoftheAbrahamLincolnmonumenttorededicateallofitsresourcesandenergiestothepeopleofallnationswhofoughtandarestillfightingtosecuretherightsofallmen.”32TheWhiteHousealsosawthisoccasionasanopportunityforTrumantoappropriateLincoln’smemoryinthecurrentColdWarcontext.InaJune16,1947memo,WhiteHouseadministrativeassistantDavidK.NilesnotedthattheintroductionofTruman’sspeechshouldreferencethe“significanceofmeetingonthegroundsofLincolnmemorial.‘Hediedtomakemenfree.’Hisproblem:OneNation.Ourproblem:Oneworld.Theproblemoffreedominthemodernworld;ourgoal,tomaintainthegreatestpossiblefreedomfortheindividual.”AlthoughNiles’memorandumprioritizedU.S.foreignpolicyoverthecurrentstateofracerelationsathomeandrecommendedthatTrumanonlyspend“oneminute”ontheissueofcivilrights,thepresidentdidnotfollowthisadvice.33Infact,ahastilyscribblednoteinthefilessuggeststhatTrumanhadamixedresponsetoNiles’memo:“somegood;somenotsogood.”34AccordingtoWhiteHouseaideandspeechwriterGeorgeElsey,itwasRobertCarr,thedirectorofthePCCR,thatwrotethefirstfulldraftofthespeechbecauseCarrknew“moreaboutwhatneed[ed]tobedoneandwhatneed[ed]tobesaid”thananyoneelse.35


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Aspartofameticulouslyplannedpublicrelationscampaign,PresidentTruman’sspeechtotheNAACPwouldfollowspeechesbyRepublicanSenatorWayneMorseofOregon,Mrs.EleanorRoosevelt,andanintroductionofthepresidentbyWalterWhite.AsWhiteoutlinedinamemotoDavidK.Niles,theprogramwouldrun“56minuteswithanallowanceof4minutesforapplause,etc.Byadheringstrictlytothisscheduleitisourhopethatweshallbeabletogettheentireone-hourprogrambroadcastbyallofthenetworks.”36Truman’saddresswouldbebroadcastonthefourmajorradionetworks(CBS,NBC,ABC,andMutual),andtheU.S.DepartmentofStatemadearrangementstosendtheprogrambyshortwaveradioaroundtheglobe.37TheNAACPalsoensuredthatthespeechwouldbefilmedfornewsreeldistributionaroundthecountry.38TheNAACP’splanstocirculatelivecoverageandvisualsoftheeventunderscoretheimportancenotjustofTruman’sphysicalpresenceattheevent,butthesymbolicsignificanceofwheretheeventwouldbesituated.WhenTrumandeliveredthekeynoteaddresstotheNAACP’sthirty-eighthannualconference,hisphysicalpresencebeforethisaudienceinthisparticularlocationatthishistoricalmomentwasprofoundlyrhetorical.Beforeheeveropenedhismouth,thefactthatthispresident,thegrandsonofslaveowners,daredtochallengetheinstitutionalizeddoxaofwhitesupremacyandJimCrowwhilestandingintheliteralandsymbolicshadowofAbrahamLincolnspokevolumes.39

HarryS.Truman’sAddresstotheNAACP:June29,1947

ThepresidentbeganhisAddresstotheNAACPbyacknowledgingtheotherguestson

theplatform,particularlyNAACPchairmanWalterWhite,Mrs.EleanorRoosevelt,SenatorMorse,andother“distinguishedguests”(1).Hethenexpressedhispleasureinattendingthisevent,stating:“Iamhappytobepresentattheclosingsessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople.TheoccasionofmeetingwithyouhereattheLincolnMemorialaffordsmetheopportunitytocongratulatetheassociationuponitseffectiveworkfortheimprovementofourdemocraticprocesses”(1).Intheseopeningremarks,Trumanhintedatwhatmadethismomentsoextraordinary.AsthefirstpresidenttoaddresstheNAACPinperson,Truman’spresencebeforethisparticularaudienceunderscoredhissupportfortheorganization’scivilrightsagenda.TheNewYorkAmsterdamNewslaterobserved,“[n]ooccasionintheaffairsoftheUnitedStatesisofmoreimportancethanwhenandwherethepresidentisthespeaker,”and“byappearinginpersonandmakingforthrightdeclarationsontheburningquestionofraceprejudice...[Truman]madeanotablecontributiontothefightfordemocracyanddecencyinthiscountry.”40TherhetoricalsignificanceofTruman’sattendancewascompoundedbyhisphysicallocation“hereattheLincolnMemorial”(1).Byspeakingtothisaudienceinthisplace,TrumansuggestedthathewouldalignhimselfnotjustwiththeNAACP,butalsowiththeorganization’sstrategicdeploymentofthisnationalshrine.WhenTrumanunderscoredthefactthathewas“here”toreaffirmfreedomandequalityfor“allAmericans,”thisdeicticreferencehelpedhisaudience—thoseassembledontheNationalMallandthoselisteningtotheradio—toenvisionthescene(1,3).

Thepresidentthendeclaredtheoverallpurposeforthisaddress:“Ishouldliketotalktoyoubrieflyaboutcivilrightsandhumanfreedom”(2).InlanguageverysimilartothewayPresidentRooseveltwouldtellhisaudiencethathewantedtoconversewiththematthe


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beginningofhis“FiresideChats,”Trumandescribedhisaddressasanopportunityto“talk”withthenationabouttheidealsandvaluesthatdefinedthecountryand,byextension,theprinciplesofdemocracy.Employingthepresidential“I,”Trumanreinforcedhisexecutiveauthoritytodefinetheboundsof“civilrightsandhumanfreedom”andcharacterizethisparticularmomentinU.S.history.“Itismydeepconvictionthatwehavereachedaturningpointinthelonghistoryofourcountry’seffortstoguaranteefreedomandequalitytoallourcitizens”(2).NoticehowTruman’suseofpronounsinthispassagequicklyassignedagencytotherestoftheaudience.SpeakingbothasPresidentoftheUnitedStatesandasafellowcitizen,Trumantransferredhisownview(“mydeepconviction”)ofcivilrightstotherestofhisaudiencewhenhearguedthat“wehavereachedaturningpoint”within“thelonghistoryofourcountry’seffortstoguaranteefreedomandequalitytoallourcitizens.”Inthespanofonesentence,TrumanshiftedthetemporalviewofracerelationsintheUnitedStatesfromoneofgradualprogress(“longhistory”)toadefinitivemomentrequiringanimmediateresponse(“turningpoint”).Andyet,itwaspreciselybecause1947wassituatedwithinthis“longhistory”—ahistorythathadtakenfartoolong,Trumansuggested—thatthisparticularmomentcouldnowbeunderstoodasthetimeforpoliticalaction.ButTruman’suseof“turningpoint”hadmorethantemporalimplications.Thephrasealsoimpliesdeliberatebodilymovement,ashiftindirectioninaparticularplace,turningawayfromsomethingandmovingtowardsomethingelse.Inthisinstance,Trumanarguedthatthismomentrequiredthenationtorejecttheideathatracialprogresswouldhappenovertime(aviewthatHardinghadadvocatedattheLincolnMemorial’sdedicationin1922)andinsteadtakespecificstepsto“guaranteefreedomandequalitytoallourcitizens”(2).

HavingdefinedthismomentasacriticaljunctureinU.S.racerelations,thepresidentgesturedtoward“[r]ecenteventsintheUnitedStatesandabroad[that]havemadeusrealizethatitismoreimportanttodaythaneverbeforetoinsurethatallAmericansenjoytheserights”(2).Inthissentence,Trumanusedtemporalandspatialmetaphorstodescribethecurrentdomesticandinternationalsituation.“Recentevents”—temporallyproximateandalsophysicallynear—broughtaboutthischangeinperspective:“today”itwasmoreimportantthan“everbefore”toextend“theserights”—the“freedomandequality”Trumanhadmentionedintheprevioussentence—to“allAmericans.”Although“today”referredtoJune29,1947(adistinctmomentwithinthenation’shistory),“today”nowalsosuggestedalargertemporalframeforthismomentintime,anoccasionrequiringcommunalreflectionanddeliberateaction.These“recentevents”alsohadmaterialimplicationsfortheaudience’sdailyexistence“intheUnitedStates”andforthenation’sbroaderrelationshipwiththerestoftheworld(“abroad”).Trumandidnotelaboratethespecificsoftheserecentevents,butinsteadinvitedhisaudiencetosupplytheirownevidence.Althoughthe“recenteventsintheUnitedStates”ofmobviolence,policebrutality,andlynchingintheUnitedStateswouldhavebeenalltoofamiliartotheAfricanAmericanmembersofTruman’saudience,theyalsowerewidelyreportedthroughoutthenationandaroundtheworldasevidencethattheUnitedStatesdidnotadheretothedemocraticidealsitespoused.These“recentevents”alsoappliedtointernationaldevelopmentsinthepost-WorldWarIIworld,mostnotablythefailingeconomiesinGreeceandTurkey.Recallthatjustthreemonthsearlier,inhis“TrumanDoctrine”pronouncementofMarch12,1947,thepresidenthadpledgedthattheUnitedStateswouldprovidemilitaryandeconomicaidtohelpEuropeandemocracieswithstandthetideofSoviet


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communism.Thus,inpointinghisaudiencetowardthe“recentevents”athomeandabroad,Trumangesturedtowardhislaterargumentthatthenationshouldbecomeabeaconofdemocraticvaluestotherestoftheworld.

BythetimeTrumanreachedthetwo-minutemarkofhisaddress,hehadunderscoredthesignificanceofthisparticularoccasionandhispresidentialpresenceinplace,definedtheurgencyofthisparticularmoment,andlinkedtheUnitedStates’racialprogresstoalargerColdWarforeignpolicynarrative.Afterlayingthiscontextualgroundworkforhisimmediateandextendedaudience,thepresidentdeliveredwhatwasperhapsthemoststrikinglineofhisaddress—onethatTrumanaddedhimselfduringthespeechwritingprocess.41Inanextensionoftheprevioussentence(“…itismoreimportanttodaythaneverbeforetoinsurethatallAmericansenjoytheserights”),Trumanspecifiedwhowasincludedinthecategoryof“allAmericans”:“WhenIsayallAmericans[,]ImeanallAmericans”(3).42Truman’sdeliveryofthisparticularlinewasforcefulanddetermined,andthepresidentputparticularemphasisonthesecondhalfofthesentence:“ImeanallAmericans.”Toanaudienceaccustomedtoidentifyingvocalcadencesovertheradio,thisshiftwouldhavebeenquiteobvious.TheimplicitargumentherewasthatalthoughanyU.S.citizencouldidentifyasan“American,”thistitleofferednothingbutanemptysignifiertonon-whites.FormillionsofblackAmericans,manyofwhomhadfoughtfortheircountryduringWorldWarII,therightsandprivilegesguaranteedintheU.S.Constitutionwerenon-existent.SignificantaswellishowTruman’suseofthepresidential“I”lentexecutiveauthoritytohisstatement.Wherehispredecessorrefusedtosupportcongressionalanti-lynchinglegislationbecausehefearedlosingthesupportofSouthernDemocrats,Trumanemployedhispresidentialethostounderscorethedichotomybetweenwhatthegovernmentproclaimedinprincipleandwhatitactuallymeant.Thequalifier“all”suggestedmorethantotalinclusion;italsosubtlylinkedTruman’sdeclarationwiththeemancipatoryconnotationsof“all”—aphraseLincolnusedtodescribethereachofhisEmancipationProclamationthat“allpersonsheldasslaves...shallbe...foreverfree.”43

Afterdefiningwhocouldclaimthetitleof“American,”Trumansuggestedthatthe“civilrightslawswrittenintheearlyyearsofourRepublic,”althoughprecious,werenotenough(4).Theseoriginallawsweredesigned“toprotectthecitizenagainstanypossibletyrannicalactbythenewgovernmentinthiscountry,”thepresidentexplained(4).“ButwecannotbecontentwithacivillibertiesprogramwhichemphasizesonlytheneedofprotectionagainstthepossibilityoftyrannybytheGovernment.Wecannotstopthere”(5).HereTrumancontinuedhisdescriptionofU.S.historyasachronologicaltimelineinterruptedbytheurgencyofthisparticularmoment.The“civilrightslaws”ofthepastwerejustthat—legislativeinitiativesdevelopedinresponsetoprevioushistoricalexigenciesbutincapableofsolvingthepressingneedsofthepresent.Ifthenationcontinuedtorelyontheserelicsofthepast,anyhistoricalprogresswould“stop”—aspatialandtemporalmetaphorthatimpliedstagnationorevenbackwardmomentum.Instead,TrumanarguedthattheUnitedStates“mustkeepmovingforward,withnewconceptsofcivilrightstosafeguardourheritage.Theextensionofcivilrightstodaymeans,notprotectionofthepeopleagainsttheGovernment,butprotectionofthepeoplebytheGovernment”(6).Itwasonlythroughactive,thoughtful,deliberateactionthatthenationwould“safeguardourheritage”andkeepthepromiseofdemocracyalive“today”(6).Trumanemphasizedthat“[w]e”—bothheandtherestofhisaudience—“mustmaketheFederalGovernmentafriendly,vigilantdefenderoftherightsandequalitiesofallAmericans.


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AndagainImeanallAmericans”(7).Truman’simplicitargumentherewasthatmanygovernmentofficials,particularlythoseinthesouth,weretheprimarycauseofracialviolenceanddisenfranchisement.ThepresidentdirectlychallengedthestatusquoofJimCrowandstate’srights,arguingthatsecuringcivilrightsfor“allAmericans”necessitatedafederalresponsetothosewhothreatenedtherightsof“allAmericans”—evenifthatmeantgovernmentofficialsthemselves.

TrumancontinuedtounderscoretheurgencyofthismomentinU.S.historyandstatedinnouncertaintermsthatracialdiscriminationwasinexcusable.

Ourimmediatetaskistoremovethelastremnantsofthebarrierswhichstandbetweenmillionsofourcitizensandtheirbirthright.Thereisnojustifiablereasonfordiscriminationbecauseofancestry,orreligion,orrace,orcolor.Wemustnottoleratesuchlimitationsonthefreedomofanyofourpeopleandontheirenjoymentofbasicrightswhicheverycitizeninatrulydemocraticsocietymustpossess(9-10).

Inthispassage,TrumanusedspatialandtemporalmetaphorstocharacterizetheissueofracialdiscriminationintheUnitedStates.Havingalreadyestablishedthatpreviouscivilrightslawswerenotenoughtoensureracialjusticefor“allAmericans,”thepresidentarguedthattoday’s“immediatetask”—onesharedbyallU.S.citizens—wasto“remove”the“barriers”and“limitations”thatstoodbetween“millionsofourcitizensandtheirbirthright.”Inanearlierdraft,thislastsentenceread“millionsofourcitizensandtheirheritage.”ButinadrafteditedthedaybeforeTruman’saddresstotheNAACP,anunidentifiedindividualreplaced“heritage”with“birthright,”aswitchthatfurtherunderscoredTruman’sclaimthatsimplyrelyingonthenation’ssupposedhistoricalcommitmenttoextendingdemocraticlibertieswasnotenough.44Moreover,Truman’susageof“barriers”and“limitations”offeredamentalpictureofaconcreteroadblockpreventingonefrommovingforwardtotheirintendeddestination.ThismetaphorsuggestedthatthecurrentstateofcivilrightsintheUnitedStateswasnotonlyaroadblockforAfricanAmericancitizens,butfortheentirenation.IfmillionsofU.S.citizenscouldnotaccesstheirconstitutionally-guaranteedrights,howcouldtherestofthenationexpecttoachievetheirs?

ItisalsoimportanttonoteTruman’sfrequentusageof“our”inthispassage.Thisinclusivecollectivepronounsuggestedthatthetaskofextendingbasiccivilrightstoracialminoritiesbelongedtotheentirenation,notjustthepresident;itwasamoralresponsibilitytobesharedbyall.Atthesametime,“our”describedtheindividualswhocurrentlydidnotexperiencethe“basicrightswhicheverycitizeninatrulydemocraticsocietymustpossess.”Thus,“ourcitizens”and“ourpeople”workedtodescribeblacksandotherracialminoritiesasfull-fledgedcitizenswhowerealreadypartofthenationbutwerebeingtreatedasoutsiders.Iftheseindividualswerelivingandworkingasfellowmembersofthenation,whyweretheynottreatedassuch?Inthefinalsentenceofthisparticularpassage,Truman’slargerColdWarforeignpolicyargumentcametotheforefront;if“[w]e”tolerateddiscriminationagainst“anyofourpeople,”howcouldtheUnitedStatesclaimthatitwastheparamountexampleof“atrulydemocraticsociety”?

ButTrumanwentbeyondgeneralitiesandspecifiedwhatrights“allAmericans”shouldenjoy.“Everymanshouldhavetherighttoadecenthome,therighttoaneducation,therighttoadequatemedicalcare,therighttoaworthwhilejob,therighttoanequalshareinmakingthepublicdecisionsthroughtheballot,andthefighttoafairtrialinafaircourt”(11).Itis


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notablethatthepresidentdescribedtheseconcreterightsforequalhousing,accesstoeducationandmedicalcare,employment,universalsuffrage,andtherighttoafairtrialasfundamentaltoU.S.citizenship,particularlybecauseracialdiscriminationremainedrampantinalloftheseareasin1947(andeventodayin2017).TheTrumanAdministrationarchivalfilesevenbetrayacertainlevelofdiscomfortwiththisstatementduringthespeechwritingprocess.Ina“3rdDraft”ofthespeechcontainedinthefilesofGeorgeElsey,anunidentifiedauthorwroteinthemarginofthisparticularpassage,“Thesearemorethancivilrights.”45Andyet,Trumanwasinsistentthatthefederalgovernmenttakeactiontoensurethat“theserights—onequalterms—areenjoyedbyeverycitizen.TotheseprinciplesIpledgemyfullandcontinuedsupport”(12-13).

AlthoughTrumaninsistedthattheserightsshouldbe“enjoyedbyeverycitizen,”hedirectlyacknowledgedthiswasnotthecaseforAfricanAmericans.“Manyofourpeoplestillsuffertheindignityofinsult,theharrowingfearofintimidation,and,Iregrettosay,thethreatofphysicalinjuryandmobviolence.Prejudiceandintoleranceinwhichtheseevilsarerootedstillexist”(14).ItisrhetoricallysignificantthatTrumancharacterizedwhatmanyintheSouthconsideredsocialnormsasinherently“evil.”AsPresidentoftheUnitedStates,Truman’sdescriptionofthecurrentstateofcivilrightsinexplicitlymoraltermshadlong-lastingimplications.WherepreviousU.S.presidents(mostnotablyFDR)hadrefusedtotakeastandagainstanti-lynchinglegislationandothercivilrightsinitiatives,Trumancalledtheseactionswhattheywere—morallyrepugnantandevil.Worseyet,thepresidentcontinued,“[t]heconscienceofourNation,andthelegalmachinerywhichenforcesit,”had“notyetsecuredtoeachcitizenfullfreedomfromfear”(14).NotonlydidAfricanAmericansexperiencethethreatofphysicalviolenceandintimidationonadailybasis;thecountry’s“legalmachinery”stoodidlybyastheseevilswereperpetuated.Additionally,Truman’sfinaldescriptionof“freedomfromfear”wasanobviousreferencetoFDR’s1941StateoftheUnionAddress,onethattheaudiencewouldbewellawareofnotjustbecauseofthehistoricalproximitybetween1941and1947,butalsobecauseofNormanRockwell’siconicpaintingsdepictingFDR’s“FourFreedoms.”ThesefourimageswereprintedonthecoveroftheSaturdayEveningPostinFebruaryandMarchof1943,circulatedwidelyaswarbondposters,andcametorepresentbasichumanrightsenjoyedbyallcitizens.46Thus,whenTrumanarguedthatstateandlocalgovernmentshaddeniedmillionsofcitizens“fullfreedomfromfear,”heacknowledgedthatfreedomsthattheU.S.hadpromisedtohelpsecurefortheentireworldhadyettobeassuredforblackU.S.citizens.

Characterizingthesituationinmoralterms,Trumanappealedtothenation’sconsciencetoemphasizetheurgencyofthemoment.“Wecannotwaitanotherdecadeoranothergenerationtoremedytheseevils.Wemustwork,asneverbefore,tocurethemnow”(15).ThiswasadirectattackonSouthernDemocratswhoarguedthatracialprejudicewasalingeringsymptomoftheCivilWar,onethatwouldrequiretimeandgradualprogress.HavingalreadyenumeratedspecificinjusticesfacedbyAfricanAmericancitizens,thepresidentthenextendedtheurgencybeyondnationalbordersandlinkedcivilrightsprogressintheUnitedStatestohisColdWarforeignpolicy:

TheaftermathofwarandthedesiretokeepfaithwithourNation’shistoricprinciplesmaketheneedapressingone.Thesupportofdesperatepopulationsofbattle-ravagedcountriesmustbewonforthefreewayoflife.Wemusthavethemasalliesinour


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continuingstruggleforthepeacefulsolutionoftheworld’sproblems.Freedomisnotaneasylessontoteach,noraneasycausetosell,topeoplesbesetbyeverykindofprivation.Theymaysurrendertothefalsesecurityofferedsotemptinglybytotalitarianregimesunlesswecanprovethesuperiorityofdemocracy(15-16).

ThemoralviewofdomesticracerelationswasnowatacticalmovewithinTruman’sColdWarforeignpolicy,onethatelevatedtheUnitedStatestoapositionofmoralandpoliticalauthorityonthismetaphoricalchessboard.The“desperatepopulationsofbattle-ravagedcountries”lookedtotheUnitedStatesforleadershiptosolve“theworld’sproblems.”IftheUnitedStatesfailedtoprovethe“superiorityofdemocracy”to“peoplesbesetbyeverykindofprivation,”thenationwouldfallshortofcontinuing“ourNation’shistoricprinciples.”HowwastheUnitedStatestoconvincetherestoftheworldthatdemocracywasthebestchoiceinthispost-warworld?

Theanswer,arguedTruman,wastodealdirectlywiththeissueofcivilrightsathome.ThemostpersuasivecaseforU.S.democracy,Trumanargued,wastoshowtherestoftheworld“practicalevidencethatwehavebeenabletoputourownhouseinorder”(17).DescribingthenationasahouseevokedwhatMerrillD.Petersonhascalled“oneofthemostfamousutterancesinAmericanhistory,”namely,Lincoln’swarningthat“[a]housedividedagainstitselfcannotstand.”47AlthoughthisphrasewasoriginallyfromtheNewTestament,LincolnusedittocomparetheUnitedStatestoahousedividedbetweenNorthandSouth,halfslaveandhalffree.48Whenthepresidentcomparedthenation’scurrentstateasahouseinneedof(re)order,heinvokednotonlythememoryofAbrahamLincoln,butalsousedthereferencetospecifythe“version”ofLincolnhewishedtosummon.Toanaudienceassembledatthebaseofanationalshrinetotheslainpresident,Trumaninsistedthatanationalcommitmenttodemocraticprincipleswouldtranscendsectionaldivisionsorracialprejudicesothattherestoftheworldcouldseefirsthandthemeritsofdemocracy.

TothosewhomayhavemissedhisindirectreferencetoLincolnorwhoarguedthatLincolnwasprimarilyconcernedwithunificationandwouldhavecededtopopularopiniononthequestionofslavery,Trumanwasexplicit:“[W]ecannolongeraffordtheluxuryofaleisurelyattackuponprejudiceanddiscrimination.ThereismuchthatStateandlocalgovernmentscandoinprovidingpositivesafeguardsforcivilrights.Butwecannot,anylonger,awaitthegrowthofawilltoactionintheslowestStateorthemostbackwardcommunity.OurNationalGovernmentmustshowtheway”(18).ThiswasadirectattackontheSouth.Althoughthepresidentstatedthatlocalgovernmentswerecapableoftakingstepstoeradicateracialprejudice,hedidnotsaytheyactuallyactedonthisability.Infact,onewaytoreadTruman’sstatementistocontrastwhat“Stateandlocalgovernmentscando”withwhat“we,”thepresidentandtherestoftheU.S.public,“cannot”do:waitfortheseregionalentitiestoact.Becauselocalgovernmentsrefusedtoexercisetheirstatesovereigntytotakeactionagainstracialviolence,thenationcouldnotaffordtowait.Truman’suseof“anylonger”—aphraseheinsertedhimselfduringthespeechwritingprocess—furtherunderscoredtheurgencyofthemoment.49Inotherwords,thenationhadwaited,andblackcitizenshadbeenbeaten,tortured,andmurderedasaresult.Now,Trumandeclared,itwasthefederalgovernment’sresponsibilitytoleadthenationforward,regardlessofstatesand/orcommunitieswhorefusedtoenactchange.

Trumanacknowledgedthatthiswouldbea“difficultandcomplexundertaking,”one


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thatwouldrequireexecutiveactionandfederaloversight(19).Notingthatthegovernmentwouldrequire“bettertoolstodothejob,”Trumanthenemployedthepresidential“I”toestablishhisexecutiveauthorityinprovidingthesetools(19).OneofthefirststepsinthisprocesswasthePresident’sCommissiononCivilRights:“IappointedanAdvisoryCommitteeonCivilRightslastDecember.Itsmembers,fifteendistinguishedprivatecitizens,havebeensurveyingourcivilrightsdifficultiesandneedsforseveralmonths.Iamconfidentthattheproductoftheirworkwillbeasensibleandvigorousprogramforactionbyallofus”(19).Noticethevariouspronounsoperatinginthesethreesentencesandhowtheyassigncertaindutiestotheaudience.First,Trumanused“I”todescribetheactionshetookaspresidentandtheexpectationshehadforthePCCR’sreport.Hethendescribedthecommitteemembersas“distinguishedprivatecitizens,”emphasizingthatthissurveyof“ourcivilrightsdifficulties”—difficultiestheentirenationsharedandsufferedfrom—wasajointeffortofthefederalgovernmentandeverydaycitizens.Trumanthenshiftedbacktohispresidential“I”toexpresshisconfidencethatthecommittee’sworkwouldprovide“asensibleandvigorousprogramforactionbyallofus.”Inotherwords,heusedhisrhetoricalauthorityaspresidenttolendcredibilitytothecommittee’sreport—evenbeforeitwasissued—andremindhisaudiencethatthesefindingswouldrequireallcitizens,notjustgovernmentofficialsorelectedpoliticians,toact.Thepresidentalsoadvocatedthatthecountryshould“advancecivilrightswhereveritlieswithinourpower,”urgingtheU.S.Congresstoextend“basiccivilrightstothepeopleof[U.S.territories]GuamandAmericanSamoa,”astepthatTrumanpredictedwouldprovidefurther“evidencetotherestoftheworldofourconfidenceintheabilityofallmentobuildfreeinstitutions”(20).

Ashemovedtowardtheconclusionofhisaddress,thepresidentreturnedtohisuseofspatialandtemporalmetaphorsinordertounderscoretheurgencyofthepresentmoment.Todothis,hefirstacknowledgedthat“[t]hewayaheadisnoteasy,”aphrasethatsuggestedforwardmovementfromaparticularspatio-temporalfromonepointandtowardanother(21).Togetthere,Trumansaid,“[w]eshallneedallthewisdom,imaginationandcouragewecanmuster”(21).Andyet,thisdecisiveactionwasnotoptional.“Wemustandshallguaranteethecivilrightsofallourcitizens,”thepresidentcontinued.“Neverbeforehastheneedbeensourgentforskillfulandvigorousactiontobringusclosertoourideal.Wecanreachourgoal”(21-22).Depictingthismomentasasingularlyopportuneone,TrumancontrastedJune29,1947,withearlierhistoricalmarkers,arguing“[n]everbefore”hadtheneedfordeliberatefederalactionbeengreater.Thesesteps,althoughdifficult,wouldpushthenationforwardtoward“ourideal”ofensuringthattherightsguaranteedintheDeclarationofIndependence,theU.S.Constitution,andtheBillofRightswereaccessibleto“allAmericans.”Acknowledgingthatthe“wayahead”towardracialjusticewouldnotbeeasy,Trumanargued,“wecanreachthatgoal.”

Thesespatialandtemporalmetaphorsdescribedthenation’sgradualmovementtowardensuringfreedomandequalityfor“allAmericans”evenastheyidentifiedanattainablegoal—onethat“we,”Trumanandtherestofhisaudience,wouldreachtogether.Toinspirethis“wayahead,”thepresidentaskedhisaudiencetolookbackwardintime.“WhenpastdifficultiesfacedourNation,wemetthechallengewithinspiringchartersofhumanrights—theDeclarationofIndependence,theConstitution,theBillofRights,andtheEmancipationProclamation”(22).ThemajorityofTruman’saudiencewouldhaveimmediatelyrecognizedthe


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firstthreedocumentsassacredtextsofU.S.democracy.What,however,istobemadeofthefourthdocumentonthelist—theEmancipationProclamation,atextthatLincolnauthoredbutappearednowhereonthenationalshrinebehindhim?

Truman’sinclusionofthisparticulardocumentachievedatleastfourrhetoricalpurposes.First,itsubtlyrejectedHarding’sassessmentin1922that“thesupremechapterinhistoryisnotemancipation”andinsteadreaffirmedtheNAACP’sstrategicdeploymentoftheLincolnMemorialasasiteforcivilrightsactivism.50Second,itsuggestedthattheDeclarationofIndependence,theConstitution,andtheBillofRightswerenotsimplyfoundationaltextsbut“chartersofhumanrights”—rightsthatextendedto“allAmericans”(22,3).Third,whenTrumanaddedtheEmancipationProclamationtothislist,heextendedthereachofLincoln’sinitialproclamationfromarelativelysmallgeographicalregiontotheentirenationandtheglobalstage—amovethatreinforcedLincoln’sstatusastheGreatEmancipatorevenasitexpandedtheconnotationsof“all”to“allclassesandconditionsofmankind”(24).Finally,itpropelledtheaudiencetowardanewinternationalvisionofhumanrights.InidentifyingtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsasamodern-dayappropriationoftheseearlierdocuments,Trumanassertedthatthisdocumentwouldbe“agreatlandmarkinman’slongsearchforfreedomsinceitsmembersconsistofsuchdistinguishedcitizensoftheworldasMrs.FranklinD.Roosevelt”(22).Thepresident’saudiencewouldhaveheardMrs.Rooseveltspeakjustmomentsbeforeaboutherworkonthisinitiative.Thus,whenTrumanpointedhisaudiencetoMrs.Roosevelt’sphysicalpresenceonthedaisnexttohim,helinkedhisrhetoricalauthoritytothisoutspokenproponentofcivilrights.

Connectingthe“inspiredcharters”producedby“pastdifficulties”withthepresentmoment,TrumanheldupthesesacredtextsasametaphoricalNorthStar.“Withthesenoblecharterstoguideus,andwithfaithinourhearts,weshallmakeourlandahappierhomeforourpeople,asymbolofhopeforallmen,andarockofsecurityinatroubledworld”(23).HereTrumanextendedhisargumentforcivilrightsfromthelocaltotheglobal.Ifthenationput“ourownhouseinorder,”itwouldthenbeabletobecomea“happierhome”forallitscitizens,regardlessofrace.“Home”suggestednotonlycomfort,butalsodescribedaplacewhereonecouldbeateaseandatrest—adwellingplace.AndiftheUnitedStatesofferedasafeharborfor“allAmericans,”thenationcouldthenprovideanexampletoothernationsseekingademocraticwayoflife.Thesespatialandrelationalimageselevatedthenationtotheglobalstageas“asymbolofhope”and“arockofsecurity”ina“troubledworld”threatenedbySovietcommunism.

Inthefinalmomentsofhisspeech,TrumanconcludedbylinkingAbrahamLincoln’smemoryandthesymbolicstatusofthisparticularlocationwhenheconfidentlyasserted,“AbrahamLincolnunderstoodsowelltheidealwhichyouandIseektoday”(24).ToTruman’simmediateaudience,itwouldhavebeenimpossibletolistentothesewordsandnotalsoseethecurrentpresident’sbodydwarfedbythegiantstatueoftheGreatEmancipatorbehindhim.Eventothoseassembledseveralblocks(ormiles)downtheNationalMallorthoselisteningviaradio,itwouldhavebeendifficulttoforgetthesymbolicsignificanceofTruman’sphysicallocation.Thus,whenTrumanconcludedhisspeechwithaquotefromLincolnhimself,itwasasifthemartyredsixteenthpresidentwasspeakinginsteadofTruman.Twopresidentialbodies—oneliving,theothercarvedinstone—proclaimedtothenationandtheworldthattheUnitedStateshadamoraldutytoextendfreedomanddemocracynotjusttoitsowncitizensbuttoall


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people.“Asthisconferencecloses,”Trumancontinued,“wewoulddowelltokeepinmindhis

words,whenhesaid,“ifitshallpleasetheDivineBeingwhodeterminesthedestiniesofnations,weshallremainaunitedpeople,andwewill,humblyseekingtheDivineGuidance,maketheirprolongednationalexistenceasourceofnewbenefitstothemselvesandtheirsuccessors,andtoallclassesandconditionsofmankind”(24).51Inthislittle-rememberedpassagefromaspeechtoasmallgroupofLutheranpastorsin1862,Lincolnarguedthatthenationwouldbestexpressitsunitybyextending“newbenefits”to“allclassesandconditionsofmankind.”Atfirstglance,thisparticularpassageseemslikeaconciliatorywaytoconcluderemarksthatTrumanknewwould,attheveryleast,makeNorthernpoliticiansnervousandSouthernDemocratsangry.Indeed,hereLincolnstressedhisdesirethatthenationwould“remainaunitedpeople,”astatementthatreflectedthe“SavioroftheUnion”imageSouthernDemocratscherished.However,thelargercontextofLincoln’swordsisimportantandrevealsyetagainhowTrumanusedthisparticularoccasionnotjusttoadvancehiscivilrightsagendabutalsoarticulatehisColdWarforeignpolicy.

PriortothepassagethatTrumanquoted,Lincolnthankedhisguestsfor“theirassurancesofthesympathyandsupport...inanimportantcrisiswhichinvolves,inmyjudgment,notonlythecivilandreligiouslibertiesofourowndearland,butinalargedegreethecivilandreligiouslibertiesofmankindinmanycountriesandthroughmanyages.”HereLincolnarguedthattheCivilWardirectlyaffected“notonlythecivilandreligiousliberties”withintheUnitedStates,butalsotherightsandlibertiesofcitizensinothercountriesaroundtheworld.ThiswasthesameargumentTrumanwouldmakeeighty-fiveyearslater.Lincolncontinued,“Youwellknow,gentlemen,andtheworldknows,howreluctantlyIacceptedthisissueofbattleforceduponme,onmyadventtothisplace,bytheinternalenemiesofthiscountry.”AlthoughLincolnreferredspecificallytothesectionaldividebetweentheNorthandtheSouth,andtheresultingCivilWar,Trumanwouldexpresssimilarsentimentsabouthisunexpectedascendancetothepresidencyandtheactionshetooktocombatracialprejudiceandlynchlawduringhistenureaschiefexecutive.Indeed,eventhedaybeforehedeliveredthisaddresstotheNAACP,Trumanwrotetohissister,MaryJane,thathewishedhe“didn’thavetomakeit....Mammawon’tlikewhatIsaybecauseIwindupquotingoldAbe.ButIbelievewhatIsayandI’mhopefulwemayimplementit.”52Inmanyways,Trumanwasquitereluctanttoaddressthesecivilrightsissuesbecauseofhispersonalhistoryandhisowninexcusableracialprejudice.Andyet,TrumanadvocatedforcivilrightsbecauseofhisallegiancetotheUniontranscendedanysectionalaffiliation.Aspresident,Trumanbelieveditwashisjobtoensurethatallcitizens,regardlessofraceorreligion,enjoyedthelibertiesguaranteedtothemintheU.S.Constitution.Anythinglesswouldbeadirectviolationofhisoathofoffice.

Thus,whenTrumantoldhisaudiencethattheywoulddowellto“keepinmind[Lincoln’s]words,”hewasnotmerelyremindinghisaudiencethattheslainpresidentwantedtounifythecountry,althoughhedid.Instead,TrumanwassuggestingthatthetasktheU.S.publicfacedin1947,althoughdifficultandevenuncomfortable,wasonethatcouldredeemthenation’spastsinsofslaveryandracialinjustice.TrumanchanneledLincoln’shopefora“unitedpeople,”callinghisaudiencetotranscendsectionaldifferencesbetweenNorthandSouth(ashehad)andrededicatethemselvestothedemocraticvaluesfirstsetforthintheDeclarationofIndependence,theU.S.Constitution,theBillofRights,andeventheEmancipation


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Proclamation.RelyingonLincoln’sargumentasevidenceforhisown,Trumansuggestedthatthenation’s“prolongednationalexistence”inapostwarworldrequiredaspecificresponse:extendingcivilrightsandhumanfreedomathomeandabroad.Yetagain,Trumaninvokedtheemancipatoryconnotationsof“all,”yetpushedthemevenfurther.Notonlydid“allAmericans”deservetherightslaidoutinthenation’s“inspiringchartersofhumanrights,”buttheselibertiesshouldbeextendedto“allclassesandconditionsofmankind”aroundtheglobe.Concludinghisspeechwiththisquotefromthenation’ssixteenthpresident,TrumanreaffirmedLincoln’ssymbolicstatusasthe“GreatEmancipator”evenasTrumandirectedhisaudiencetothevisualandmaterialelementsofthespeechsituationtosupporthisargumentforextendingcivilrightsto“allAmericans”—andtherestoftheworld.

ThePublicResponse

ThepublicresponsetoTruman’sspeechwasimmediate,andthevariedreactionstohis

addressrevealnotonlythesymbolicsignificanceofTruman’sdecisiontospeakattheLincolnMemorialbutalsoanationsharplydividedovertheissueofrace.Inthisfinalsection,Iconsiderresponsesinthreecategories:1)personalreflectionsfromindividualswhoattendedtheeventand/orwereaffiliatedwiththeNAACPorthePCCR;2)mediatedcoverageoftheevent;and3)lettersU.S.citizenswrotetoTrumanfollowinghisspeechfoundattheTrumanLibraryarchives.PersonalReflections

IntheirJuly11,1947,pressreleasefollowingtheevent,theNAACPdeclaredthatTruman’sspeechattheLincolnMemorial“wouldproducefarreachingeffectsofabeneficialnatureindomesticracerelationsaswellassomeinsectionsofinternationalrelations.Thepresident’sspeech,whichclosedthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNAACP,wasbroadcastoverfourmajornetworksandbyshortwavetoeverysectionoftheglobewhereAmericaninfluencewasbeingmaintained.”53InaprivatelettertothepresidentdatedJuly9,WalterWhitetoldTrumanthattheorganizationhad“beenswampedwithtelegrams,letters,telephonecallsandotherexpressionsofenthusiasticapprovalofthespeechwhichyoumadeat[the]LincolnMemorialonJune29thandoftheoccasiongenerally.AsItoldyouthen,itwasthemostforthrightpronouncementanyAmericanpresidenthasyetmadeonthisissue.”54Inhisautobiographicalaccountpublishedjustayearlater,WhitecomparedTruman’sspeechtoAbrahamLincoln’sGettysburgAddress.Althoughhe“didnotbelievethatTruman’sspeechpossessedtheliteraryqualityofLincoln’sspeech,”Whiteobservedthat“insomerespectsithadbeenamorecourageousoneinitsspecificcondemnationofevilsbaseduponraceprejudicewhichhadtoolongdisgracedAmerica,anditscallforimmediateactionagainstthem.”AccordingtoWhite’saccount,whenTrumanreturnedtohisseatheaskedwhattheNAACPexecutivesecretarythoughtofthespeech.“WhenItoldhimhowexcellentIbelievedittobe,”Whiterecalled,“heassuredme,‘IsaidwhatIdidbecauseImeaneverywordofit—andI’mgoingtoprovethatIdomeanit.’”55

ChanningTobias,aprominentblackleaderandoneofthefourteenmembersofthePCCR,alsowrotetoTrumantoexpresshisenthusiasm:“NeverbeforeinthehistoryofourcountryhasanypresidentbeenquiteasexplicitasyouwereinchallengingthenationtoasinglestandardofcitizenshipforallAmericans,”hewrote.TobiastoldTrumanthathewas“encouragedasIhaveneverbeenbefore,tobelievethatthisisanidealpossibleof


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achievementandIwantyoutoknowthatyourspiritandyourspokenwordhavebeenthechiefinfluencethathasbroughtthisoutlookofoptimismtothetenthofthenationwithwhichIhappentobeidentified.”56

Justthreedaysafterthespeech,EleanorRooseveltmadetheeventthesubjectofher“MyDay”newspaperarticle,thewidely-syndicatedcolumnthatMrs.Rooseveltwrotesixdaysaweekfrom1935to1962.57BecausemillionsofU.S.citizensreadherdailycolumn,theformerFirstLady’semphasisontheplaceoftheeventfurtheramplifiedTruman’spresidentialpresencetherewhilereaffirmingtheLincolnMemorial’ssymbolicstatusinnationallife.

IlookedoutovertheseaoffacesbelowusandthoughthowsignificantthismeetingbeforetheLincolnMemorialmustbetomostofthepeoplethere.Lincolnsaidthatthereshouldbenomoreslavesinourcountry,buthedidnotwanttogivepeopleafreedomthatmeantnothingorthatcarriedwithitthebitternessofinferiority.Now,some80yearslater,weweregatheredheretotryreallytoachievetheendswhichheenvisionedbutcouldnotfullyaccomplish.PresidentTrumanspokewordsfortheGovernment,inthepresenceofhischiefjusticeandhisattorneygeneral,whichshouldgivehopethattangiblestridestowardthefulfillmentofLincoln’svisioncannowbetaken.Iwasveryproudthatthesewordswerebeingspoken.Itmademefeelthatourcountrywouldbestrongerbecausetheywerefearlesslyspoken.ThesunmadethetopoftheWashingtonMonumentglistenbeforeus,andsomehowitseemedastho[sic]yearsofourhistorylaybetweenthetwomonuments.AndinmyheartIsaidaprayerthatthismeetingmightbethesymbolthatwereallywouldleadtheworldinjusticeandbrotherhood,andbysodoingmakeitpossibleforpeacetogrowinmen’sheartsandjusticetoexistbetweenmanandman.58

WhatisparticularlyfascinatingaboutEleanorRoosevelt’sdescriptionishowsheprovidedherreaderswithaneyewitnessaccounttotheevent.Evenifheraudiencemissedthespeechviaradiobroadcastorhadnotseenactualpicturesoftheevent,theformerFirstLady’scolumnofferedacleardescriptionofwheretheeventwas,whythisparticularlocationwasrhetoricallysignificant,andhowthepresident’stextinteractedwithandbuiltupontheLincolnMemorial’sstatusinU.S.politicalculture.MediatedCoverageofTruman’s Address

SeveralprominentnewspaperspublishedphotosofTruman’sspeechattheLincolnMemorial,includingtheNewYorkTimes,theWashingtonPost,theNewYorkAmsterdamNews,andtheAtlantaDailyWorld.59SeveralnewspapersalsopublishedthecompletetextofTruman’saddresssotheU.S.publiccouldreferbacktothespeechthemselves.60Otherssimplypublishedportionsoftheaddressorincludedbriefquotationsintheiranalysesoftheevent.ManyofthesepressreportsreferencedthelocationofTruman’saddress,althoughsomeofthesementionsmaysimplyhavebeentolocatetheeventintimeandplace.However,othernewspaperscommentedexplicitlyonthesymbolicsignificanceofTruman’srhetoricinplace.

Forexample,TheChristianScienceMonitornotedthesettingofthepresident’saddress,writing,“FewaretheAmericans,wethink,whowillfindfaultwiththeidealsofhumanrightsandfreedomtowhichPresidentTrumanpledgedhimselftheotherdayashestoodonthestepsoftheLincolnMemorialandaddressedagreatthrong,withtheWashingtonMonumentanditsmirroredreflectionbeyondformingasymbolicsettingsuchasfewcitiesoftheworldcanprovide.”61AnarticleintheSt.LouisPost-Dispatchspecificallynotedthesignificanceofthe


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location.“PresidentTrumanchoseanexcellentplaceandoccasionforhisassertionoftheimportanceof‘positivesafeguardsforcivilrights.’Hespokeintheshadowofthemarblememorialtohisgreatpredecessor,whoseEmancipationProclamationfirstgavetheveryfirstofcivilrights—freedom—tomanythousandsofAmericans.”62TheChicagoDefender,aprominentAfricanAmericannewspaper,wasexplicitaboutthesignificanceofTruman’splacement:

“[Truman]stoodintheshadowofthatgreatliberator,AbrahamLincoln,attheLincolnMemorialanddeliveredasecondemancipationspeechtothethrongswhohadcometohearhim.Hewasflankedbydiplomatsfromoursisternationsandotherinternationallyknowndignitaries.Mrs.EleanorRooseveltandSenatorWayneMorris[sic],RepublicanofOregon,sharedtheplatformandspotlightwithMr.Truman.Throughouttheworld,hisliberationspeechwascarriedbyshortwaveandfourmajornetworksinAmericabroughtittotheearsofmillionshereathome.”63

AndtheAtlantaDailyWorldsuggestedthattheLincolnMemorialofferedalocationforreaffirmationofnationalvalues,notingthatTruman’saddress,“broadcastoverallmajornetworkstothenation,wasmadefromthegroundsofLincolnMemorialwherethousandsassembledforaspiritualre-dedicationofAmericatotheidealsandprincipals[sic]uponwhichtheUnitedStateswasfounded.”64

Othernewsreportsfocusedontherhetoricalcirculationofthepresident’sspeechbothintheUnitedStatesandaroundtheworld.TheNewYorkAmsterdamNewsdeclaredTruman’saddress“oneofthemostfar-reachingaddressesagainstraceprejudiceeverpropoundedbyaPresidentoftheseUnitedStates....whichwasbroadcastoverthefourmajorradionetworks,andshort-wavedbytheStateDepartmenttoforeigncountries—toanestimatedunseenaudienceofnearlyfiftymillion.”65TheAtlantaDailyWorldreportedthat,“[a]ccordingtoreliableobservers,theforeignpressdevotedagooddealofeditorialspacetotheChiefExecutive’sdiscussionofcivilrights.Itwasconsideredsignificantthattheshort-wavetransmissionofMr.Truman’sspeechwasmadethroughdirectStateDepartmentrequest.”Moreover,thearticlenoted,the“factthatmanySouthernnewspapersdevotedpartoftheireditorialpagestothespeechwasconsideredoneofthemoreimmediatebenefits.”66TheNewYorkAmsterdamNewsemphasizedthevariouswaysTruman’sspeechreachedtheU.S.public,writingthat“[n]oonewhoheardhisspeechattheLincolnMemorial,orovertheradio,orwhohasreaditinthenewspapers”wouldforgetthepresident’sboldstand.67

StillothersremarkedhowimportantitwasthatthePresidentoftheUnitedStates,himselfaformerSoutherner,wastheonedeliveringthismessagetotheU.S.public.InaJuly4,1947,editorial,theKansasCityCall,anationallyprominentblacknewspaperheadquarteredlessthantenmilesfromHarryTruman’shomeinIndependence,declaredthepresident’sspeechtobe“themostforthrightspeechonracerelationsevermadebyaPresidentinmoderntimes.”ThepaperalsomadenoteofTruman’sdecisiontoaddresstheNAACPinperson,writing,“Therewasatimewhenitwouldhavebeenconsidered‘tooradical’forthechiefexecutiveofthelandtoappearbeforeagatheringdedicatedtofightforequalrightsforNegrocitizens.”Butwhile“[o]therpresidentshavesentmessagesofgreetingtotheassociation...Trumanisthefirsttoappearinperson.”Toconclude,thepaperopined:

WhenTrumanwenttoWashington,heforgotthecustomsandhabitsofMissouriandbecameatruerepresentativeofdemocraticgovernmnt[sic].InhisspeechattheLincolnMemorialSunday,hestatedinwordssimilartothoseusedforyearsbytheNegropress


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andtheN.A.A.C.P.thattheUnitedStatesmustmakedemocracyworkathomebeforeitcanpreachitabroad.”68

Inanothertellingaccount,theLosAngelesSentineldeclaredthat“[i]ntellingtheworldthatitishightimeforthenationalgovernmenttostepinandshowthewaytoguaranteebasiccivilrightstoallcitizensregardlessofraceorcolor...thePresidentlashedoutatthatfirmlyknitbandofsouthernDemocratswhichhaslongheldthewhip-handoverthepoliciesandpracticesoftheDemocraticparty.”Theeditorialcontinued,

ItisindeedheartwarmingwhenthesewordscomenotfromtheNegroPressorNegrospokesmenalone,butwhentheyareutteredbythehighestelective[sic]officialinthecountry.Havingthusopenlyandcourageouslydefiedtherabidreactionariesinhisownparty,Mr.Trumanisinanexcellentpositiontopushthroughthepresentsession...theanti-lynchingbill,FEPCandtheanti-polltaxbill,allofwhich,ashesoclearlyimplies,aresorelyneededifAmericandemocracyistobeacceptedthroughouttheworldasgoodcoin.69ButperhapsthemostcandidassessmentofTruman’sspeechtotheNAACPcamefrom

thePittsburghCourieralmosttwoweeksaftertheevent.Inaneditorialentitled“Mr.RooseveltandMr.Truman,”thepapercalledthepresident’saddress“remarkablysincereandforceful...notonlyhighlypraiseworthybutinvitedcomparisonwithhispredecessorwhoenjoyedtofargreaterdegreetheaffectionofcoloredAmericans.”AfterthisindirectreferencetoFDR,thepapermadeitscomparisonexplicit:

TheNAACPwasneverabletogetMr.RooseveltonitsconferenceplatformatanytimeduringhisoccupancyoftheWhiteHouse,althoughhedidsendaroutinemessagetoeachannualconferenceasaPresidentdoestoallgatheringsofnationalimportance.WecannotrecallwhenthegentlemanwhonowsleepsatHydeParkmadesuchaforthrightstatementagainstracialdiscrimination,mobviolence,colorprejudiceandinfavorof“freedomandequalitytoallourcitizens,”exceptontheoccasionintheautumnof1933whentwowhitemenweremobbedandkilledatSanJose,Calif....HerewehaveaPresidentsayingthatarevolutioninAmericanmoresmustbeworkedhereandnow,andthisisthemoreremarkablewhenoneconsidersMr.Truman'soriginandantecedentsascontrastedwiththoseofMr.Roosevelt.

Inthisremarkablestatement,thePittsburghCourierwentsofarastostateopenlythatTruman“inspeechandactionwherecoloredAmericansareconcernedheislooming,ontherecord,togreaterstaturethanhispredecessor”anddeserved“highpraiseforhissincerityandforthrightnessafteralongeraofdouble-talkandpoliticalexpediency.”70

InadditiontowidespreadnewspapercoverageofTruman’saddresstotheNAACP,UniversalInternationalNewsreelalsofeaturedaone-and-a-half-minuteclipofTruman’sspeechintheirJune30,1947,newsreelbroadcastcirculatedaroundthecountry.71Thisreport,entitled“TrumanAsksEqualityforAllAmericans,”featuredpowerfulimagesofTrumanstandingonthestepsoftheLincolnMemorial,hisbodydwarfedbythelargestatueoftheformerpresidentbehindhim.Thevoice-overreportedthat10,000individualsgatheredatthe“memorialtotheGreatEmancipatorinWashington”listenedas“PresidentTrumanstronglyadvocate[d]freedomandequalityforallUnitedStatescitizens.”ThecameraangleincludedfootageofTrumanbehindthepodiumwithMrs.EleanorRooseveltdirectlytothepresident’sleft.Theseimages,coupledwithlivefootageofTruman’sdeclarationthat“allAmericans”shouldenjoytherights


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ofcitizenship,visuallyemphasizedtheimportanceofTruman’slocation.Moreover,thiscouplingoftextandimageinvitedviewerstointerpretthepresident’sdefinitivestatement,“WhenIsayallAmericans,ImeanallAmericans,”inrelationtoAbrahamLincoln’sstatusasthe“GreatEmancipator”andpreviousrhetoricinthisplace.

ThesenewspaperreportsandnewsreelcoverageofTruman’sspeechtotheNAACPonJune29,1947,reinforcetherhetoricalsignificancenotjustoftheLincolnMemorial,buttheinherentsymbolismofPresidentTruman’spresidentialpresenceinthatplace.TheseaccountsalsosuggestthatTruman’saudiencesawhisspeechasbothapresidentialdirectivefordomesticpolicyandasacleararticulationoftheUnitedStates’foreignpolicyatthedawnoftheColdWar.ThesethemeswerealsoreflectedinthemailU.S.citizenssenttoTrumanafterhisaddress.CitizenLetters

ManyordinarycitizenswroteletterstothepresidentfollowinghisJune29,1947,speechtotheNAACP.Theseresponsesareparticularlyinsightfulbecausetheyprovidefirst-personaccountsofaudiencereactionstoTruman’sspeechandalsoreflectcivicattitudesoftheday.BecausetheTrumanLibrarydidnotkeepalllettersreceivedfollowingthisspeech,IdonotmaketheclaimthatthesearerepresentativeofU.S.publicopinionorevenarepresentativesamplingofTruman’saudience.However,theydoofferimportantinsightsinthinkingabouthowTrumanlinkedhispoliticalauthoritytoadvancingcivilrightsonthedomesticfrontandalsosettinguptheUnitedStatesasanexampleofdemocraticlibertyfortherestoftheworld.

SeveralcitizensmadeTruman’spoliticalauthorityandsectionalaffiliationthefocusoftheirremarks,withsomeevencommentingontheirownSouthernaffiliation.ElinoreCowanStoneofWilkinsburg,Pennsylvania,wrotetoTrumanimmediatelyafterhisspeech.Althoughsheconfessedthatshebelieved“writingmyPresidentaletterisjustspillingwordsintotheair,”shetoldhimthatshe“feltthatyouhadhitthenailontheheadwhenyousaidthatifwedidnotputourownracesituationinorder–orwordstothateffect–wecouldnothopetomaketherestoftheworldbelievethatourdemocracywashonest.”Shethenexplainedthat,“[i]ncaseitmakesanydifference,Idonotbelongtothe‘colored’race.Asamatteroffact,mymother,whoseancestorswereslave-ownersinVirginia,wouldprobablyturnoverinhergraveifsheknewthatherdaughterwassponsoringtheideathatNegrocitizensshouldhaveanevenbreak.”Andyet,explainedCowanStone,“Iverymuchhopethatyouwillstandbehindwhatyousaidto-nightascourageouslyasyouhavestoodbehindsomeofyourotherconvictionsinthepastweeks.”72AbmondMaxwellalsoreferencedhisSouthernupbringinginhislettertothepresident,andyetnotedthat“[w]ithoutanyqualification,[Truman’saddresstotheNAACP]thrilledmemorethananyspeechofanypresidentIhaveheard.Iamwhite,born,rearedandeducatedinGeorgia,butthethingsyousaidarethechiefreasonsIamgladtobeanAmerican.Thosefaultsinourcountryyouhumblyacknowledged,andthehighidealsthepeopleandyourselfarededicated,givethestrongest,frankest,clearest,andmost[undecipherable]statementtoourForeignpolicythatIhaveheard.”73

Butforothers,Truman’sstanceoncivilrightswasaviolationofhisSouthernancestry—andtheirownpoliticalfreedom.L.H.MoorefromNorfolk,Virginia,wrote,“YourspeechdisgustedmeaDemocratMissouriborn.”74OtisChandlerofBirmingham,Alabama,madethepointsuccinctly:“InthesouthIdon’tlikewhatyouaredoingwiththeNegroesyouwon’tgetanywhere[sic].”75CatherineJ.MoroneyofWashington,D.C.,wrote:“Willyouconsiderthe


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feelingsoftheAmericanpeopleandstoptryingtosolvetheworld’sproblems.ThespeechyougavefortheNAACPisyouropinion.ButwhyhasthePresidentarighttoforcehisopinionandchoiceofraceonthemassesofpeople.You,Mrs.RooseveltandfellowtravelersareentitledtoassociateorworkwithalltheNegroesyouwantto,buttherearemanyAmericansthatdonotwantto.Willyoupleaserememberthisisafreecountry.Andletusbefree.Andnotforced.YouareonlythePresident,notalloftheAmericanpeople.”76

AnotherprominentthemeintheselettersistheclearunderstandingmanycitizenshadoftherelationshipbetweencivilrightsathomeandtheUnitedStates’roleabroad.ThomasL.CowanfromBrooklyn,NewYork,toldthepresidentthathehadlistenedtohis“magnificentandeloquentaddressdeliveredagainstintoleranceattheLincolnMemorial”andwasconfidentthat“millionsofAmericans,inallpartsoftheCountryapplaudedyourvigorousattacksagainstthiscancerthataffectsthebodypolitic,andwillsupporteverymovetoeradicateit.”Mr.CowantoldTrumanthathisspeechdemonstrateda“boldbutimmortalstand”and“Americathroughyouandwithyouinthevanguardwillleadtheworldoutofthenightmareofpromisesunkempt,intothedaylightoftheFourFreedomswithLibertyandJusticeforall.”77

BishopBufordF.GordonofCharlotte,NorthCarolina,sentatelegramcongratulatingthepresidentonhis“addressattheLincolnMemorialtoday.Itwaspropheticandexpressedtheconvictionsofallpeopleinterestedinthefulfillmentofavigilantexemplarydemocracy.”78Dr.EvalynLowesDavisofLosAngeles,California,wrote,“Ibelieveineverystatementyoumade,anddoadmireyourcourageingivingtotheworldthetruedemocraticlawasexpressedinourConstitution.”79AndrewG.FreemanofFreeman,Ohio,toldthepresidentthathisspeech“shouldmeetwiththeapprovalofAllAmericans.Itcertainlydoeswithmine.Americansmaydisagreeonhowtosecurecivilrightsforall,butweshouldallpresentaunitedfrontinmattersaffectingtheimplementationofdemocraticprinciplesandtheeffectsuchactionhasinourrelationshipswithnationsallovertheworld.”80LouiseM.SpoerriofSantaMonica,California,expressedsimilarsentimentswhenshetoldTrumanthatifthingsremainedastheywereintheUnitedStates,“Idonotblamethosenationsacrossthewaterforpointingtheirfingersatusinderisionastheydowhenwespeakofdemocracy....Ifthingsgoonastheyhavebeenmostofthepeoplewhoarefineandtrueandjustwillbeashamedofbeingwhitepeopleandashamedofwhatwestandforanddonotenforce.”81

OthercitizensdescribedthenewfoundprideandownershiptheyfeltuponhearingTruman’sspeech.PercivalSillsofRockawayBeach,NewYork,wroteto“HisExcellencyHarryS.Truman”totellhimthathewas“electrifiedbyyourwords.”“SurelyaGovernmentwhichhasthepowertotransportitscitizensinfar-offlandsinthecountry’sdefensewhendangerthreatensisnotimpotenttograntthesesamecitizensthenecessaryprotectionwhendangertolibertythreatenshereathome.”InlanguagestrikinglysimilartoJohnF.Kennedy’sdeclarationsixteenyearslaterinWestBerlin,Mr.Sillsremarked:

Inancientdaystheexpression“CivisRomanussum”meantagreatdeal.I,asanaturalizedcitizenandU.S.soldierinWorldWarI,wanttobeabletoliftup[my]headhighandsaywithpride,whentheoccasionwarrantsit:“IamanAmericancitizen,”somethingIhavebeenunabletosayuntilnowbecausesomanywrongsandinjusticeswerecommittedagainsttheindividualandthesewithimpunityandwithoutawordofprotestfromthosechargedwiththeenforcementoftheprovisionsoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.82


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ForShermanBriscoeofWashington,D.C.,Truman’sspeechconvincedhim“forthefirsttimethatIhadafullshareintheAmericanwayoflife.”Mr.Briscoealsopredictedthat“whiteAmericans,too,musthavefeltbetterafterhearingyourtalk.Fortheyrealizedthatatlasttheircountrywasreadytotakearesponsibleattitudeinthematerofracialrelations.”83

Severalletters,boththoseinsupportofthepresident’sspeechandthoseadamantlyopposedtohisproposals,commentedthatTruman’sremarkswouldcosthimvotesinthe1948presidentialelection.LowellC.Frostwrotethepresidenttooffer“heartycommendationofyourspeechattheLincolnMemoriallastnight....Thatspeech(asyouknewitwould)lostforyoumanyvotes.ButIbelievethatitssincerityandforthrightnessgavetoyouafirmfoundationandthestaunchsupportofmanymorefriendswhofeelasyoudoabouttheessentialunityoftheAmericanpeople.”84AnattorneyfromChicago,TrumanK.Gibson,Jr.,toldthepresidentthat“[t]hereisnobetterpersonthanyourselftoimpressthefactsoflifeonthecitizensofourcountry.Therearetoomanyofustodaywhodonotyetrealizethatwecannotlongerdriftalonglettingthingstakecareofthemselves.”Althoughthepresident’sspeechwould“probablybecriticizedinmanyquarters,”Mr.Gibsonsaidthathewas“writingtoletyouknowthattherearemanywhoheartilyagreewithyouinthisandotherissues.”85

ThosewhodisapprovedofTruman’saddressweremuchmoredirect—andnasty.CecilH.PiattfromTucson,Arizona,wrote:“YouridioticspeechtoNAACPmeansonlyyouapprovenegrosocialequality.Iforoneamreadytofightfromnowon.Ifyouarewillingtofacewarathomekeeponthistrack.CecilH.Piatt.Yesterday,Today,ForeverKuKluxKlan.”86LouisF.LawlerofSanDiego,California,wrote:“IhavejustreadthenewspaperaccountofyourspeechtotheNationalSocietyfortheAdvancementoftheColoredRace.ScratchoneDemocraticvotefor’48.”87Mrs.J.M.McCrearyofWichitaFalls,Texas,wrote,“IagreewithyoufortheNegro’srightsbutwassogladtonoticeyoudidnotusethewordequalitywiththeracesasMrs.RooseveltsomuchwantsandthatIknowMrs.Trumanwasnotfor.”88

AlthoughthemajorityofthesepublicopinionletterswerewrittentothankPresidentTrumanforhiscourageousremarks,severalwereparticularlydegrading.Iquotetwoofthembelow,nottoprivilegethisperspectiveinanyway,butbecauseIbelievetheselettersofferanimportantinsightintothedailyrealitiesblackcitizensfaced.TheselettersalsorevealjustwhatTrumanwasupagainstashesoughttomakecivilrightsarealityfor“allAmericans.”

ShermanRiley,Sr.ofLufkin,Texas,was,toputitmildly,livid.“ReferringtoyourtalkattheLincolnMemorialregarding‘racialprejudice.’Ofcourse,anyoneknowsyourwordswereutteredforonepurpose–totrytosecuretheniggervotes.”Mr.Lufkincontinued,

Butwillyoutellmewhysuchaspeechwasnecessary,whystirupthisquestion,itonlyleadstheniggertobelieveheisequaltothewhiteman,whichanyschoolboyknowsisnottrue,anditgivestheniggeralicensetobecomeinsultingandoverbearing,andthewordsanddeedsofniggerlovingMrs.RooseveltisalreadymanifestingitselfintheactionsoftheSouthernnigger,whilepreviouslytherewasnostrife,notrouble,betweenniggersandwhites.Suchspeechesasyoursonlytends[sic]tomaketheracequestionbecomeathousandtimesmoreseriousanddangerous....Ihavethefirstpersonyettomeetwhohasanygoodwordforthiswoman[EleanorRoosevelt],whowantstoattendtoeveryoneelse’saffairs,butherown.Sheisthelaughingstockofthecountry,andfromyourspeechitisapparentshenowhasyou‘ropedin.’”89


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Riley’sletterexpressesnotonlyhisdeephatredforAfricanAmericancitizens,buthisbelief(sharedbymanyotherSoutherners)thatthatanypoliticalsupportforracialequitymadetheissue“athousandtimesmoredangerous.”ThisparticularmissivealsodemonstrateswhyTruman’spresidentialpresencebeforetheNAACPattheLincolnMemorialwassoradical—andoffensivetoSoutherners.InpublicallydeclaringhissupportfortheNAACPandextendingcivilrightsto“allAmericans,”Trumandeflatedwhitesupremacisthopesthatthis“sonofanunreconstructedrebelmother”wouldchampiontheircause.90

Inanotherparticularlyoffensivemissive,RufusR.ToddfromOpelika,Alabama,wrotetoTruman:

IhavejustreturnedfromthetheaterwhereIheardyourspeechonequalityoftheraces.NeverhaveIheardasilencesoelequont[sic]fromboththewhiteaudience,andthecoloredinthebalconyfinallyfromthecoloredbalconytherearoseamurmer[sic]ofdespair,ofrage,andfear,onthestreetasIleftthetheaterIheardayoungnegrosay‘Yankeesaretheworstenemys[sic]apore[sic]niggersgotiftheywouldhavethesewhitefolksdownherealonewewouldgetalongalotbetter.’...Ifeeladeepsympathyforthem,butknowingtheirgoodpointsIunderstandalsotheirweaknessesandshortcomingsthatsounfitthemforfullequalitywithwhitepeople....Youmustconsiderthatitwasbutafewshortgenerationsagothatthenegroeswas[sic]broughtfromtheJungles,sotheraceasawholecannot[sic]bejudgedbyafewofthemostintelligentones,asthinkingpeoplewemustacceptthenegroforwhatheis[,]notwhatwewouldlikehimtobe....I’mafraidyourspeechgavetheconfirdence[sic]ofthepeopleofthesouthaseverejolt.”91

Indeed,Truman’sspeechtotheNAACP,andhismajordomesticinitiativesoncivilrights,gavetheSouthmorethana“severejolt.”

DespitetheseexamplesofovertracismandpurehatredforAfricanAmericancitizens,Truman’saddresstotheNAACPhadfar-reachingimplicationsathomeandabroad.Inoneofthemostrhetoricallypotentmissivesfromthearchive,DorothyW.ChanceofMemphis,Tennessee,explainedwhythepresident’sspeechwassosignificanttoher—andfortheentirenation.

ItisonlyacoupleofmonthsnowsinceIwasinJapanwiththeAmericanRedCross.IamanAmericanNegro.ItwasoftendifficulttoanswerinterrogatingJapanesewhowantedtoknowmoreaboutourdemocracyandwhyweasNegroeswho“areAmericanstoo”aresegregatedanddiscriminatedagainst.IlistenedtomanyofoursoldierstrytoexplaintothemthestagesofAmericanHistory,ofNegroslavery,itsabolitionandtheprogressoftheracethatisbeingmadetoday.ButalwaystheywereasableaswetopointtophrasesintheEmancipationProclamationandtheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica–“thelibertyandjusticetoall”phrases.ItwasnotsimpletotrytoexplainAmericandemocracyinthelightofallthequestionstheyaskedus.YourspeechtodaybroughtmorefaithandhopethanallthespeechesI’veeverheardanywhere.Myprayersareforyouthatyourwordswillnotfallondeafearsofthosewhoareabletohelpmakecivilrightsarealizationforallpeople,andthatallAmericanswillalwaysbeworthyofequalcivilrights.92

ForMrs.Chance,andmillionsofAfricanAmericancitizens,thepresident’sspeechtotheNAACPonJune29,1947,offeredatleastahopethattheUnitedStatesofAmericawouldtakestepsto


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securetherightsandlibertiesguaranteedinthenation’sfoundationaldocuments,stepsthatwouldenablethenationtomakethecasefordemocracytotheworld.

Conclusion

InhisacclaimedbiographyofTruman,DavidMcCulloughexplainedthesignificanceof

thepresident’saddresstotheNAACPthisway:“ThatsomeoneofhisbackgroundfromwesternMissouricouldbestandingattheshrineoftheGreatEmancipatorsayingsuchthingswasalmostinconceivable.”93OnJune29,1947,thepresidentactivatedthesymbolicresonancesofLincoln’spoliticallegacyandthememoriesembeddedinthisparticularlocationwhilelinkinghisownethos—asexpressedthroughhisrhetoricalauthorityaspresidentoftheUnitedStatesandhispersonalhistorywithracerelations—totheNAACP.AlthoughhedeliveredthisspeechintheUnitedStates,Truman’srhetorictranscendedhisimmediatelocationandcirculatedaroundtheglobeasapowerfulargumentatthedawnoftheColdWar.ThepresidentusedthisoccasiontotellthenationandtheworldthattheUnitedStateswould“getitsownhouseinorder”toprovetotheworldthatU.S.democracywas,infact,superiortoSovietcommunism(17).

Truman’sspeechattheLincolnMemorialalsolentinstitutionalauthoritytotheNAACP’sstrategicadaptionofthesiteasalocusforcivilrightsactivism.BuildingonthesymbolismandsharedpublicmemoryofMarianAnderson’s1939EasterSundayconcert,thepresident’sphysicalpresenceinthisplaceandbeforethisaudiencesolidifiedonceandforalltheLincolnMemorialasacommonplacesymbolizingtheUnitedStates’commitmenttoextendingtherightsandlibertieslaidoutintheU.S.Constitutionto“allAmericans”(3).AfterTruman,otherU.S.presidentsreturnedheretohonorLincoln’smemoryastheGreatEmancipatorandtocallforadvancesincivilrights.Ofcourse,theMarchonWashingtonandtheRev.Dr.MartinLutherKing,Jr.’s“IHaveaDream”speechonAugust28,1963,offeredthemostpowerfulinvocationofLincoln’smemoryandtheplace-as-rhetoricoftheLincolnMemorial.YettheverychoiceoftheLincolnMemorialasthesiteforKing’saddresssuggeststhatearlierrhetoricalworkinthisplace—suchasAnderson’s1939concertandTruman’s1947addresstotheNAACP—madeitaparticularlypersuasiverhetoricalresource.

OfparticularnoteisLyndonB.Johnson’sfrequentreturntotheLincolnMemorialduringhiscivilrightscampaign.InDecember1963,justonemonthafterJohnF.Kennedy’sassassination,LyndonB.JohnsonspokeatacandlelightvigilattheLincolnMemorial.Fourweeksearlier,inanAddresstoaJointSessionofCongressonNovember27,JohnsonhadarguedthatthebestwaytohonorKennedy’smemorywastoensure“theearliestpossiblepassageofacivilrightsbillforwhichhefoughtsolong.”94JohnsoncontinuedthisargumentinhisceremonialremarksattheLincolnMemorial,reassuringhisaudiencethattheyhadbeen“bentinsorrow,butnotinpurpose.WeburiedAbrahamLincolnandJohnKennedy,butwedidnotburytheirdreamsortheirvisions.Theyareourdreamsandourvisionsfortoday.”95Lessthantwomonthslater,JohnsonusedtheoccasionofLincoln’s155thbirthdaytoreaffirmtheUnitedStates’moralobligationtocarryout“thenewbirthoffreedomthat[Lincoln]promised”for“[t]hisistheunfinishedworktowhichwe,theliving,mustdedicateourselves.”96Threeyearslater,in1967,JohnsonreturnedtothenationalshrineanddescribedAbrahamLincolnas“the‘GreatEmancipator’—ofblackandwhitealike.”97Andin1968,Johnsonspokeata


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ceremonycommemoratingLincoln’s159thbirthday,tellinghisaudiencethat“[a]crosstheworld,whenevermenhavesoughttobreathefreeandstandtall—theyhavelookedtoLincoln.”JohnsonwentontodescribehowLincoln’slegacyextendedbeyondtheUnitedStatesandacrosstheglobe:“Onfivecontinents,inshacksandhutsandslums,andindrawingroomsaswell—ifmensoughtdignity,therewasapictureofAbrahamLincolntackedonthewall.ThosepicturesintheplaceswheremendreamoffreedomgiveusatrueperspectiveofAmerica’sroleintheworldoverthelast100years.”

LikeTruman,JohnsonheldupLincoln’smemoryasaninspirationtomillionsseekingfreedom—adescriptionparticularlypoignantin1968,twentyyearsintotheColdWar.LikeTruman,JohnsonalsoinsistedthattheU.S.publiclookinward,notsimplyoutward,andconsiderhowthe“revolutionaryAmericandreamofhumandignityandqualityforall”wasenactedathome.Inhisconclusion,Johnsonnotedthesymbolicsignificanceofhislocation—andthepreviousrhetoricalactionthathappenedinthisplace:

Thesemarblestepsinrecentyearshaveborneeloquentwitnesstoresponsibledissent.AhundredyearsaftertheEmancipationProclamation,avastconvocationofpeopleshavemetherepeacefullyanddramaticallytocalluponallofustohonorourcommitmenttohumanrightsforallofus.Today,werededicateourselvesatthisplacetoLincoln’scause,thecauseoffullequality.98

HereJohnsoncalledhisaudienceyetagaintorededicatethemselvestoLincoln’svisionfor“fullequality”forallcitizens—avisionthatTrumanhadfirstarticulatedfromthestepsoftheLincolnMemorialandonethatJohnsonwasdeterminedtocarryout.

WilliamLeuchtenburgarguesthatTruman’scivilrightsagenda“provedtobetheendoftheSolidSouth,atleastofaSouthsolidfortheDemocrats,”writingthatalthoughitwasLyndonJohnsonwho“pushedthroughfar-reachingcivilrightslegislation...Trumanistheonewhoopenedthefissurethatwouldneverbemended.”99ThroughhisrhetoricinplaceonJune29,1947,TrumanconstitutedtheLincolnMemorialasaColdWarcommonplace,aplaceofreturnforfuturecivilrightsactivistsandU.S.presidentstodeployasamaterialmeansofpersuasion.ButwhatwasevenmoreremarkableaboutTruman’saddresstotheNAACPisthathe,asonoftheSouth,wasspeakingonbehalfoftheorganizationatasiteoriginallydesignedtopromotenationalunity—andsilenceLincoln’sstanceonslaveryandemancipation.ItispreciselybecauseoftheseinherenttensionsthatTruman’sspeechwassoremarkable—andrhetoricallysignificant.

Author’sNote:AllisonM.PraschisanassistantprofessorintheDepartmentofCommunicationStudiesatColoradoStateUniversity.Portionsofanearlierversionofthisessayoriginallyappearedin“TowardaRhetoricalTheoryofDeixis,”QuarterlyJournalofSpeech102,no.2(2016):166-193.


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Notes

1DavidMcCullough,Truman(NewYork,NY:Simon&SchusterPaperbacks,1992),569.2GarthE.Pauley,“HarryTrumanandtheNAACP:ACaseStudyinPresidentialPersuasiononCivilRights,”Rhetoric&PublicAffairs2,no.2(1999):213.SeealsoGarthE.Pauley,TheModernPresidency&CivilRights:RhetoriconRacefromRoosevelttoNixon(CollegeStation,TX:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2001).3ClarkCliffordtoHarryS.Truman,“MemorandumforthePresident,Subject:The1948Campaign,”August17,1948,ClarkM.CliffordPapers,PoliticalFile,HarryS.TrumanLibrary,http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1948-08-17&documentid=1-2&studycollectionid=Election.4AllpassagesfromTruman’sJune29,1947,AddresstotheNAACParecitedwithreferencetoparagraphnumbersintheprintedtextthataccompaniesthisessayontheVODwebsite.5MartinGilbert,ChurchillandAmerica(NewYork,NY:FreePress,2005),353.ThefirsttimeChurchillusedthisparticularphrasewasinasecretmemorandumtoPresidentHarryTrumanonMay12,1945.ThephrasewouldbepopularizedafterChurchill’scommencementaddressatWestminsterCollegeinFulton,Missouri,onMarch5,1946.Formoreonthisspeech,seeMcCullough,Truman,486-90.6MaryL.Dudziak,ColdWarCivilRights:RaceandtheImageofAmericanDemocracy(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2000),12.7SeeDeniseM.Bostdorff,ProclaimingtheTrumanDoctrine:TheColdWarCalltoArms(CollegeStation,TX:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2008).8WilliamE.Leuchtenburg,“TheConversionofHarryTruman,”AmericanHeritage42,no.7(1991),http://www.americanheritage.com/content/conversion-harry-truman.9DavidGoldfield,“BorderMen:Truman,Eisenhower,Johnson,andCivilRights,”JournalofSouthernHistory80,no.1(2014):12.ThomasBorstlemannhasnotedthat“Trumanremainedaracistinhispersonalattitudes:heopposedwhathecalledsocialequalityoftheracesandcontinuedprivatelytodisparagenonwhitepeoplesonoccasion....[but]foramanofhisplaceandtime,theMissourianmadeimpressivestridesonmattersofrace.”SeeWilliamE.Leuchtenburg,TheWhiteHouseLooksSouth:FranklinD.Roosevelt,HarryS.Truman,LyndonB.Johnson(BatonRouge,LA:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,2005),151.10LeuchtenburgobservesthatTruman’sactionsonracerelationsasapublicofficialinMissouriandasU.S.senator“appearstohavederivedbothfromconvictionandfromself-interest....TrumanalwayshadtobearinmindthattherewereagreatmanyAfrican-AmericanvotersinMissouri.”SeeLeuchtenburg,"TheConversionofHarryTruman."11Leuchtenburg,TheWhiteHouseLooksSouth,157.12SeeJayP.Childers,“TransformingViolenceintoaFocusingEvent:AReceptionStudyofthe1946GeorgiaLynching,”Rhetoric&PublicAffairs19,no.4(2016):571-600.13FormoreonTruman’sexecutiveaction,seeStevenR.Goldzwig,“InauguratingtheSecondReconstruction:PresidentTruman'sCommitteeonCivilRights,”inCivilRightsRhetoricandtheAmericanPresidency,ed.JamesArntAuneandEnriqueD.Rigsby(CollegeStation,TX:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2005),83-113;RaymondH.Geselbracht,TheCivilRightsLegacyofHarryS.Truman(Kirksville,MO:TrumanStateUniversityPress,2007),183.14Leuchtenburg,“TheConversionofHarryTruman.”15Leuchtenburg,“TheConversionofHarryTruman.”16Dudziak,ColdWarCivilRights,24.17RaymondFrey,“Truman'sSpeechtotheNAACP,29June1947,”inTheCivilRightsLegacyofHarryS.Truman,ed.RaymondH.Geselbracht(Kirksville,MO:TrumanStateUniversityPress,2007),93.18WalterWhite,AManCalledWhite:TheAutobiographyofWalterWhite(NewYork,NY:TheVikingPress,1948),329-32.19White,AManCalledWhite,347-48.20ScottA.Sandage,“AMarbleHouseDivided:TheLincolnMemorial,theCivilRightsMovement,andthePoliticsofMemory,1939-1963,”TheJournalofAmericanHistory80,no.1(1993):139.21RoyalCortissoztoHenryBacon,April6,1919,asquotedinSandage,“AMarbleHouseDivided,”141.


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22WarrenG.Harding,“AddressbytheHon.WarrenG.Harding,PresidentoftheUnitedStates,”May30,1922,printedinEdwardFranklinConcklin,ed.TheLincolnMemorialinWashington(Washington,D.C.:UnitedStatesGovernmentPrintingOffice,1927),87.23Harding,“Address,”inConklin,TheLincolnMemorial,88.24J.LeCountChestnut,“MockIdealofLincolnatMemorial:HaveJimCrowServices;ProminentCitizensOfferedInsults,”ChicagoDefender,June10,1922,p.1.25WalterWhitetoMarianAnderson,March24,1939.NAACPPapers;Collection:PapersoftheNAACP,Part02:1919-1939,PersonalCorrespondenceofSelectedNAACPFiles;Series:PersonalCorrespondenceofNAACPOfficials;Folder:001464-019-0686(WalterWhiteCorrespondenceMarch1939),ProQuestHistoryVault.26“EleanorRooseveltandMarianAnderson,”FDRPresidentialLibrary&Museum,https://fdrlibrary.org/anderson.27“TheTriumphofMarianAnderson,”ChicagoDefender,April22,1939,p.14.28“MissAndersontoSingatLincolnShrine,”WashingtonPost,March31,1939,p.11;EdwardT.Folliard,“IckesIntroducesContraltoatLincolnMemorial,”WashingtonPost,April10,1939,p.1;Sandage,“AMarbleHouseDivided,”145.29HaroldL.Ickes,“Address,”April9,1939,printedin“TextofSecretaryIckesSpeechatAndersonEasterRecital,”ChicagoDefender,April15,1939,p.2.30EdwardS.Casey,"PublicMemoryinPlaceandTime,"inFramingPublicMemory,ed.KendallR.Phillips(Tuscaloosa,AL:UniversityofAlabamaPress,2004),32.31WalterWhitetoDavidK.Niles,April11,1947;WhiteHouseCentralFiles:OfficialFile413–NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople[1of2],Box1382;TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary;PressRelease,“Pres.TrumantoSpeakatNAACP38thConference,”May30,1947,NAACPPapers;Collection:PapersoftheNAACP,Part01:MeetingsoftheBoardofDirectors,RecordsofAnnualConferences,MajorSpeeches,andSpecialReports;Series:AnnualConferenceProceedings,1910-1950cont.;Folder:001412-012-0000,ProQuestHistoryVault.MarianAndersondidnotsingattheactualevent,mostlikelyduetoherillnessduringthespringandsummerof1947.32PressRelease,“LargestMassMeetinginNation’sHistoryPlannedbyNAACP,”June6,1947,NAACPPapers;Collection:PapersoftheNAACP,Part01:MeetingsoftheBoardofDirectors,RecordsofAnnualConferences,MajorSpeeches,andSpecialReports;Series:AnnualConferenceProceedings,1910-1950cont.;Folder:001412-012-0000,ProQuestHistoryVault.33DavidK.NilestoMatthewJ.Connelly,“Memorandum,Subject:ProposedSpeechbythePresidenttotheNAACP,”June16,1947.PapersofGeorgeElsey,Box17;Folder:1947–June29–NAACPSpeech;HarryS.TrumanLibrary.Interestingly,Niles’memotoConnellyisidenticaltoanearliermemoNilesreceivedfromPhilleoNash,aspecialassistantintheWhiteHousewhowasalsoanAfricanAmerican.FormorediscussionofNash’sroleinwritingthisspeech,seePauley,“HarryTrumanandtheNAACP:ACaseStudyinPresidentialPersuasiononCivilRights,”223.34MiscellaneousNote,noauthor,nodate,PapersofGeorgeElsey,Box17;Folder:1947–June29–NAACPSpeech;HarryS.TrumanLibrary.35GeorgeElsey,AnUnplannedLife:AMemoirbyGeorgeMcKeeElsey(Columbia,MO:UniversityofMissouriPress,2005),154.36WalterWhitetoDavidK.Niles,April11,1947,WhiteHouseCentralFiles:OfficialFile413–NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople[1of2],Box1382;TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.37PressRelease,“NAACP38thConferenceHeldInternationallyImportant,”June13,1947,NAACPPapers;Collection:PapersoftheNAACP,Part01:MeetingsoftheBoardofDirectors,RecordsofAnnualConferences,MajorSpeeches,andSpecialReports;Series:AnnualConferenceProceedings,1910-1950cont.;Folder:001412-012-0000,ProQuestHistoryVault;White,AManCalledWhite:TheAutobiographyofWalterWhite,348.38“TrumanAsksEqualityforAllAmericans,”UniversalNewsVol.20,Rel.52,Story1,June30,1947,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdNMhmcVqCU&feature=youtu.be.InamemotoNiles,Whiteinformedhimthat“Arrangementswillalsobemadetohavetheceremonyphotographedfornewsreelsandpossiblytohavetheentireoccasiontelevised.”WalterWhitetoDavidK.Niles,April11,1947,WhiteHouseCentralFiles:OfficialFile413–NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople[1of2],Box1382;TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.39Leuchtenburg,TheWhiteHouseLooksSouth,160.40“Mr.TrumanandHumanRights,”NewYorkAmsterdamNews,July5,1947.


42

41“4thDraft,6-29-47,”AddresstotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople,President’sSecretary’sFiles,Box38,TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary;“OriginalReadingCopyUsedbyPresidentTrumanattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople,LincolnMemorial,Washington,D.C.,”President’sSecretary’sFiles,Box24,TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.42TolistentoTruman’sspeechascapturedviaradio,pleasevisittherecordingprovidedbytheUniversityofVirginia’sMillerCenter(http://millercenter.org/president/truman/speeches/speech-3345).Thisparticularlinebeginsat-10:39.43AbrahamLincoln,“EmancipationProclamation,”January1,1863,https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured_documents/emancipation_proclamation/transcript.html.44“3rdDraft,”June28,1947,PapersofGeorgeElsey,Box17,Folder:1947–June29–NAACPSpeech,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.Thephrase“birthright”alsohasbiblicalconnotations,particularlyinrelationtotheinheritancerightsfirst-bornmalesenjoyed(suchasEsau’sinheritancefromhisfather,Isaac,thathesoldtohisbrotherJacob).45“3rdDraft,”June28,1947,TrumanLibrary.46FormoreontherelationshipbetweenthesecoverimagesandFDR’s1941StateoftheUnionaddress,seeJamesJ.Kimble,“TheIllustratedFourFreedoms:FDR,Rockwell,andtheMarginsoftheRhetoricalPresidency,”PresidentialStudiesQuarterly45,no.1(2015):46-69.47MerrillD.Peterson,LincolninAmericanMemory(NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress,1994),132.48OnJune16,1858,LincolnacceptedtheRepublicanParty’snominationfortheU.S.SenateraceinIllinois,acontestheeventuallywouldlosetoDemocraticincumbentStephenDouglas.Inthespeech,Lincolnusedasimilarmetaphortodescribethenation’sdivisionoverthequestionofslavery:“Ahousedividedagainstitselfcannotstand.”Hecontinued,“Ibelievethisgovernmentcannotendure,permanentlyhalfslaveandhalffree.IdonotexpecttheUniontobedissolved–Idonotexpectthehousetofall–butIdoexpectitwillceasetobedivided.Itwillbecomeallonething,oralltheother.Eithertheopponentsofslavery,willarrestthisfurtherspreadandplaceitwherethepublicmindshallrestinthebeliefthatitisonacourseofultimateextinction;oritsadvocatesshallpressitforward,untilitshallbecomealikelawfulinalloftheStates,oldaswellasnew–NorthaswellasSouth.”AbrahamLincoln,“AHouseDivided,”June16,1858,http://voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/lincoln-a-house-divided-speech-text/.49“4thDraft,6-29-47,”AddresstotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople,President’sSecretary’sFiles,Box38,TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.50Harding,“Address,”inConklin,TheLincolnMemorialinWashington,87.51AbrahamLincoln,“ResponsetoEvangelicalLutherans,”May13,1862,inTheWorksofAbrahamLincoln,ed.JohnH.CliffordandMarionM.Miller(NewYork,NY:Newton&Cartwright,1907),156-157.52HarryS.TrumantoMaryTruman,June28,1947,PapersofHarryS.Truman:Post-PresidentialFile,HarryS.TrumanLibrary,http://www.trumanlibrary.org/flip_books/index.php?collectionid=ihow&groupid=3722&tldate=1947-06-28.53PressRelease,“FarReachingBenefitsSeeninTrumanSpeech,”July11,1947,foundinAnnualConvention,1947,includingprogramandresolutions,Mar25,1947–Jun29,1947,Folder:001412-012-0000,PapersoftheNAACP,Part01:MeetingsoftheBoardofDirectors,RecordsofAnnualConferences,MajorSpeeches,andSpecialReports,ProQuestHistoryVault.54WalterWhitetoHarryS.Truman,July9,1947,PPF200;Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.55WhitealsonotedthefierceSouthernresponsetoTruman’sspeech,writingthat“[i]f[Truman]hadanypremonitionofthesavageassaultswhichweredestinedtobemadeuponhimbySoutherngovernors,senators,andcongressmenwhenheaskedtheCongresstoactupontheissueshehaddiscussedinhisspeech,orifhehadanyfearoftheconsequences,heshowednosignsofit.”White,AManCalledWhite,348-49.56ChanningTobiastoHarryS.Truman,July8,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.57“MyDay,KeyEvents,”AmericanExperience,PBS.org,http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/eleanor-my-day.


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58NewspaperClippingofEleanorRoosevelt,“MyDay”Column,July2,1947,foundinPapersofGeorgeElsey,Box17,Folder:1947–June29–NAACPSpeech,TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.59“‘U.S.MustLeadAnti-HateDrive’:CompleteTextofTruman'sSpeech,"NewYorkAmsterdamNews,July5,1947;“TrumanUrgesEqualityforAll,”AtlantaDailyWorld,July3,1947;“TextofTalkbyTrumantoNAACP,”WashingtonPost,June30,1947;“PresidentTruman'sSpeechtoNAACPonHumanRights,”NewYorkTimes,June30,1947.60“TextofTalkbyTrumantoNAACP”;“PresidentTruman'sSpeechtoNAACPonHumanRights”;“‘U.S.MustLeadAnti-HateDrive.’”61“NotWhat,ButHow,”ChristianScienceMonitor,July1,1947.62“Mr.TrumanonCivilRights,”St.LouisPost-Dispatch,June30,1947.63“TrumanAsksAction‘Now’onRacism,”ChicagoDefender,July5,1947.64“Gov'tMustInsureRightstoAll--TrumanStresses'AllAmericans'MustBenefit,”AtlantaDailyWorld,July1,1947.65“‘U.S.MustLeadAnti-HateDrive.’”66“BenefitsSeenfromTrumanRightsSpeech:SouthernPressCommentswithFavoronTalk,”AtlantaDailyWorld,July17,1947.67"Mr.TrumanandHumanRights."68“Truman’sSpeechMakesHistory,”TheCall,July4,1947,foundattachedtoaletterfromEmmettA.Scanlan,Jr.,toMattConnelly,July7,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.69“TrumanTellstheWorld,”LosAngelesSentinel,July3,1947.70“Mr.RooseveltandMr.Truman,”PittsburghCourier,July12,1947.71EdHerlihy,“TrumanAsksEqualityforAllAmericans,”UniversalInternationalNewsreel,UniversalNewsVol.20,Rel.52,Story1.June30,1947,NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration,accessedDecember30,2015,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdNMhmcVqCU&feature=youtu.be.72ElinoreCowanStonetoHarryTruman,June29,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.73AbmondMaxwelltoHarryTruman,July1,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.74L.H.MooretoHarryTruman,June29,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Con),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.75OtisChandlertoHarryTruman,June29,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Con),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.76CatherineJ.MoroneytoHarryTruman,June30,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Con),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.77ThomasL.CowentoHarryTruman,June29,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.78BufordF.GordontoHarryS.Truman,June29,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.79EvalynLowesDavistoHarryTruman,June29,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.80AndrewG.FreemantoHarryTruman,nodate,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.


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81LouiseM.SpoerritoHarryTruman,July3,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.82PercivalSillstoHarryTruman,June30,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.83ShermanBriscoetoHarryTruman,July2,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.84LowellC.FrosttoHarryTruman,June30,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.85TrumanK.Gibson,Jr.toHarryTruman,June30,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.86CecilH.PiatttoHarryTruman,July1,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Con),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.87LouisF.LawlertoHarryTruman,July2,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Con),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.88Mrs.J.M.McCrearytoHarryTruman,June30,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.89ShermanRiley,Sr.toHarryTruman,June30,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Con),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.90Leuchtenburg,TheWhiteHouseLooksSouth,160.91RufusR.ToddtoHarryTruman,July6,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Con),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.92DorothyW.ChancetoHarryTruman,June30,1947,PPF200,Folder:6/29/47–SpeechattheClosingSessionofthe38thAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(Pro),TrumanPapers,HarryS.TrumanLibrary.93McCullough,Truman,570.94LyndonB.Johnson,“AddressBeforeaJointSessionofCongress,”November27,1963,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25988.95LyndonB.Johnson,“RemarksataCandlelightMemorialServiceforPresidentKennedy,”December22,1963,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=26576.96LyndonB.Johnson,“RemarksattheLincolnMemorial,”February12,1964,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=26071.97LyndonB.Johnson,“RemarksataCeremonyattheLincolnMemorial,”February12,1967,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=28549.98LyndonB.Johnson,“RemarksataCeremonyCommemoratingthe159thBirthdayofAbrahamLincoln,”February12,1968,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29360.99Leuchtenburg,“TheConversionofHarryTruman.”

Documents

12 (2017): 16-44 HARRY S. TRUMAN, “ADDRESS BEFORE THE