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Abu DhabiPublic Realm & Street
LightingHandbook
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 3
Abu DhabiPublic Realm & Street
LightingHandbook
F I R S T E D I T I O N 2 0 1 4
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 4
His Highness Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan
President of the United Arab Emirates, Ruler of Abu Dhabi Emirate
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 5
Abu DhabiPublic Realm & Street
LightingHandbook
His Highness General Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan
Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi, Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed
Forces and Chairman of the Abu Dhabi Executive Council
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 6
ImprintDepartment of Municipal Affairs Abu Dhabi; Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook, First Edition
Copyright © 2014 by Abu Dhabi City Municipality, and the Editing Consultant Team:
World Planners Consultant Engineers LLC and
Lichttechnische Planung - Lighting Design Austria e.U.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form,in any electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without prior written permission
of the Abu Dhabi City Municipality and that of the contributors.
ISBN 978-3-200-03884-4
Printed in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi
Note:
The “Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook” development process brings together contributors representing varied
viewpoints and interests to achieve consensus on lighting recommendations. While the contributors tried to administer the process and
to establish policies and procedures to promote at first independency in the development of consensus, it must be said that a main basic
input is to develop the lighting design and implementation process especially for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In this regard it makes no
guaranty or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein.
The contributors disclaim liability for any injury to persons or property or for damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect,
consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or reliance on this document.
In issuing and making this document available, the contributors are not undertaking to render professional or any other kind of services
for or on behalf of any person or entity. Nor are the contributors undertaking to perform any duty owed by any person or entity to someone
else. Anyone using this document should rely on his or her own independent judgement or, as appropriate, seek the advice of competent
professionals in determining the exercise of reasonable care in any given circumstances.
The contributors have no power, nor do they undertake, to police or enforce compliance with the contents of this document. Nor do the
contributors list, certify, test or inspect products, designs or installations for compliance with this document. Any certifications or statements
of compliance with the requirements of this document shall not be attributable to the contributors and is solely the responsibility of the
certifier or maker of the statement.
It is acknowledged by the editors and the publisher that all the service marks, trademarks, and copyrighted images/graphics (if any) in
this book are for editorial purposes only and to the benefit of the service mark, trademark or copyright owner, with no intention of infringing
on that service mark, trademark, or copyright. Nothing in this handbook should be construed to imply that respective service mark, trade-
mark, or copyright holder endorses or sponsors this handbook or any of its contents.
For general information please visit the Abu Dhabi City Municipality at www.adm.gov.ae page.
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 9
Abu DhabiPublic Realm & Street
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Foreword:
Abu Dhabi has long been recognized worldwide as a global leader in the promotion and
development of sustainable infrastructure. The Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council developed
the ‘Abu Dhabi 2030 Structure Framework Plan’ to optimize the Emirate’s development through
a 25-year program of urban evolution and in doing so it is laying the foundation for socially
cohesive and economically sustainable community that preserves the Emirates’ unique cultural
heritage. This foresight to plan for sustainable infrastructure ahead of time is a key example
of visionary government.
The Abu Dhabi City Municipality working with The Department of Municipal Affairs in 2010
launched the Abu Dhabi Sustainable Lighting Strategy to ensure the vision for quality and
sustainable lighting would be at the core of all future development.
Le Corbusier, the iconic Swiss architect and renowned protagonist of the modern architecture
movement wrote in 1950 “Urbanism and Architecture and Light are Inseparable” and the
Municipality of Abu Dhabi has long since recognized the importance of ‘Light’ and ‘Sustainable
Lighting’ to be provided as an essential public service both within the City limits and beyond in
the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.
The Municipalities over the last four years have taken the initiative forward through new
Lighting Specifications and project designs to address the overriding importance of Urbanism, Architecture and Sustainable Lighting and now prides itself on being among the first Civic
Authorities to promote an expansive technical lighting handbook in support of the Sustainable
Lighting Strategy.
The Department of Municipal Affairs, Abu Dhabi City Municipality, Al Ain Municipality and
Western Region Municipality are pleased and proud to introduce this new ‘Abu Dhabi Public
Realm & Street Lighting Handbook’ as a universal guide for lighting design, for the promotion
of the art, science and technical aspects of lighting and as a tool to aid understanding,
promote education and improve sustainable lighting practice in the years ahead.
H.E Saeed Eid Al Ghafli
Chairman of the Department of Municipal Affairs
Emirate of Abu Dhabi
F o r e w
o r d
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 10
Municipality of Abu Dhabi City:
Address: Abu Dhabi City Municipality (ADM), Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 263
Telephone: +971 26788888, Fax: +971 2677 3338, Web: www.adm.gov.ae
ADM Project Coordinator/Advisor: Martin Valentine MSLL PLDA
Department of Municipal Affairs:
Address: Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA), Al Markaziya, Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 3
Telephone: +971 2678555, Fax: +971 2677 7755, Web: www.dma.abudhabi.ae
Stakeholders:
Department of Municipal Affairs (DMA) Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC) Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council (UPC) Abu Dhabi City Municipality (ADM)
Al Ain City Muncipality (AAM) Western Region Municipality (WRM)
Department of Transport (DoT) Masdar
Musanada
Acknowledgements
H.E. Musabbah Mubarak Musabbah Al Marar, Acting General Manager, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Eisa Mubarak Al Mazrouei, Executive Director, Municipal Infrastructure & Assets Sector, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Majed Abed Al Kathiri, Division Director, Internal Roads and Infrastructure, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Ahmed Saif Al Saedi, Section Head – O&M of Internal Roads & Street Lighting and Public realm Team, Abu Dhabi City MunicipalityJamal El Zarif, Ph.D. Technical Advisor, Municipal Infrastructure & Assets Sector, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Ian Rose, Landscape Consultant, Parks & Recreational Facilities Division, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Mona Rizk, Project Development Consultant, Parks & Recreational Facilities Division, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Khaled N. Al Junadi, Environment Expert, Town Planning Sector, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Eng. Khaled Jaman Al Sokhny, Consultant-Coordination-ADEA, Infrastructure Coordination & Services, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Martin Valentine MSLL PLDA, Lighting Expert, Executive Director Office, Abu Dhabi City Municipality
Gordon McMurray, Head of Project Management, World Planners Consultant Engineers (WP) llc
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 11
Abu DhabiPublic Realm & Street
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Foreign Lighting Consultant:
Lichttechnische Planung - Lighting design Austria e.U.
Address: Marienstrasse 23, 3032 Eichgraben, Austria
Tel & Fax: 0043 2773 43534
Email: [email protected]
Managing Director / Project Director: Mr. Helmut Regvart
Local Project Coordinator: Mr. Arch. Gordon McMurrayProject Lighting Designer: Mr. Eng. Deshprim Krasniqi
Project Lighting Designer: Ms. Arch. Elisabeta Manescu
LLC
Local Consultant:
World Planners Consultant Engineers LLC
Address: P.O.Box: 126634 Abu Dhabi, UAE
Tel: 00971-2-22 22 052
Fax: 00971-2-22 22 171
Email: [email protected]
Managing Director Mr. Arch. Camille Feghali
C
o n t r i b u t o r s
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 12
Preface:
Abu Dhabi City Municipality and the contribu-
tors produce this “Abu Dhabi Public Realm &
Street Lighting Handbook” to guide and to give
authoritative recommendations to those who
design, specify, install, and maintain lighting
systems, and as an impartial source of informa-
tion for the public. The “Abu Dhabi Public
Realm & Street Lighting Handbook” contains
a mix of science, technology and design;
mirroring the nature of lighting itself.
Four main sections are represented in this first
edition: Visual Effects of Lighting, Recommen-
dations – ADM Sustainable Lighting Strategy –
Efficiency – The Problem of Light Pollution –
Visual Hierarchies for Public Realm Lighting,
Equipment and Lighting Design Standards.
Visual Effects chapters describe the science
and technology related to lighting, including
vision, optics, non-visual effects of optical radia-
tion, photometry and light sources.
Recommendations – ADM Sustainable Lighting
Strategy – Efficiency – The Problem of Light
Pollution – Visual Hierarchies for Public Realm
Lighting chapters include not only fundamental
considerations of artificial lighting, but alsoenergy management, controls, and economics.
Equipment and Lighting Design Standards
chapters establish the design context for many
lighting applications, especially for outdoor
and in detail for all public realm lighting, provide
luminance recommendations for specific tasks
and areas, and identify some of the analytic
goals of lighting design using science and
technology.
During the past years, the science, technology,
and the design practice related to lighting has
advanced significantly. Vision and biological
sciences have deepened knowledge of com-
plex relationship between light and health,
adding both opportunity and awareness of
the public of how lighting affects our lives.
Technology has transformed lighting with the
light emitting diode, now a practical source
for general illumination in many cases. New
equipment, new testing procedures, and new
application considerations have all risen in
response to this development. And the philoso-
phy, goals, and practice of architectural design
have been deeply affected by concerns for
the natural environment and desires for more
sustainable buildings and public grounds. New
developments in sustainable practices and
lighting control technology provide ways to
respond to these concerns and expectations.
New and helpful information is provided in the
chapters of visual effects and equipment and
in the lighting design standards chapters.
The aim is that in the future artificial lighting,
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 13
Abu DhabiPublic Realm & Street
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controls design and implementation
throughout all public realm areas may
act in concert to produce better luminous
environments. The consequences of this
for the public realm energy consumption
can be very large if design parameters
and controls are an integral part of newly
developed lighting systems.
The public hope and expectations of
reducing the energy allotted to the public
realm have increased the challenge of
providing the lighting required for comfort,
safety, and appropriate to the use of the
outdoor space. In response to these con-
straints, the contributors have established
this first edition of “Abu Dhabi Public Realm
& Street Lighting Handbook” to generate
recommended illumination targets cited at
different parts of this handbook. This fine
and detailed information gives the designer
and the client the ability to more carefully
match illuminance targets with visual
tasks outdoor. These recommendations
for outdoor applications will take into
account the activity levels and special
tasks for safety especially for outdoor
design and implementation of lighting
systems.
Among many effects of the new techno-
logy and understanding of light and well-
being, has been the emergence of wide
interest in new lighting technologies and
large questions of public policy regarding
lighting, energy, sustainability, and health.
For these reasons this first edition of
“Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street
Lighting Handbook” has been designed
and written for a very wide audience.
This first edition of the “Abu Dhabi Public
Realm & Street Lighting Handbook” pro-
vides information and recommendations
that can guide designers and users of lighting systems in the Emirate of Abu
Dhabi of both reduced lighting energy
expectations and undiminished needs
for attractive, comfortable, productive
luminous environments.
The Contributors
P r e f
a c e
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 14
Chapter A
Fundamentals1.0 Light1.1 The Nature of Light1.2 The CIE Standard Observers
2.0 The Measurement of Light – Photometry 2.1 Luminous Flux2.2 Luminous Intensity 2.3 Illuminance2.4 Luminance2.5 Reflectance2.6 Typical Values2.7 The Measurement of Light – Colourimetry 2.8 The CIE Chromaticity Diagrams2.9 Correlated Colour Temperature2.10 CIE Colour Rendering Index2.11 Colour Gamut
Page282828
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1.0 The Structure of the Visual System1.1 The Visual Field1.2 Optics of the Eye1.3 The Structure of the Retina1.4 The Central Visual Pathways1.5 Colour Vision2.0 Continuous Adjustments of the Visual Systems2.1 Adaptation
2.1.1 Change in Pupil Size2.1.2 Neutral Adaptation2.1.3 Photochemical Adaptation2.2 Photopic, Scotopic and Mesopic Observer2.2.1 Photopic Vision2.2.2 Scotopic Vision2.2.3 Mesopic Vision2.3 Accommodation2.4 Capabilities of the Visual System2.5 Threshold Measures2.6 Factors Determining Visual Threshold2.7 Colour Threshold2.8 Visual Discomfort
2.9 Illuminance Uniformity 2.10 Glare2.10.1 Saturation Glare2.10.2 Adaptation Glare2.10.3 Disability Glare2.10.4 Discomfort Glare2.10.5 Overhead Glare2.11 Veiling Reflections2.12 Shadows
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Chapter B
Vision
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 15
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C o n t e
n t s
1.0 Light Sources / Production of Radiation1.1 Incandescence1.2 Electric Discharges
1.3 Electroluminescence1.4 Luminescence2.0 Electric Light2.1 Incandescent2.2 Tungsten Halogen2.3 Fluorescent2.4 High Pressure Mercury
(also HID, Mercury Vapour, MVP Technique)2.5 Metal Halide2.6 Low Pressure Sodium2.7 High Pressure Sodium2.8 Induction2.9 Conventional (non-LED) Luminaire Requirements
2.10 Light Emitting Diodes (LED)2.10.1 The Main Components of LEDs2.10.2 LED Luminaire Requirements2.11 Electroluminescence2.12 Plasma Lamp2.12.1 Limited Life2.12.2 Size2.12.3 Heat and Power2.12.4 High-Efficiency Plasma (HEP)2.12.5 System Efficacy 2.12.6 CRI3.0 Electric Light Source Characteristics3.1 Luminous Flux
3.2 Power Demand3.3 Luminous Efficiency 3.4 Lumen Maintenance3.5 Life3.6 Colour Properties3.7 Run-up Time3.8 Other Factors3.9 Summary of Lamp Characteristics4.0 Other Types of Lighting4.1 Flames4.2 Candle4.3 Oil4.4 Gas
Page626263
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87879092959697979797989999
99100101101101101101103104104104104105
Chapter C
Technology
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 16
1.0 Basic Requirements2.0 Electrical2.1 Electrical Wiring
2.2 Earthing3.0 Mechanical3.1 Materials3.1.1 Steel3.1.2 Stainless Steel3.1.3 Aluminium Sheet3.1.4 Cast Aluminium – Extruded Aluminium3.1.5 Plastics, PVC, Acrylic, etc.3.1.6 Glass3.1.7 Ceramics4.0 Construction5.0 Optical Control5.1 Reflectors
5.2 Refractors5.3 Diffusers5.4 Baffles5.5 Louvres5.6 Filters5.7 Luminaire Efficiency 5.8 Thermal5.9 Environmental6.0 Luminaire Types6.1 Exterior Lighting6.1.1 Road Lighting Luminaires6.1.2 Post-Top Luminaires6.1.3 Secondary Reflector Luminaires
6.2 Floodlights6.3 Wall-mounted Luminaires6.4 In-Ground (Above-Ground)
Up-Lights, Directional Lights7.0 Certification and Classification7.1 Certification7.2 European (EU) Standards and Safety Trade Marks7.3 United States of America (US) Standards
and Safety Trade Marks7.3.1 The ANSI/UL 153 Standard7.3.2 The ANSI/UL 1598 Standard7.3.3 The ANSI/UL 8750 Standard7.4 International used Standards and Safety Trade Marks7.4.1 Operating Conditions (IP-Rating)7.4.2 IK Code and Impact Energy 7.4.3 Electrical Protection7.4.4 Separated or Safety Extra-Low Voltage (SELV)7.4.5 Class II Insulation7.4.6 Flammability 7.5 ADQCC and ESMA 7.5.1 Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC)
Page108108108
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Chapter D
Luminaires
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 17
C o n t e
n t s
Abu DhabiPublic Realm & Street
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1.0 Control Gear1.1 Ballasts for Discharge Light Sources –
General Principles1.1.1 Electromagnetic Control Gear
for Fluorescent Light Sources1.1.2 Electromagnetic Control Gear for HID Light Sources1.1.3 Low Pressure Sodium Lamp1.1.4 High Pressure Sodium Lamp1.1.5 Electronic Control Gear
for Fluorescent Light Sources1.1.6 Electronic Control Gear for HID Light Sources1.1.7 Iron-Core Transformers for Low-Voltage
Light Sources
1.1.8 Electronic Transformers for Low-VoltageLight Sources
1.1.9 Drivers for LEDs2.0 Lighting Controls2.1 Options for Control2.2 Input Devices2.2.1 Manual Inputs2.2.2 Presence Detectors2.2.3 Timers2.2.4 Photocells2.2.5 Advanced Lighting Control Systems2.3 Control Processes and Systems2.3.1 0-10V or 1-10V Dimming Systems
2.3.2 DSI/DALI Lighting Control /Dimming System Description
2.3.3 DMX 512 or DMX512-A Lighting ControlSystem Description
2.3.4 LON (Local Operating Network)Lighting Control Systems
Page
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162163164164164164164164164165167167
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Chapter E
Electrics
7.5.1.1 Abu Dhabi Certification Schemefor LED Exterior Lighting Fixtures (Luminaires)
7.5.1.2 Conformity Certificate
7.5.2 ESMA 7.5.2.1 Scope7.5.2.2 Emirates Quality Mark7.5.2.3 Energy Efficiency Label8.0 Road Lighting Luminaires8.1 Luminous Intensity Distribution
Page
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 18
Chapter F
Applications1.0 Lighting Design1.1 Objectives and Constraints1.2 A Holistic Strategy for Lighting
1.3 Legal Requirements1.4 Visual Function1.5 Visual Amenity 1.6 Lighting and Architectural Integration1.7 Energy Efficiency and Sustainability 1.8 Maintenance1.9 Lighting Costs2.0 Photopic or Mesopic Vision3.0 Light Trespass and Skyglow4.0 Basic Design Decisions4.1 Choice of Electric Lighting System4.2 Integration4.2.1 Integration within the Space
4.2.2 Integration with the Surroundings4.2.3 Integration with other Services4.2.4 Integration with Daylight4.3 Equal and Approved
Page176176177
177178180184185186189189194198198201201
203204205207
Chapter G
Road Lighting1.0 Road – Public Realm Classification1.1 Lighting for Traffic Routes2.0 Road Lighting Calculation Tutorial
2.1 Short-Cut Tutorial for DIALux 4.12.0.1 –for standard Street Lighting Calculations3.0 Lighting Recommendations for Traffic Routes3.1 Design Criteria used to define Lighting
for Traffic Routes3.1.1 Overall Luminance Uniformity3.1.2 Longitudinal Luminance Uniformity3.1.3 Threshold Increment3.1.4 Surround Ratio3.2 Lighting Classes for Traffic Routes3.3 Samples of Streetlighting Calculations3.3.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation
for a typical Highway Layout
3.3.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculationfor a typical Boulevard Layout
3.3.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculationfor a typical Avenue Layout
3.3.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculationfor a typical Street Layout
3.3.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculationfor a curvy Street Layout
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C o n t e
n t s
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3.4 Lighting Recommendationsfor Areas adjacent to the Carriageway
3.5 Lighting Recommendations for Conflict Areas
3.5.1 Average Road Surface Illuminance3.5.2 Overall Illuminance Uniformity3.6 Samples of typical Conflict Area Lighting
Calculations3.6.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation
for a typical Two Lane Roundabout Layout3.6.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation
for a typical One Lane Roundabout Layout3.6.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation
for a typical Street (mini) Roundabout Layout3.6.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a
typical Junction of Boulevard / Boulevard Layout3.6.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation
for a typical Junction of Street / Street Layout3.7 Coordination3.8 Traffic Route Lighting Design Fundamentals3.8.1 Selection of the Lighting Class and Definition
of relevant Area3.8.2 Collection of Preliminary Data3.8.3 Calculation of Design Spacing3.8.4 Plotting of Luminaire Positions4.0 Lighting for Subsidiary Roads4.1 Lighting Recommendations for Subsidiary Roads4.2 Lighting Design for Subsidiary Roads4.2.1 Selection of the Lighting Class and Definition
of relevant Area
4.2.2 Collection of Preliminary Data4.2.3 Calculation of Design Spacing4.2.4 Plotting of Luminaire Positions5.0 Lighting for Urban Centres and Public
Amenity Areas6.0 Pedestrian Underpasses in Public Realm Areas7.0 Tunnel Lighting8.0 Entrances or Underpasses, Underground Car Park
Facilities9.0 Car Parks (above Ground)9.1 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical
Low-Risk Car Park next to Streets9.2 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical
Medium-Risk Car Park next to Streets9.3 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical
Medium-Risk Car Park9.4 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical
High–Risk Car Park10.0 Service Stations and Mini-marts
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Abu Dhabi Public Realm & Street Lighting Handbook 20
Chapter H
Exterior Workplace Lighting1.0 Functions of Lighting in Exterior Workplaces2.0 Factors to be Considered2.1 Scale
2.2 Nature of Work2.3 Need for Good Colour Vision2.4 Obstruction2.5 Interference with Complementary Activities2.6 Hours of Operation2.7 Impact on the Surrounding Area2.8 Atmospheric Conditions3.0 Lighting Recommendations3.1 Illuminance and Illuminance Uniformity 3.2 Glare Control3.3 Light Source Colour Properties3.4 Localised Lighting
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Chapter I
Security Lighting1.0 Functions of Security Lighting1.1 Factors to be Considered1.2 Type of Site1.3 Site Features1.4 Ambient Light Levels1.5 Crime Risk1.6 CCTV Surveillance1.7 Impact on the Surrounding Area2.0 Lighting Recommendations2.1 Illuminance and Illuminance Uniformity 2.2 Glare Control2.3 Light Source Colour Properties3.0 Approaches to Security Lighting3.1 Secure Areas3.1.1 Area Lighting
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Chapter J
Public Realm Lighting1.0 Public Realm Definition1.1 Guiding Principles for Public Realm Lighting1.2 Design Considerations for Public Realm Lighting
1.2.1 Visual Hierarchy 1.2.2 Lighting Techniques1.2.3 Colour1.2.4 Fixture Aesthetics & Theme1.2.5 Detailing and Documentation1.2.6 Public Wellbeing and Safety 1.2.7 Solar2.0 Public Realm Typical Elements2.1 Pathway Lighting2.1.1 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical
Main Pathway (10 lux) usingTypical Direct-Optic Column-Top Luminaires
2.1.2 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typical
Secondary Pathway (5 lux) usingTypical Direct-Optic Column-Top Luminaires
2.1.3 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typicalMain Pathway (10 lux) using Typical Direct/IndirectSecondary-Reflector Column-Top Luminaires
2.1.4 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for a typicalSecondary Pathway (5 lux) using Bollard Luminaires
2.2 Tree Lighting2.2.1 Introduction2.2.2 Examples of Tree Lighting in Public Realm2.2.3 Techniques for Tree Uplight Luminaires2.3 Water Feature Lighting2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Interaction of Light with Water2.3.3 Techniques for Lighting Water Features2.4 Playgrounds and Play Areas2.4.1 Introduction and Principles2.4.2 Examples of Playground Lighting2.5 Flexible Lawn Areas
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Chapter K
Sports Lighting1.0 Functions of Lighting for Sports1.1 Factors to be considered1.2 Standard of Play and viewing Distance
1.3 Playing Area1.4 Luminaires1.5 Obtrusive Light1.6 Lighting Recommendations1.6.1 Athletics1.6.2 Bowls, Boccia1.6.3 Cricket1.6.4 Fitness Training1.6.5 Football (Association, Gaelic and American)1.6.6 Lawn or Hardcover Tennis1.6.7 Rugby 1.7 Sample of a Lighting Calculation for MUGA
(Multi-Use-Gaming-Area)
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Chapter L
Lighting Performance
Verification1.0 The Need for Performance Verification1.1 Relevant Operating Conditions2.0 Instrumentation2.1 Illuminance Meters2.2 Luminance Meters3.0 Methods of Measurement3.1 Maintained average (mean) Illuminance3.2 Interior Lighting3.3 Exterior Lighting4.0 Selection of a Grid for Calculation or Measurement4.1 Straight Roadway Sections4.2 Curved Roadway Sections
4.3 Traffic Conflict Areas4.4 Measurement for all other Areas at Public Realm4.5 Measurement of Illuminance Variation and Diversity 4.6 Illuminance Uniformity 4.7 Luminance Measurements4.8 Measurement of Reflectance
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Chapter M
Lighting Maintenance1.0 The Need for Lighting Maintenance1.1 Lamp Replacement1.2 Cleaning Luminaires
1.3 Outdoor Surface Cleaning2.0 Maintained average (mean) Illuminance2.1 Designing for Lighting Maintenance2.2 Determination of Maintenance Factor
for Interior Lighting2.3 Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor2.4 Lamp Survival Factor2.5 Luminaire Maintenance Factor2.6 Room (exterior) Surface Maintenance Factor2.7 Determination of Maintenance Factor
for Standard Exterior Lighting3.0 Disposal of Lighting Equipment
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Chapter N
On the Horizon1.0 Changes and Challenges1.1 The Changes and Challenges
facing Lighting Practice1.1.1 Costs1.1.2 Technologies1.1.3 Specifications of LED Products2.0 Three main Topics to be considered by designing
or using LED Systems
2.1 System Reliability 2.2 LED Performance2.3 Optical Performance2.4 PCB Quality and Design2.5 Finish of the Luminaires2.6 Mechanical Quality – IP Rating, etc.2.7 Thermo Management2.8 Housing Design2.9 Gaskets, Sealants2.10 Electrical Connections – Internal / External2.11 Control Gear, Driver Design and Quality 2.12 Drive Current / LED Technique in General2.13 Manufacturing
2.14 Operational Environments3.0 Life3.1 Lifetime3.1.1 Failure Fraction
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4.0 Luminaire Manufacturers Design Data4.1 LED light Source / Luminaire / System Data4.2 Measured LED Module Data4.3 Measured Luminaire Data4.4 Rated Power4.5 Power Factor4.6 Rated Lumen Output4.7 Light Loss Maintenance Factor4.8 Rated Luminaire Efficacy 4.9 The Board Temperature4.10 Lumen Depreciation4.11 Life4.12 Failure Fraction
4.13 Colour Temperature4.14 Colour Maintenance4.15 Colour Temperature Tolerance4.16 Colour Rendering Index of the Luminaire4.17 Light Intensity Distribution4.18 Temperature Cycling Shock Test4.19 Supply Voltage Switching Test4.20 Thermal Endurance Test5.0 Data required for Specification of LED and /
or LED Luminaires / Systems6.0 Lighting Controls7.0 New Knowledge8.0 Energy Consumption and Environmentally friendly
sustainable Lighting Design Approach8.1 Environmentally friendly Lighting Design8.2 Energy Sustainability 8.3 Energy Sources8.4 Solar Street Lighting Developments as a Future Way
to reduce Energy Demand9.0 Sustainable Lighting Design Codes of Practice
and Industrial Standards10.0 Institutes and Societies for Standardisation,
Regulations and Societies for Lighting Technology 11.0 Conclusion
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Chapter O
Lighting Vocabularyfrom A to Z A –Z
Page
416 – 470
Chapter P
References
1.0 Acknowledgements2.0 Executive Leadership and Higher SteeringCommittee
3.0 Technical Advisory Committee4.0 DMA Project Coordinator / Advisor5.0 Consultant Team – The Contributors6.0 References, Standards and Documents used to
develop this Comprehensive Handbook6.1 Authorities, Local Standards and Guidelines
to be referred to for Development and Designof Public Realm and Street Lighting
6.2 Norms, Standards and Publications used todevelop this Handbook
6.3 Referenced Norms and Standards – International6.4 Referenced Norms and Standards - Local7.0 Referenced Lighting Societies and Organisations
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FundamentalsChapter A
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1.0 Light
1.1 The Nature of Light
Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum that
stretches from cosmic rays to radio waves (Figure 1).
What distinguishes the wavelength region between
380-780 nanometres (nm) from the rest is the
response of the human visual system.
Photoreceptors in the human eye absorb energy in
this wavelength range and thereby initiate the pro-
cess of seeing.
1.2 The CIE Standard Observers
The sensitivity of the human visual system is not
the same at all wavelengths in the range 380 nm to
780 nm. This makes it impossible to adopt the ra-
diometric quantities conventionally used to measurethe characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum
for quantifying light. Rather, a special set of quanti-
ties has to be derived from the radiometric quantities
by weighting them by the spectral sensitivity of the
human visual system. The result is the photometry
system (see Chapter A / 2.0).
The Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE)
has established three standard observers to repre-
sent the sensitivity of the human visual system to
light at different wavelengths, in different conditions.
In 1924, the CIE adopted the Standard Photopic
Observer to characterise the spectral sensitivity of
the human visual system by day.
The commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE)
has established three standard observers to repre-
sent the sensitivity of the human visual system to
light at different wavelengths, in different conditions.
In 1990, in the interests of greater photometric
accuracy, the CIE produced a Modified Photopic
Observer, having greater sensitivity than the CIE
Standard Photopic Observer at wavelengths below
460 nm. This CIE Modified Photopic Observer is
considered to be a supplement to the CIE Standard
Photopic Observer not a replacement for it. As a
result, the CIE Standard Photopic Observer has
continued to be widely used by the lighting industry.
This is acceptable because the modified sensitivity
at wavelengths below 460 nm has been shown to
make little difference to the photometric properties of
light sources that emit radiation over a wide range of wavelengths. It is only for light sources that emit si-
gnificant amounts of radiation below 460 nm that
changing from the CIE Standard Photopic Observer
to the CIE Modified Photopic Observer makes a
Figure 1
A schematic diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum showing
the location of the visible spectrum. The divisions between the
different types of electromagnetic radiation are indicative only.
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significant difference to photometric proper-
ties. Some narrow band light sources, such as
blue light emitting diodes, fall into this category.
In 1951, the CIE adopted the CIE Standard
Scotopic Observer to characterise the spec-
tral sensitivity of the human visual system by
night. The Standard Scotopic Observer is
used by the lighting industry to quantify the
efficiency of a light source at stimulating the
rod photoreceptors of the eye (see Chapter
B / 2.2).
The CIE Standard and Modified Photopic
Observers and the CIE Standard Scotopic
Observer are shown in Figure 2, the Standard
and Modified Photopic Observers having
maximum sensitivities at 555 nm and the
Standard Scotopic Observer having a maxi-
mum sensitivity at 507 nm. These relative
spectral sensitivity curves are formally known
as the 1924 CIE Spectral Luminous Efficiency
and References Function for Photopic Vision,
and the 1951 CIE Spectral Luminous Efficiency
Function for Scotopic Vision, respectively. More
commonly, they are known as the CIE V (λ ),
CIE VM (λ ), and the CIE V` (λ ) curves. These
curves are the basis of the conversion from
radiometric quantities to the photometric
quantities used to characterise light.
Figure 2
The relative luminous efficiency functions for the CIE Standard Photopic Observer, the CIE Modified Photopic Observer,
the CIE Standard Scotopic Observer, and the relative luminous efficiency function for a 10 degree field of view in photopic
conditions.
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2.0 The Measurement of Light – Photometry
2.1 Luminous Flux
The most fundamental measure of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a source is its radiant flux:
This is the rate of flow of energy emitted and is measured in watts. The most fundamental quantity used to
measure light is luminous flux. Luminous flux is radiant flux multiplied, wavelength by wavelength, by the relative
spectral sensitivity of the human visual system, over the wavelength range 380 nm to 780 nm (Figure 3).
This process can be represented by the equation:
where: = luminous flux (lumens)
= radiant flux in a small wavelength interval (watts)
= the relative luminous efficiency function for the conditions
= constant (lumens/watt)
= wavelength interval
In System International (SI) units, the radiant flux is measured in watts (W) and the luminous flux in lumens (lm).
The values of Km are 683 lm/W for the CIE Standard and Modified Photopic Observers and 1699 lm/W for the
CIE Standard Scotopic Observer. It is always important to identify which of the CIE Standard Observers is being
used in any particular measurement or calculation. The CIE recommends that whenever the Standard Scotopic
Observer is being used, the word scotopic should precede the measured quantity, i.e. scotopic luminous flux.
Luminous flux is used to quantify the total light output of a light source in all directions.
= K m V
V
K m
Figure 3
The process for converting from radiometric to photometric quantities. The left-hand Figure shows the spectral power distribution of a light source in radiometric quantities (watts/wavelength interval). The centre Figure shows the CIE Standard Photopic Observer.
Multiplying the spectral power at each wavelength by the luminous efficiency at the same wavelength given by the CIE Standard Photopic
Observer, the right-hand Figure is produced. The right-hand Figure is the spectral luminous flux distribution in photometric quantities
(lumens/wavelength interval).
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2.2 Luminous Intensity
Luminous intensity is the luminous flux emit-
ted/unit solid angle, in a specified direction.
Solid angle is given by area divided by the
square of the distance and is measured in
steradians. An area of 1 square metre at a
distance of 1 metre from the origin subtends
one steradian. The unit of measurement of
luminous intensity is the candela, which is
equivalent to one lumen/steradian. Luminous
intensity is used to quantify the distribution of
light from a luminaire.
2.3 Illuminance
Illuminance is the luminous flux falling on unit
area of a surface. The unit of measurement of
illuminance is the lumen/m2 (lm/m²) or lux (lx).
The illuminance incident on a surface is the
most widely used electric lighting design
criterion. Figure 4 shows some typical illumi-
nances on different surfaces under the noon-
day sun in temperate climates.
2.4 Luminance
The luminance of a surface is the luminous in-
tensity emitted per unit projected area of the
surface in a given direction. The unit of mea-
surement of luminance is the candela/m2
(cd/m²). Luminance is widely used to define
stimuli presented to the visual system.
2.5 Reflectance
As might be expected, there is a relationship
between the amount of light incident on a sur-
face and the amount of light reflected from the
same surface. The simplest form of the re-
lationship is quantified by the luminance
coefficient. The luminance coefficient is the
ratio of the luminance of the surface to the
illuminance incident on the surface and has
units of candela/lumen. The luminance coeffi-
cient of a given surface is dependent on the
nature of the surface and the geometry bet-
ween the lighting, surface and observer.
There are two other quantities commonly
used to express the relationship between
the luminance of a surface and the illumi-
nance incident on it. For a perfectly diffusely-
reflecting surface, the relationship is given by
the equation:
where luminance is expressed in candela/m2
and illuminance is expressed in lumens/m2
or lux (lx).
e)reflectancce(illuminan luminance
Figure 4
Typical illuminances on different surfaces under the
noonday sun in temperate climates.
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For a diffusely-reflecting surface, reflectance is defi-
ned as the ratio of reflected luminous flux to incident
luminous flux. For a non-diffusely-reflecting surface,
i.e. a surface with some specularity, the same equa-
tion between luminance and illuminance applies but
reflectance is replaced with luminance factor. Lumi-
nance factor is defined as the ratio of the luminance
of the surface viewed from a specific position and lit
in a specified way to the luminance of a diffusely-
reflecting white surface viewed from the same
direction and lit in the same way. It should be clear
from this definition, that a non-diffusely-reflecting
surface can have many different values of the lumi-
nance factor. Table 1 summarises these definitions.
Measure Definition Units
Luminous flux That quantity of radiant flux which
expresses its capacity to produce
visual sensation
lumens (lm)
Luminous intensity The luminous flux emitted in a very
narrow cone containing the given
direction divided by the solid angle
of the cone, i.e. luminous flux/unit
solid angle
candela (cd)
Illuminance The luminous flux/unit area
at a point on a surface
lumen/m2 or lux
Luminance The luminous flux emitted in a
given direction divided by the
product of the projected area of
the source element perpendicular
to the direction and the solid angle
containing that direction, i.e.
luminous intensity/unit area
candela/m2
Luminance coefficient The ratio of the luminance of a
surface to the illuminance incident
on it
candela/lumen
Reflectance The ratio of the luminous flux
reflected from a surface to the
luminous flux incident on it
Table 1
The photometric quantities:
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For a diffuse surface:
e)reflectancce(illuminan luminance
Measure Definition Units
Luminance factor The ratio of the luminous flux
reflected from a surface to the
luminous flux incident on it
The ratio of the luminance of a
reflecting surface viewed from a
given direction to that of a perfect
white uniform diffusing surface
identically illuminated
For a non-diffuse surface, for a specific direction and lighting geometry:
factor)luminancece(illuminan luminance
Situation Illuminance (lm/m2 )
or lux
Typical surface Luminance
(cd/m2 )
Clear sky in
summer in
temperate zones
100,000 lx Grass 1,910
Overcast sky in
summer in
temperate zones
16,000 lx Grass 300
Moonlight 0.5 lx Asphalt road surface 0.01
2.6 Typical Values
Table 2 shows some illuminances and luminances typical of commonly occurring situations,
all measured using the CIE Standard Photopic Observer.
Table 2
Typical illuminance and luminance values:
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2.7 The Measurement of Light —
Colourimetry
Photometry does not take into account the wave-
length combination of the light. Thus it is possible for
two surfaces to have the same luminance but the
reflected light to be made up of totally different combi-
nations of wavelengths. In this situation, and provided
there is enough light for colour vision to operate, the
two surfaces will look different in colour. The CIE co-
lourimetry system provides a means to quantify colour.
2.8 The CIE Chromaticity Diagrams
The basis of the CIE colourimetry system is colour
matching. The CIE Colour Matching Functions are
the relative spectral sensitivity curves of the human
observer with normal colour vision and can be
considered as another form of standard observer.
The CIE colour matching functions are mathematical
constructs that reflect the relative spectral sensitivi-
ties required to ensure that all the wavelength
combinations that are seen as the same colour have
the same position in the CIE colourimetry system
and that all wavelength combinations that are seen
as different in colour occupy different positions.
Figure 5 shows two sets of colour matching
functions. The CIE 1931 Standard Observer is used
for colours occupying visual fields up to 4° of angular
subtense. The CIE 1964 Standard Observer is used
for colours covering visual fields greater than 4° in
angular subtense. The values of the colour matching
functions at different wavelengths are known as the
spectral tristimulus values.
Figure 5
Two sets of colour matching functions: The CIE 1931standard observer (2 degrees)
(solid line) and the CIE 1964 standard observer (10 degrees) (dashed line).
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The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram can be
considered as a map of the relative location of
colours. The saturation of a colour increases
as the chromaticity coordinates get closer to
the spectrum locus and further from the equal
energy point. The hue of the colour is deter-
mined by the direction in which the chromati-
city coordinates move. The CIE 1931 chroma-
ticity diagram is useful for indicating approxi-
mately how a colour will appear, a value
recognised by the CIE in that it specifies
chromaticity coordinate limits for signal lights
and surfaces so that they will be recognised
as red, green, yellow, and blue.
Figure 6
The CIE 1931 Chromaticity Diagram showing the spectrum locus, the Planckian locus and the equal energy point).
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The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram is perceptually
non-uniform. Green colours cover a large area while
red colours are compressed in the bottom right cor-
ner. This perceptual non-uniformity makes any
attempt to quantify large colour differences using the
CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram problematic. In an
attempt to improve this situation, the CIE first intro-
duced the CIE 1960 Uniform Chromaticity Scale
(UCS) diagram and then, in 1976, recommended the
use of the CIE 1976 UCS diagram. Both diagrams
are simply linear transformations of the CIE 1931
chromaticity diagram. The axes for the CIE 1976
UCS diagram are
where x and y are the CIE 1931 chromaticity coordi-
nates. Figure 7 shows the CIE 1976 UCS diagram.
u' = 4x/ (–2x+12y+3)v' = 9y/ (–2x+12y+ 3)
Figure 7
The CIE 1976 Uniform Chromaticity Scale diagram.
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2.9 Correlated Colour Temperature
While the CIE colourimetry system is the most
exact means of quantifying colour, it is com-
plex. Therefore, the lighting industry has used
the CIE colourimetry system to derive two sin-
gle-number metrics to characterise the colour
properties of light sources. The metric used to
characterise the colour appearance of the
light emitted by a light source is the correlated
colour temperature. The basis of this measure
is the fact that the spectral power distribution
of a black body is defined by Planck’s
Radiation Law and hence is a function of its
temperature only (see Chapter C, 1.1).
Figure 8 shows a part of the CIE 1931
chromaticity diagram with the Planckian
locus shown. The locus is the curved line
joining the chromaticity coordinates of black
bodies at different temperatures. The lines
running across the Planckian locus areiso-temperature lines. When the CIE 1931
chromaticity coordinates of a light source
lie directly on the Planckian locus, the colour
appearance of that light source is expressed
by the colour temperature, i.e. the tempera-
ture of the black body that has the same
chromaticity coordinates. For light sources
that have chromaticity coordinates close to
the Planckian locus but not on it, their colour
appearance is quantified as the correlated co-
lour temperature, i.e. the temperature of the
isotemperature line that is closest to the
actual chromaticity coordinates of the light
source. The temperatures are usually given in
kelvins (K).
As a rough guide, nominally-white light sour-
ces have correlated colour temperatures
ranging from 2,700 K to 7,500 K. A 2,700 K
light source, such as an incandescent lamp,
will have a yellowish colour appearance and
be described as ‘warm’, while a 7,500 K
lamp, such as some types of fluorescent
lamp, will have a bluish appearance and be
described as ‘cold’. It is important to appre-
ciate that light sources that have chromaticity
coordinates that lie beyond the range of theiso-temperature lines shown in Figure 8
should not be given a correlated colour tem-
perature. The light from such light sources
will appear greenish when the chromaticity
coordinates lie above the Planckian locus or
purplish if they lie below it.
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2.10 CIE Colour Rendering Index
The CIE colour rendering index measures how well a
given light source renders a set of standard test co-
lours relative to their rendering under a reference
light source of the same correlated colour tempera-
ture as the light source of interest.
The reference light source used is an incandescent
light source for light sources with a correlated colour
temperature below 5000 K and some form of day-light for light sources with correlated colour tempera-
ture above 5000 K. The actual calculation involves
obtaining the positions of a surface colour in the CIE
1964, U*,V*, W*, colour space under the reference
light source and under the light source of interest,
correcting for any difference in white point under the
two light sources and expressing the difference bet-
ween the two positions on a scale that gives perfect
agreement between the two positions a value of
100. The CIE has fourteen standard test colours.
The first eight form a set of pastel colours arranged
around the hue circle. Test colours nine to fourteen
represent colours of special significance, such as
skin tones and vegetation. The result of the calcula-
tion for any single colour is called the CIE special
colour rendering index, for that colour. The averageof the special colour rendering indices for the first
eight test colours is called the CIE general colour
rendering index (Ra). It is the CIE general colour ren-
dering index that is usually presented in light source
manufacturers’ catalogues. The CIE general colour
rendering index varies widely across light sources
(see Chapter C / 3.9).
Figure 8
The Planckian locus and lines of constant correlated colour temperature plotted on the CIE 1931 (x,y) chromaticity diagram.
Also shown are the chromaticity coordinates of CIE Standard Illuminants, A, C, and D65.
Figure 9
The Ra8 and Ra14 colour fields
for description of colour rendering.
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Chapter B
Vision
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1.0 The Structure of the Visual System
The visual system consists of the eye and brain
working together. Functionally, the visual system is
an image-processing system that extracts specific
aspects of the retinal image for interpretation by the
brain.
1.1 The Visual Field
Humans have two eyes, mounted frontally. Figure 11
shows the approximate extent of the visual field of
the two eyes in humans, measured in degrees from
the point of fixation. The enclosed darker area can
be seen with both eyes. The shaded area to the left
is visible to the left eye only. The shaded area to the
right is visible to the right eye only.
1.2 Optics of the Eye
Figure 12 shows a section through the eye, the
upper and lower halves being adjusted for focus at
near and far distances, respectively. The eye is basi-
cally spherical with a diameter of about 24 mm.
The sphere is formed from three concentric layers.
The outermost layer, called the sclera, protects the
contents of the eye and maintains its shape under
pressure. Over most of the eye’s surface, the sclera
looks white but at the front of the eye the sclera
bulges up and becomes transparent. It is through
this area, called the cornea, that light enters the eye.
The next layer is the vascular tunic, or choroid. This
layer contains a dense network of small blood ves-
sels that provide oxygen and nutrients to the next
layer, the retina. As the choroid approaches the front
of the eye it separates from the sclera and forms the
ciliary body. This element produces the watery fluid
that lies between the cornea and the lens, called the
aqueous humor. The aqueous humor provides oxy-
gen and nutrients to the cornea and the lens, and
takes away their waste products. Elsewhere in the
eye this is done by blood but on the optical pathway
through the eye, a transparent medium is necessary.
As the ciliary body extends further away from the
sclera, it becomes the iris. The iris forms a circular
opening, called the pupil, that admits light into the
eye. Pupil size varies with the amount of light
reaching the retina but it is also influenced by thedistance of the object from the eye, the age of the
observer and by emotional factors such as fear,
excitement and anger.
Figure 11
The binocular visual field expressed in degrees deviation from the
point of fixation. The shaded areas are visible to only one eye.Given this limited field of view for a fixed position, it is necessary
for the two eyes to be able to move. There are two ways this can
be done; by moving the head and by moving the eyes in the
head. Humans have a limited range of head movements but
a wide range of eye movements.
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After passing through the pupil, light reaches
the lens. The lens is fixed in position, but va-
ries its focal length by changing its shape. The
change in shape is achieved by contracting or
relaxing the ciliary muscles. For objects close
to the eye, the lens is fattened. For objects far
away, the lens is flattened.
1.3 The Structure of the Retina
The retina is an extension of the brain. The vi-
sual system has four photoreceptor types in
the retina, each containing a different photo-
pigment. These four types are conventionally
grouped into two classes, rods and cones.
All the rod photoreceptors are the same, con-
taining the same photopigment and hencehaving the same spectral sensitivity. The other
three photoreceptor types are all cones, each
with a different photopigment. Figure 14
shows the relative spectral sensitivity functi-
ons of the three cone photoreceptor types,
called short (S), medium (M) and long (L)
wavelength cones.
Figure 12
A section through the eye adjusted for near and distant vision.
Figure 13
System sketch of retina section.
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Figure 15
shows the distribution of rod and
cone photoreceptors across the
retina. The 0 degree indicates the
position of the fovea. The three
cone types are also not distributed
equally across the retina. The L-
and M-cones are concentrated in
the fovea, their density declining
gradually with increasing eccentri-
city. The S-cones are largely absent
from the fovea; reach a maximum
concentration just outside the fovea
and then decline gradually in den-
sity with increasing eccentricity.
Rods and cones are distributed differently across the retina (Figure 15). Cones are concentrated in one small
area that lies on the visual axis of the eye, called the fovea, although there is a low density of cones across the
rest of the retina.
For more details about optics and function of eye please refer to the SLL Handbook article 2.1.3 and following ones.
Figure 14
The relative spectral sensitivitiesof long wavelength (L),
medium wavelength (M)
and short wavelength (S)
cone photoreceptors.
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The optic nerves leaving the two eyes are
brought together at the optic chiasm where
the nerves from each eye are split and parts
from the same side of the two eyes are
combined. This arrangement ensures that
the signals from the same side of the two
eyes are received together on the same side
of the visual cortex. The pathways then
proceed to the lateral geniculate nuclei.
Somewhere between leaving the eyes and
arriving at the lateral geniculate nuclei, some
optic nerve fibers are diverted to the superior
colliculus, responsible for controlling eye
movements, and to the suprachiasmatic
nucleus which is concerned with entraining
circadian rhythms. After the lateral geniculate
nuclei, the two optic nerves spread out to
supply information to various parts of the
visual cortex, the part of the brain where
vision occurs. The visual cortex is located
at the back of cerebral hemispheres. About
80% of the cortical cells are devoted to the
central ten degrees of the visual field, the
centre of which is the fovea, a phenomenon
that again emphasises the importance of
the fovea.
Figure 16 A schematic diagram of the pathways from the eyes to the visual cortex.
1.4 The Central Visual Pathways
Signals from the retina are translated to the visual cortex of the brain over the central visual
pathways (Figure 16).
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1.5 Colour Vision
Human colour vision is trichromatic. It is based on the L, M and S cone photoreceptors. Figure 17 shows
how the outputs from the three cone photoreceptor types are believed to be arranged. The achromatic channel
combines inputs from the M- and L-cones only. Its output is related to luminance. The other two channels are
opponent channels in that they produce a difference signal. These opponent channels are responsible for the
perception of colour. The red-green opponent channel produces the difference between the output of the
M-cones and the sum of the outputs of the L- and S-cones. The blue-yellow opponent channel produces the
difference between the S-cones and the sum of the M- and L-cones.
Figure 17
The organisation of the human colour system showing how the three cone photoreceptor types are believed to feed into one achromatic,
non-opponent channel and two chromatic, opponent channels.
The ability to discriminate the wavelength content of
incident light makes a dramatic difference to the
information that can be extracted from a scene.
Creatures with only one type of photopigment, i.e.
creatures without colour vision, can only discriminate
shades of grey, from black to white. Approximately
100 such discriminations can be made. Having
three types of photopigment increases the number
of discriminations to approximately 1,000,000.
Thus, colour vision is a valuable part of the visual
system, and not a luxury that adds little to utility.
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2.1 Adaptation
To cope with the wide range of luminances to
which it might be exposed, from a very dark
night (10–6 cd/m2 means theoretically much
less than 0.1 lux*) to a sunlit beach (106 cd/m2
means theoretically more than 100,000 lux*),
the visual system changes its sensitivity
through a process called adaptation. Adapta-
tion is a continuous process involving three
distinct changes.
2.1.1 Change in Pupil Size
The iris constricts and dilates in response
to increased and decreased levels of retinal
illumination. The maximum change in retinal
illumination that can occur through pupil
changes is 16 to 1. As the visual system
can operate over a range of about
1,000,000,000,000 to 1, this indicates
that the pupil plays only a minor role in
the adaptation of the visual system.
2.1.2 Neural Adaptation
This is a fast (less than 200 ms) change in
sensitivity produced in the retina. Neural
processes account for virtually all the transi-
tory changes in sensitivity of the eye at
luminance values commonly encountered in
electrically lighted environments, i.e. below
luminances of about 600 cd/m2. The factsthat neural adaptation is fast, is operative at
moderate light levels, and is effective over a
luminance range with a maximum to minimum
ratio of 1000:1 explain why it is possible to
look around most lit interiors without being
conscious of being misadapted.
2.1.3 Photochemical Adaptation
The sensitivity of the eye to light is largely a
function of the percentage of unbleached
pigment in each photoreceptor. Under
conditions of steady retinal illumination, the
concentration of photopigment produced by
the competing processes of bleaching and
regeneration is in equilibrium. When the retinal
irradiance is changed, pigment is bleached
and regenerated so as to re-establish
equilibrium. Because the time required to
accomplish the photochemical reactions is of
the order of minutes, changes in the sensiti-
vity can lag behind the irradiance changes.
The cone photoreceptors adapt much more
rapidly than do the rod photoreceptors.
Exactly how long it takes to adapt to a
change in retinal illumination depends on the
magnitude of the change, the extent to which
it involves different photoreceptors and the
direction of the change. For changes in retinal
illumination of about 2–3 log units, neural
adaptation is sufficient so adaptation should
be complete in less than a second. For
larger changes photochemical adaptation is
necessary. If the change in retinal illumination
lies completely within the range of operationof the cone photoreceptors, a few minutes will
be sufficient for adaptation to occur. If the
change in retinal illumination covers from cone
photoreceptor operation to rod photoreceptor
* Conversion between cd/m 2 and Lux is indicative for understanding of the above
Figures and based on typical experienced situations.
2.0 Continuous Adjustments of the Visual System
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operation, tens of minutes may be necessary for
adaptation to be completed. As for the direction
of change, once the photochemical processes are
involved, changes to a higher retinal illuminance
can be achieved much more rapidly than changes
to a lower retinal illuminance.
When the visual system is not completely adapted to
the prevailing retinal illumination, its capabilities are
limited. This state of changing adaptation is called
transient adaptation. Transient adaptation is unlikely
to be noticeable in interiors in normal conditions but
can be significant where sudden changes from high
to low retinal illumination occur, such as on entering
a long road tunnel on a sunny day or in the event of
a power failure in a windowless building.
2.2 Photopic, Scotopic and Mesopic Vision
This process of adaptation can change the spectral
sensitivity of the visual system because at different
retinal illuminances, different combinations of retinal
photoreceptors are operating.
The three states of sensitivity are conventionally
identified as follows:
2.2.1 Photopic Vision
This occurs at luminances higher than approximately
3 cd/m2 (seeing colours will start at approx. 0.2 lux,
depending on intensity of colour, age of viewer, andadaption stage of eye)*. For these luminances, the
retinal response is dominated by the cone photore-
ceptors so both colour vision and fine resolution of
detail are available.
2.2.2 Scotopic Vision
This occurs at luminances less than approximately
0.001 cd/m2 (means approx. 0.02 lux)*. For these
luminances only the rod photoreceptors respond to
stimulation so colour is not perceived and the fovea
of the retina is blind.
2.2.3 Mesopic Vision
This is intermediate between the photopic and
scotopic states, i.e. between about 0.001 cd/m2 and
3 cd/m2 (means between approx. 0.02 lux and ap-
prox. 0.2 lux)*. In the mesopic state both cones and
rod photoreceptors are active. As luminance
declines through the mesopic region, the fovea,
which contains only cone photoreceptors, slowly
declines in absolute sensitivity without significant
change in spectral sensitivity, until vision fails
altogether as the scotopic state is reached. In the
periphery, the rod photoreceptors gradually come to
dominate the cone photoreceptors, resulting in
gradual deterioration in colour vision and resolution
and a shift in spectral sensitivity to shorter wave-
lengths. The relevance of the different types of vision
for lighting practice varies. Scotopic vision is largely
irrelevant. Any lighting installation worthy of the name
provides enough light to at least move the visual
system into the mesopic state. Most interior lighting
ensures the visual system is operating in the photo-
pic state. Current practice in exterior lighting ensures
the visual system is often operating in the mesopicstate.
All photometric quantities used by the lighting indu-
stry are based on the CIE Standard Photopic Obser-
* Conversion between cd/m2 and Lux is indicative for understanding of the above
Figures and based on typical experienced situations.
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ver, i.e. photopic vision. Therefore, it should
not come as a surprise when light sources
with different spectral content do not have the
same effects when used to provide mesopic
vision despite being matched photometrically.
2.3 Accommodation
There are three optical components involved
in the ability of the eye to focus an image on
the retina, the thin film of tears on the cornea,
the cornea itself, and the crystalline lens. The
ciliary muscles have the ability to change the
curvature of the lens and thereby adjust the
power of the eye’s optical system in response
to changing target distances; this change in
optical power is called accommodation.
Accommodation is a continuous process,
even when fixating, and is always a response
to an image of the target located on or near
the fovea rather than in the periphery of the
retina. Any condition that handicaps the
fovea, such as a low light level, will adversely
affect accommodative ability. As adaptation
luminance decreases below 0.03 cd/m2
(means approx. 0,6 lux)*. the range of
accommodation narrows so that it becomes
increasingly difficult to focus objects near and
far from the observer. When there is no stimu-
lus for accommodation, as in completedarkness or in a uniform luminance visual
field such as occurs in a dense fog, the visual
system typically accommodates to approxi-
mately 70 cm away.
2.4 Capabilities of the Visual System
The human visual system has a limited range
of capabilities. These limits, conventionally
called thresholds, are mainly of interest for
determining what will not be seen rather than
how well something will be seen. For the
threshold measurements shown here the
observers were all fully adapted, the target
was presented on a field of uniform luminance
and the observers’ accommodation was
correct.
2.5 Threshold Measures
The threshold capabilities of the human visual
system can conveniently be divided into spa-
tial, temporal and colour classes.
2.6 Factors Determining
Visual Threshold
There are three distinct groups of factors that
influence the measured threshold; visual sy-
stem factors, target characteristics and the
background against which the target appears.
Important visual system factors are the lumi-
nance to which the visual system is adapted,
the position in the visual field where the target
appears, and the extent to which the eye is
correctly accommodated. As a general rule,
the lower the luminance to which the visual
system is adapted, the further the target isfrom the fovea, and the more mismatched the
accommodation of the eye is to the viewing
distance, the larger will be the threshold
values.
** Conversion between cd/m 2 and Lux is indicative for understanding of the above
Figures and based on typical experienced situations.
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Important target characteristics are the size and
luminance contrast of the target and the colour
difference between the target and the immediate
background. All three factors interact. For example,
the visual acuity for a low luminance contrast,
achromatic target will be much larger than for a high
luminance contrast, achromatic target when expres-
sed as minutes of arc but will be reduced if there is a
colour difference between the target and the back-
ground.
As for the effect of the background against which
the target appears, the important factors are the
area, luminance and colour of the background. As
a general rule, the larger the area around the target
that is of a similar luminance to the target and
neutral in colour, the smaller will be the threshold
measure.
2.7 Colour Threshold
Figure 18 shows the MacAdam ellipses, ten times
enlarged, plotted in the CIE chromaticity diagram.
Each ellipse represents the standard deviation in the
chromaticity coordinates for colour matches made
between the two parts of a 2–degree bipartite field
with the reference field having the chromaticity of the
centre point of the ellipse. The lighting industry uses
four-step MacAdam ellipses as its tolerance limits for
quality control in lamp manufacture.
Figure 18
The CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram with the MacAdam Ellipses displayed, multiplied by ten times.
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2.8 Visual Discomfort
There are four situations in which lighting installations may cause visual discomfort.
They are:
• Visual task difficulty, in which the lighting makes the required information
difficult to extract (Figure 19).
Figure 19
Visual discomfort – the beach in front is not visible, it is not possible to walk safe.
• Under- or over-stimulation, in which the visual environment is such that it
presents too little or too much information (Figure 20, 21).
Figure 20
Under-stimulation – walkways are not recognisable.
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Figure 21
Over-stimulation – glare, reflection, decorative lights, etc. – the check of the contents is sometimes required.
• Distraction, in which the observer’s attention is drawn to objects that do not contain the information
being sought (Figure 22).
Figure 22
The floor mounted lights are very bright, the parking and surrounding area is too dark to feel safe, or to recognise parking bays,
pedestrians, cars or other objects.
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• Perceptual confusion, in which the pattern of illuminance can be confused with
the pattern of reflectance in the visual environment (Figure 23).
Figure 23
Confusion through different light sources, different designs, different light distribution and glare.
The occurrence of visual discomfort manifest it-
self through eye strain like: Soreness, redness,
blurring vision, tiredness, headaches, different
physical aches and pains. The most common
aspects of lighting that cause visual discomfort
are insufficient light, too much variation in illumi-
nance between and across working surfaces,
glare, veiling reflections, shadows and flicker.
2.9 Illuminance Uniformity
Lighting recommendations almost always
include an illuminance uniformity criterion.
These criteria can be direct or indirect.
Direct criteria are ratios of illuminance,
typically minimum/maximum or minimum/
average measured on the relevant area.
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2.10 Glare
The presence of a luminance much above the
average for the visual field will produce discomfort
and is called glare. There are fife forms of glare
associated with lighting installations.
2.10.1 Saturation Glare
This occurs when a large part of the visual field is at
a very high luminance for a long time, e.g. sunlight
on snow. Saturation glare is painful and the beha-
vioural response is to shield the eyes in some way,
e.g. by wearing low transmittance glasses.
2.10.2 Adaptation Glare
This occurs when the visual system is exposed to
a sudden, large increase in luminance of the whole
visual field, e.g. on exiting a long road tunnel into
bright sunlight. The perception of glare is due to the
visual system being oversensitive. Adaptation glare is
temporary in that visual adaptation will soon adjust
the visual sensitivity to the new conditions. It can
be avoided by providing a transition zone of interme-
diate luminance, the transition zone being large
enough to allow the visual system time to adapt to
the new conditions.
2.10.3 Disability Glare (mainly outdoor)
This occurs when high luminance is present in a low
luminance scene. Light from the source is scattered
in the eye thereby forming a luminous veil over the
retinal image of parts of the scene adjacent to the
source. This luminous veil reduces the luminance
contrast and desaturates any colours in the retinal
image of the adjacent parts of the scene. The magni-
tude of disability glare is quantified by the equivalent
veiling luminance. See Figure 24.
Figure 24
Disability glare makes the area darker as it is.
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For glare sources within an angular range of 0.1 to 30 degrees, this is given by the equation:
where: = equivalent veiling luminance (cd/m2 )
= illuminance at the eye from the “ nth” glare source (lx)
= angle of the “nth” glare source from the line of sight (degrees)
The effect of the equivalent veiling luminance on the luminance contrast of an object can be estimated
by adding it to the luminance of both the object and the immediate background. Disability glare can be
associated with point sources and large area sources. The disability glare formulae can be applied directlyto point sources but for large area sources, the area has to be broken into small elements and the overall
effect integrated. Disability glare from point sources is experienced most frequently on the roads at night
when facing an oncoming vehicle. Disability glare from an extended source can occur when looking at
an object on a wall adjacent to a window. The sky seen through the window is the glare source.
LV = 10 2
n
n E
LV
E n
n
Figure 25
Viewer in connection with luminaire producing glare.
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UGR
Lb
2.10.4 Discomfort Glare (indoor only)
This occurs when people complain about visual discomfort in the presence of bright light sources, luminaires
or windows. Discomfort glare is quantified by the Unified Glare Rating (UGR), derived from the equation:
where: = Unified Glare Rating
= background luminance (cd/m2), excluding the contribution of the glare sources.
This is numerically equal to the indirect illuminance on the plane of the observer’s eye,
divided by
= luminance of the luminaire (cd/m2)
= solid angle subtended at the observer’s eye by the luminaire (steradians)
= Guth position index
UGR values typically range from 13 to 30, the lower the value, the less the discomfort. Luminaire manufacturers
publish UGR values for regular arrays of their luminaires in a number of standardised rooms. This enables
comparisons to be made between different luminaire types. When making such a comparison the smallest
meaningful difference is one whole unit in UGR.
UGR = 8 log 10 b L
25.0
2
2
s L
Ls
p
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2.10.5 Overhead Glare
A high luminance immediately overhead can
also cause discomfort, even when though it
cannot be seen when looking directly ahead.
The cause of the discomfort is distraction,
caused by high luminance reflections from
eyebrows, glasses and facial features. The
UGR system can be applied to overhead glare
to predict the magnitude of discomfort.
2.11 Veiling Reflections
Veiling reflections are luminous reflections
from specular surfaces that physically change
the contrast of the visual task and therefore
change the stimulus presented to the visual
system (Figure 26). The two factors that deter-
mine the nature and magnitude of veiling
reflections are the specularity of the surface
being viewed and the geometry between the
observer, the surface, and any sources of high
luminance. If the surface is a perfectly diffuse
reflector, no veiling reflections can occur. If the
surface has a specular reflection component,
veiling reflections can occur.
Figure 26
A glossy dry street, with veiling reflections, caused by floodlights.
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Figure 27
Shadows hiding light from above, safe walking is made more difficult.
Although veiling reflections are usually considered a negative outcome of lighting that can cause discomfort, they
can be used positively, but when they are, they are conventionally called highlights. Physically, veiling reflections
and highlights are the same thing. Display lighting of specularly reflecting objects is all about producing highlights
to reveal the specular nature of the surface.
2.12 Shadows
Although shadows can cause visual discomfort, it should be noted that they are also an essential element in
revealing the form of three-dimensional objects. Techniques of display lighting are based around the idea of
creating highlights and shadows to change the perceived form of the object being displayed. Many lighting
designers insist that the distribution of shadows is as important as the distribution of light in achieving an
attractive and meaningful visual environment.
The number and nature of shadows produced by a lighting installation depends on the size and number of light
sources and the extent to which light is inter-reflected around the space. The strongest shadow is produced
from a single point source in a black background. Weak shadows are produced when the light sources are large
in area and the degree of inter-reflection is high. See Figures 27, 28.
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Figure 28
Shadows through trees does not promote feeling of safety.
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Chapter C
Technology
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T e c h n o l o g y
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1.0 Light Sources / Production of Radiation
1.1 Incandescence
When an object is heated to a high temperature,
the atoms within the material become excited by the
many interactions between them and energy is
radiated in a continuous spectrum. The exact nature
of the radiation produced by an idealised radiator,
known as a black body, was studied by Max Planck
at the end of the 19th century.
The values of the spectral radiant exitance are
plotted for different temperatures in Figure 29.
Figure 29
Spectral power distribution of radiation according to Planck’s Law.
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1.2 Electric Discharges
An electric discharge is an electric current that flows through a gas. These discharges generally
take a high voltage to initiate but once started they can carry considerable currents with very little
voltage drop. A good example of such a discharge is the natural phenomenon of lightning. In an
electric discharge the electric current is carried by electrons that have been removed from the gas
atoms and ions that are gas atoms with one or more electrons removed. This is shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30
Electric discharge through an ionised gas.
The negatively charged electrons tend to drift towards the anode whilst the positively charged ions
drift towards the cathode. As the ions are several thousand times heavier than the electrons they
tend to be less mobile.
1.3 Electroluminescence
Some materials will convert electricity into
light directly. Two major physical processes
account for the majority of the various electro-
luminescence phenomena. They are the re-
combination of current carriers in certain
semi-conductors and via the excitation of
luminescent centres in certain phosphors.
Pure semi-conductors have intrinsically a very
high resistivity and it is only when they are
doped with other materials that it is possible
to pass electricity through them. Some
materials induce conduction by negatively
charged carriers (n-type) and some by positi-
vely charged carriers (p-type). When charged
carriers of different types recombine the
energy released may be emitted as light.
See Chapter 2.10 and 2.11 of this part for
more information on light emitting diodes.
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1.4 Luminescence
The term luminescence is sometimes also known as
fluorescence, or photoluminescence. The process
involves a material absorbing radiation and then
reemitting light. The energy may be re-radiated
almost immediately or it may take several hours.
There are a number of ways that the material can
hold the energy and this impacts on length of the
time the energy is stored and the amount of energy
that is re-radiated.
In Figure 31 image (a) represents simple lumines-
cence where the material absorbs the energy and
the next transition is to re-radiate the energy. In (b)
some of energy in the material is lost via another
process before re-radiation takes place. In (c) some
of the energy is dissipated and the material falls into
a state where it cannot re-radiate until it is restored
to the higher energy level. This process can lock
energy into materials and is the basis of some ‘glow
in the dark’ materials.
Figure 31
Simplified representations of energy level schemes
in luminescence.
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Figure 34
Standard typical incandescent lamps (230V) with E40, E27, E14, S14s socket.
The filament design is critical in setting up the
operating characteristics of the lamp. The length of
the filament wire is largely determined by the supply
voltage, whilst the thickness of the wire is deter-
mined by the operating current of the lamp.
The filament is coiled to reduce heat convection to
the filling gas. There are various forms of filament
coiling with the coiled coil being one of the mostcommon ones (see Figure 35).
Figure 35
A coiled coil filament (enlarged).
E 27 E 14 E 27 E 27 E 40
E 14s
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2.2 Tungsten Halogen
The applications of conventional incandescent lamps are limited by their physical size and
luminous efficiency. Raising the filament temperature to increase the luminous output has the effect
of increasing the rate of blackening of the glass envelope, blackening which is a result of the
evaporation of tungsten from the filament. By adding a halogen to the gas fill a chemical transport
cycle involving the reaction of tungsten reduces the amount of blackening of the envelope.
It is then possible to reduce the size of lamp, increase the pressure of the filling gas and thereby
limit the loss of the tungsten from the filament. See Figures 36, 37, 38, 39.
Figure 36
A representation of the tungsten halogen cycle.
The chemistry of the tungsten halogen cycle is highly complex. However the key stages are:
• The halogen combining with the tungsten on the wall of the lamp (zone 3).• The tungsten halide vapour mixing with the fill gas of the lamp (zone 2).
• The tungsten halide dissociating close to the filament of the lamp, leaving the
halogen free to migrate though the fill gas to the lamp wall again and the tungsten being
deposited on the filament (zone 1).
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To enable an efficient cycle it is necessary for the wall of the lamp to run at a temperature above 250°C;
this means that the bulb has to be made from quartz or hard glass.
Tungsten halogen lamps are more efficient and have longer lives compared with standard tungsten lamps.
Also they are more compact than standard lamps. However they are more expensive as it is hard to make
the quartz outer bulb and it is harder to introduce the gas fill into the lamp due to the high filling pressure.
Figure 37
Typical spectral light distribution of tungsten halogen lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
GY9.5 2-pin G22 G22
R7s
Figure 38
Professional typical Tungsten Halogen lamps (220V/240V) with R7s, GY9.5, 2-pin (heat-sink), G22 socket – professional version.
Glass cylinder should not be touched, this will shorten the lifetime dramatically!
Daylight Halogen
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GY6.35 E27 E27 E27
E14
Figure 39
Common use typical Tungsten Halogen lamps (220V/240V) with E14, GU10, E27 socket – glass cylinder is protected by
outer bulb; Tungsten Halogen low voltage (12V) lamp GY6.35. Glass cylinder should not be touched, this may shorten the
lifetime dramatically, as required in the case of the GY 6.35 base capsule lamp NB!
E27
GU10 GU10
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2.3 Fluorescent
Fluorescent lamps are the most commonly used
form of discharge lamp. They come in a variety of
shapes and sizes and are available in a wide range
of colours. The original form of the lamp was a long
straight tube. New forms of the lamp known as
compact fluorescent lamps have been developed
where the lamp tube is bent or folded to produce a
smaller light source. Fluorescent lamps work by
generating ultraviolet radiation in a discharge in low
pressure mercury vapour. This is then converted
into visible light by a phosphor coating on the inside
of the tube. The electric current supplied to the
discharge has to be limited by control gear to
maintain stable operation of the lamp.
See Figures 40, 41, 42.
Traditionally this is done with magnetic chokes
but most manufacturers now use high frequency
electronic control gear. Electronic control gear has
a number of advantages:
• Driving the lamp at high frequency maintains the ions in the gas and thus
makes the lamp run more efficiently.
• It reduces the amount of flicker in the lamp and, finally, electronic gear
consumes less power than a magnetic choke.
Figure 40
Working principle of a fluorescent lamp.
Figure 41
Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure mercury lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Daylight Fluorescent (white)
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Colour appearance Triphosphor colour
rendering group 1b
Multi-phosphor colour
rendering group 1a
Northlight (6000–8000 K) Colour 865
Lumilux Plus ECO 860
Luxline Plus ECO 860
Polylux XLR 860
Skywhite 880
Colour 965
Daylight (5000–5500 K) Colour 950
Lumilux De Luxe 950
Cool White (4000 K) Colour 840
Lumilux Plus ECO 840Luxline Plus ECO 840
Polylux XLR 840
Colour 940
Lumilux De Luxe 940Polylux Deluxe 940
Intermediate White
(3500 K)
Colour 835
Lumilux Plus ECO 835
Luxline Plus ECO 835
Polylux XLR 835
Warm White
(3000 K)
Colour 830
Lumilux Plus ECO 830
Luxline Plus ECO 830
Polylux XLR 830
Colour 930
Lumilux De Luxe 930
Polylux Deluxe 930
Very Warm (2700 K) Colour 827
Lumilux Plus ECO 827
Luxline Plus ECO 827
Polylux XLR 827
Table 3
Colours of fluorescent lamps (code may vary depending on manufacturer):
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NOTE 1 The codes for same lamps may vary, depending on manufacturer and type of lamp e.g. for T5-54W
(samples of different company codes for 4000K colour of light):
• FQ 54W/840 HO for indoor 30° - 40°C / RA 80…89
• FQ 54W/840 HO constant for indoor 5° - 70°C / RA 80…89
• FQ 54W/940 HO RA >90
• FQ 54W/840 SPS protected against splinters / RA 80…89
• SUPREME T5 54W/840 HO long-life RA 85
• SUPREME T5 54W/840 LL HO Thermo for outdoor and indoor -15° - +20°C RA 85
• SUPREME PROTECTOR T5 54W/840 LL HO protected against splinters RA 85
• SUPREME REFLECTOR T5 54W/840 LL HO including reflector RA 85
• ULTIMATE SIGNETTE T5 54W/840 LL HO for signs RA 85
• T5 54W 4000 DFH RA >85
• LT 54W T5-HQ/840 RA 1B(>85)
• LT-XL 54W T5-HQ/840 extended life RA 1B(>85)
• LT-SPT 54W T5-HQ/840 RA 1B(>85) protected against splinters
• T5 FHO /840 RA 1B(>85)
• NL-T5 54W/840/G5 RA80…89
• F54W/T5/840/LL RA 85
• F54W/T5/840/LL/BULK RA 85
• FHO 54W/840 RA 1B
• MASTER TL5 HO Super 80 54W/840 RA 85
• etc.
In general compact fluorescent lamps are less efficient than linear lamps, but because of their small size,
they are suited to many applications where a smaller lamp is needed. Some of the lamps have the control gear
built into them and can be retro-fitted into GLS lamp sockets.
Additionally fluorescent tube and CFL lamps are available in different colours such as
(depending on power of lamp and manufacturer availability may vary):• T8/26mm red, yellow, green, blue
• T5/16mm red, green, blue
• CFL colours available depending on manufacturers range
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E27 E27 2G11 G5
GR8
Figure 42
Common use fluorescent lamps, GR8, G23, G24q-2, G24d-1, E27, 2G11, G13, G5, etc.
G13
G23 G24q-2
2.4 High Pressure Mercury (also HID,
Mercury Vapour, MVP Technique)
In this type of lamp a discharge takes place in
a quartz discharge tube containing mercury
vapour at high pressure (2 to 10 atmosphe-
res). Some of the radiation from the discharge
occurs in the visible spectrum but part of the
radiation is emitted in the ultraviolet. The outer
bulb of the lamp is coated internally with a
phosphor that converts this UV radiation into
light. The general construction of the lamp is
shown in Figure 43 below.
The operation of the lamp is quite complex
and needs to be considered in three
phases:
• Ignition
• Run-up
• Stable running.
G24d-1
E27
T e c h n o l o g y
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Figure 43
Construction of a high pressure mercury lamp.
Figure 44
Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure mercury lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Figure 45
Typical high pressure mercury lamp E27 socket.
E27
The performance of these lamps is not considered to be very good today. Their efficacy is around 40 lumens
per watt. Their CIE general colour rendering index is between 40 and 50 and they can have a very long life but,
because of poor lumen maintenance and heat issues in hot environment, it is generally recommended that
the lamps are changed after 6,000 to 10,000 (from local experience) hours of use. Because of their poor
performance and the fact that better lamp types are available for almost all of the applications these lamps
are being phased out. See Figures 43, 44, 45.
Daylight High Pressure Mercury (white)
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2.5 Metal Halide
Metal halide lamps were developed as a way
of improving the performance of high pressure
mercury lamps in terms of their colour appea-
rance and light output. They work by introdu-
cing the salts of other metals into the arc
tube. As each element has its own characteri-
stic spectral line, by adding a mixture of diffe-
rent elements into the discharge it is possible
to create a light source with good colour ren-
dering in a variety of colours.
There are a lot of problems with introducing
new elements into a discharge. First, the
element must be volatile and secondly it
should not chemically attack the arc tube.
To avoid these problems it has become
common practice to introduce metals into the
lamp as metal halides.
Metal halides are generally more volatile than
the metals themselves and the metal halides
do not attack the arc tube. The metal halide
compound breaks up into the metal and
halogen ions at the high temperatures in the
centre of the discharge and reforms at the
lower temperatures near the wall of the tube.
Many different combinations of elements
have been used to make metal halide lamps.
Depending on combinations of elements to-
gether with the spectral output they create the
light output and the colour of light will change.
See Figures 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51.
Figure 46
Construction of metal halide lamp E27.
Figure 47
Arc chamber detail.
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Figure 48
Typical spectral light distribution of metal halide lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
E27 E40 E40G8.5
Fc2
RX7s
G12
Figure 49
Common used metal halide lamps; Fc2, RX7s (green light), G8.5, G12 (green light), E27, E40.
Daylight Metal Halide (white)
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E27
NOTE1 Some manufacturers provide additional metal halide lamps with light colours:
• Orange
• Red
• Magenta
• Green
• Blue
NOTE 2 Depending on manufacturers and colours, power; 70W(RX7s, G12), 150W(G12, E26,
RX7s-24; E40), 175W(E26), 250W(E39, E40), 400W(E39, E40), 1000W(E39) and socket may vary.
NOTE 3 All high pressure mercury vapour and metal halide lamps are to be used
ONLY inside enclosed luminaires! All these lamps are emitting high levels of UV-radiation!
Figure 50
Long life (double arc) metal halide lamp E27 details.
G12
Figure 51
Typical ling life MH G12 system.
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2.6 Low Pressure Sodium
Low pressure sodium lamps are similar in many ways
to fluorescent lamps as they are both low pressure
discharge lamps. All the differences in characteristics
stem from the use of sodium in the discharge tube
rather than mercury. The key differences are the need
to run the lamp hotter to maintain the vapour pres-
sure of sodium, the need to contain the very reactive
sodium metal; and the fact that sodium emits its
light in the visible rather than the UV frequency
range, so there is no need for a phosphor layer.
There used to be a range of designs for sodium
lamps but currently the U-tube lamp is by far the
most common type. A typical lamp of this design
is shown in Figure 52.
Figure 52
Typical construction of a low pressure sodium lamp.
Figure 53
Typical spectral light distribution of low pressure sodium lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Daylight Low Pressure Sodium (yellow)
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Figure 54
Typical low pressure sodium lamp, socket BY22d.
BY22d
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2.7 High Pressure Sodium
The high pressure sodium lamp generates light in a discharge through sodium vapour at high pressure.
As the vapour pressure of sodium in a lamp rises the spectrum at first broadens and then it splits in two
with a gap appearing at about 586 nm. Figure 56 shows the spectrum of a high pressure sodium lamp.
As the vapour pressure rises the colour rendering of the lamp increases. However, this is at the expense of
efficacy in terms of lumens per watt. Figure 55 shows the construction of a high pressure sodium lamp.
Figure 56
Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure sodium lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Figure 55
Typical high pressure sodium E27 system construction.
Figure 57
Typical high pressure sodium lamp E27 socket.
E27 E27
Daylight High Pressure Sodium (orange-yellow)
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Figure 58
Typical long life high pressure sodium lamp (double burner), E27, (opaque) E40.
E27 E40
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2.8 Induction
Induction lamps are essentially gas discharge lamps that do not have electrodes. Instead the electric field in the
lamp is induced by an induction coil that is operating at high frequency. The only types of induction lamps that are
currently in production are based on fluorescent lamp technology. See Figures 59, 60, 61.
Figure 60
Typical spectral light distribution of high pressure sodium lamp in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Figure 59
Typical construction of a cavity type induction lamp.
Daylight Fluorescent (white)
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The lamp consists of a glass bottle with a cavity in it into which the induction coil is placed.
The glass vessel has a gas filling similar to a conventional fluorescent lamp and the phosphor
coating on the inside of the lamp is also similar.
The induction coil in the centre of the lamp is fed from a high frequency generator.
An alternative architecture for this type of lamp is to have the induction coil wrapped around
a toroidal lamp. Figure 61 shows a lamp of this type.
Induction lamps have many of the same
properties as fluorescent lamps. They are,
however, slightly less efficient. The big advan-
tage with this type of lamp is its long life. This
is because here are no electrodes to fail and
the inside of the lamp does not get coated
with material that has been vaporised away
from the electrodes. A number of lamps of
this type have rated lives of 100,000 hours.
These lamps are more expensive than con-
ventional fluorescent lamps so they tend to be
used in places where it is difficult to change
lamps and thus long life is an important
requirement.
Figure 61 (inbuilt in a custom luminaire)
Standard induction lamp, depending on manufacturer shape, size and socket may vary – External coil type induction lamp.
NOTE 1 Induction type lamps cannot be used if exact directional focused light is required,
due to the large physical size of the system.
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Figure 62, 63
External coil type induction lamp in use, day – night.
Figure 64
External coil type induction lamp in use, detail.
Note 2 The lamp lifetime is to be seen in relation of the lumen depreciation. In this case (Figures 62, 63, 64)
the maintenance (exchangeability) is the more important problem as to achieve a certain light level
over all the life time.
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2.9 Conventional (non-LED) Luminaire Requirements
Within the luminaire; the light source shall be of standard proven lamp type, energy efficient with minimum lamp
efficacy as per handbook.
The lamps shall be from reputed manufacturers with standard lamp base type configuration and shall provide
class A1, A2 or A3 high efficiency (HF) electronic control gear, where available. Conventional wire-wound control
gears are only acceptable if no HF-control gear is available or for any application which is liable to extreme high
temperatures, in excess of degree Celsius ambient operation, as per DMA specifications.
NOTE 1 Acceptable lamp types include compact and linear fluorescent (tri-phosphor only), metal halide,
induction, plasma, LED and efficient electro-luminescent technologies.
NOTE 2 The CRI of above lamp types must be as per DMA specifications.
NOTE 3 Lamps and gear shall be replaceable/removable on site without any possible risk to maintaining the
luminaire photometry, the IP rating, causing any degradation and without the need to demount the luminaire for
sake of future upgrading/maintenance requirements.
NOTE 4 Whole luminaire efficacy; the optimum efficiency of the luminaire for example shall be confirmed not
below > 50llm/cct/W (@min50°C, min95%RH). Which is given as a total luminaire design (delivered) lumen output
(llm) over total luminaire circuit watts (cctW) at minimum 50°C – 60°C operating outside ambient temperature and
minimum 95% relative humidity. All parameters to be seen as examples, the relevant DMA specifications will prevail.
NOTE 5 Luminaire maximum % direct up-light shall be as per CIE 126-1997/CIE 150:2003 or less and as
required/allowed for the project for the ESTIDAMA application as applicable.
NOTE 6 The Figures given in the datasheets must provide correct lumen output for minimum 50°C-60°C
ambient temperature operation of the luminaire. Figures showing standard testing with other ambient
temperatures or laboratory conditions are not acceptable, for more information please refer to DMA specifications.
NOTE 7 The luminaire shall be fitted with optical refractors, diffusers and/or reflectors. Different optics shall be
used to suit exactly the application. Independent accredited laboratory photometric test reports shall be available
including luminaire photometric files which can be used in DIALux or Relux lighting project calculation programs.
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2.10 Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
The basic operating principle behind light emitting diodes (LEDs) is covered in Chapter 1.3 of this part.
LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes, colours and power ratings and development is proceeding
at a rapid rate. Whilst LEDs come in a variety of styles, Figure 65 illustrates two common forms.
2.10.1 The Main Components of LEDs
The chip of semiconductor material in the centre of the lamp may be made of a wide variety of materials.
Differing materials result in a different colour of light being produced. Table 4 lists some of the more
commonly used materials.
Table 4
Materials used in LEDs and the radiation produced:
The chip is mounted onto one of the lead in
wires. In high power LEDs the mounting isdesigned in such a way as to conduct heat
away from the chip. The other lead wire is
bonded to the chip generally connecting to
a very small area close to the actual semicon-
ductor junction. The whole device is thenpotted in a plastic resin, usually epoxy.
See Figures 65, 66, 67.
Materials Radiation
Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Red and infrared
Aluminum gallium phosphide (AlGaP) Green
Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Orange-red, orange, yellow, and green
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
Gallium phosphide (GaP) Red, yellow and green
Gallium nitride (GaN) Green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Near ultraviolet, green, bluish-green and blue
Zinc selenide (ZnSe) Blue
Aluminum nitride (AlN),
Aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Near to far ultraviolet
Diamond (C) Ultraviolet
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Figure 65
The construction of low power (left) and high power (right) LEDs.
Figure 66
Typical spectral light distribution of LED in comparison to daylight spectrum.
Daylight LED (white)
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E27 E27 E27E14
LED “engine” (COB*)single LED + lens
E14
Figure 67
Samples of common use LED lamps and LED engines (professional use). Depending on manufacturer power, shape,
size, type, colour and features may vary, some of the require ‘active cooling’ with additional fan or osculating membranes mounted
on the heat-sink (not recommended, especially in exterior use).
LED “engine”
with active
cooling (COB*)
NOTE 1 The LED-Engines are now available in different shapes: round, array and special designed ones
to fit special applications.
LEDs generally have a long life and may last up to 100,000 hours. LEDs generally emit light in a relatively
narrow band so that most LEDs produce light that is a saturated colour. It is possible to make white LEDs
by using a blue or ultraviolet chip and putting a phosphor coat around it. White can also be achieved by
combining red, green and blue chips through colour mixing.
LEDs have a lot of applications associated with signals and signage. The use of saturated colours in these
applications is a real bonus. This coupled with the ease of producing light in a number of small units means
that LEDs are replacing a number of other light sources in these areas. It is also possible to make lamps
that are a cluster of LEDs of different colours. By controlling the outputs of the different colours it is possible
to make a lamp that can produce light in a wide variety of colours. At the time of writing, white LEDs are
making fast technical progress but have not yet proved to cover all applications in the area of general
lighting. In some cases the common lamps are still achieving better results.
* Footnote: COB - C hip O n Board type
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NOTE 1 Within the luminaire:
The light source shall be high brightness white light emitting Diodes (LED) with individual minimum efficacy as
per current DMA specifications arranged modularly (where possible) to provide the required light output.
All lumen Figures shall be deliver (hot) lumens and all luminaires must have certification provided to show
compliance with listed relevant standards and technical requirements of DMA or clients specifications.
NOTE 2 LEDs shall be from a reputed manufacturer of LEDs with proven past performance in accordance with
ANSI/NEMA/ANSLG C78.377-2008 (America National Standard for Chromaticity of Solid State Lighting
Products) or with a similar approved international standard.
NOTE 3 LEDs shall only be from MacAdam Ellipse Step-2, Step-3 or maximum Step-5 Bins. Other binning is not
acceptable. The CRI must be as per current DMA specifications.
NOTE 4 The LEDs shall be removable/replaceable on site by modular means, wherever possible – depending on
type and use of the luminaire. Such replacement must be possible without any risk to maintaining luminaire
photometry, the IP rating and without the need to demount the luminaire for sake of future up-grading or
maintenance requirements.
NOTE 5 Whole luminaire efficacy; the optimum efficiency of the luminaire shall be > 50llm/cctW (@min.50°C,
min95%RH). Which is given as a total luminaire design (deliver) lumen output (llm) over total luminaire circuit
watts (cctW) at minimum 50°C-60°C operating outside ambient temperature and minimum 95% relative
humidity, as per latest DMA specifications.
NOTE 6 Luminaire maximum % direct up-light shall be as per CIE 126-1997 or less and as required/allowed for
the project for the ESTIDAMA application as applicable.
2.10.2 LED Luminaire Requirements
(As per DMA Lighting Specifications)
As a part of the overall sustainable lighting strategy for Abu Dhabi, the DMA/DoT requires quality energy efficient
technologies and solutions which are LED or equivalent to be used on roads and put forward wherever possible
elsewhere in the public realm. Where specific tasks may indeed be proved better performed by an energy-efficient
lighting technology other than LED then either the relevant municipality or DoT will accept their inclusion as an
option in the design proposals and review the technical details before taking the final decision.
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NOTE 7 The Figures given in the datasheets must provide correct lumen output for a minimum
50°C-60°C ambient temperature operation of the luminaire. Figures showing standard testing with
other ambient temperatures or laboratory conditions are not acceptable, as per latest DMA
specifications.
NOTE 8 The luminaire shall be fitted with optical refractors, diffusers and/or reflectors. Different
optics shall be used to suit exactly the application. Independent laboratory photometric test reports
shall be available including luminaire photometric files used in DIALux or Relux lighting calculation
programs. For LED luminaires or LED components used within conventional luminaires, the testing
should conform to IESNA LM-79-08 standards or CIE equivalent tests. The manufacturer must
supply light distribution files as it might be required for the client’s specific approval.
NOTE 9 The LED modules shall be mounted on heavy duty heat sinks to ensure excellent heat
dissipation. The design of the heat sinks shall be such that there is a direct thermal path from the
LED junctions to the atmosphere thus providing a thermal transfer effect throughout the lifetime of
the luminaire. Active cooling through fans is not acceptable without matter of the task.
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2.11 Electroluminescence
Electroluminescence, including OLED, is the result
of radiative recombination of electrons and holes in
a material, usually a semiconductor. The excited
electrons release their energy as photons - light.
Prior to recombination, electrons and holes may
be separated either by doping the material to form
a p-n junction (in semiconductor electroluminescent
devices such as light-emitting diodes) or through
excitation by impact of high-energy electrons
accelerated by a strong electric field (as with the
phosphors in electroluminescent displays).
Electroluminescent devices are fabricated using
either organic (called OLED) or inorganic electrolumi-
nescent materials. The active materials are generally
semiconductors of wide enough bandwidth to allow
exit of the light. The most typical inorganic thin-film
EL (TFEL) is ZnS:Mn with yellow-orange emission.
Depending on the task and colour of light required
other materials could be used.
The most common electroluminescent (EL) devices
are composed of either powder (primarily used in
lighting applications) or thin films (for information
displays.) The basic principles of electroluminescent
(EL) light sources are discussed in Chapter 1.3 of
this part.
Generally the light sources are made up as
panels with a construction similar to that shown
in Figure 68.
Figure 68
A section through an electroluminescent panel.
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Figure 69
System section through OLED (organicLED) module.
Figure 70
An electroluminescent nightlight in operation
uses 0.08W at 230V, lit diameter 59mm.
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The EL panel is made up of the following components:
• The lower conductor carries one side of the electrical supply into the light source.In older types of panel this conductor may have been a sheet of metal, but in the newer flexible panels
it is generally some type of foil.
• The phosphor layer contains the phosphor used to generate the light together with a medium,
usually some form of plastic resin, used to keep the grains of phosphor apart from one another.
• The top conductor is made of a transparent material that conducts electricity to the top surface
of the phosphor layer.
• The top layer of the device is a transparent medium. In older devices this layer is usually made of glass,
but in more modern units it is likely to be a flexible transparent film.
EL panels are not a particularly efficient light source. Typically they have efficacies of a few lumens per watt.
The light output of an EL panel is not that great, typically less than 300 lumens per square metre.
There are many applications for EL panels as it is relatively easy to cut them to shape and size so they can
be used for signage and to backlight displays in electronic equipment.
Figure 71
Spectrum of a blue/green electroluminescent light source (similar to the one seen in the above image).
Peak wavelength is at 492 nm (blue/green) in comparison with daylight.
Daylight OLED
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2.12 Plasma Lamp
Plasma lamps are a type of gas discharge lamp
energized by radio frequency (RF) power.
High-efficiency plasma (HEP) lamps have been
introduced to the general lighting market.
Plasma lamps with an internal phosphor
coating are called external electrode fluorescent
lamps (EEFL); these external electrodes or
terminal conductors which provide modern
plasma lamps are a family of light sources that
generate light by exciting plasma inside a
closed transparent burner or bulb using radio
frequency (RF) power. Typically, such lamps use
a noble gas or a mixture of these gases and
additional materials such as metal halides,
sodium, mercury or sulfur. In modern plasma
lamps, a waveguide is used to constrain and
focus the electrical field into the plasma.
In operation, the gas is ionized, and free elec-
trons, accelerated by the electrical field, collide
with gas and metal atoms. Some atomic elec-
trons circling around the gas and metal atoms
are excited by these collisions, bringing them to
a higher energy state. When the electron falls
back to its original state, it emits a photon,
resulting in visible light or ultraviolet radiation,
depending on the fill materials.
Figure 72
Inside the back of the lamp, a diffuse yet highly reflective material is used to reflect all of this light to the forward direction
in a lambertian pattern. The colour of the light is tailored by the fill chemistry inside the lamp to provide a naturally white
light with good colour rendering.
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Function; short-cut description:
Step 1
An RF circuit is established by connecting an RF power amplifier to a ceramic resonator known as the ‘puck’.
In the centre of the puck is a sealed quartz lamp that contains metal halide materials and other gases.
Step 2
The puck, driven by the power amplifier, creates a standing wave confined within its walls. The electric field is
strongest at the centre of the lamp, which causes ionization of the gases, creating a glow.
Step 3
The ionized gas in turn heats up and evaporates the metal halide materials forming an intense plasma column
within the lamp. This plasma column is cantered within the quartz envelope and radiates light very efficiently.
In essence plasma lighting consists of a discharge lamp without electrodes, where the power is transferred from
outside the lamp enclosure via high frequency electromagnetic radiation. It is a lighting technique that has been
around in different forms for many years.
The first commercial plasma lamp was an ultraviolet curing lamp with a bulb filled with argon and mercury vapour.
That lamp led to the development of the sulphur lamp, a bulb filled with argon and sulphur that is bombarded with
microwaves through a hollow waveguide. The bulb had to be spun rapidly to prevent it burning through.
Sulphur lamps, though relatively efficient, have had a number of drawbacks, chiefly:
• Limited life – magnetrons had limited lives.
• Large size
• Heat – the sulphur burnt through the bulb wall unless they were rotated rapidly.
• High power demand – They could not sustain a plasma in powers under 1000W.
2.12.1 Limited LifeIn the past, the life of the plasma lamps was limited by the magnetron used to generate the microwaves.
Solid state RF chips can be used and give long lives. However, using solid-state chips to generate RF is currently
an order of magnitude more expensive than using a magnetron and so only appropriate for high value lighting
niches. It has recently been shown that it is possible to extend the life of magnetrons to over 40,000 hours,
making ‘low-cost’ plasma lamps possible.
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2.12.2 Size
Recently, a system was developed that concentrated radio frequency waves into a dielectric
waveguide made of ceramic, which energized light-emitting plasma in a bulb positioned inside.
This system, for the first time, permitted an extremely compact yet bright electrodeless lamp.
2.12.3 Heat and Power
The use of a high-dielectric waveguide allowed the sustaining of plasmas at much lower powers,
down to 100 W in some instances. It also allowed the use of conventional gas-discharge lamp fill
materials which removed the need to spin the bulb. The only issue with the ceramic waveguide was
that much of the light generated by the plasma was trapped inside the opaque ceramic waveguide.
This was until the optically clear quartz waveguide was invented, which appears to resolve this issue.
2.12.4 High-Efficiency Plasma (HEP)
High-efficiency plasma lighting is the class of plasma lamps that have reached system efficiencies
of 90 lumens, until now. Lamps in this class are potentially one of the most energy-efficient light
sources for outdoor, commercial and industrial lighting. This is due not only to their high system
efficiency but also to the small light source they present enabling very high luminaire efficacy.
The ‘system efficiency’ for a High Efficiency Plasma lamp is given by the last three variables, that is,
it excludes the luminaire efficacy. Though plasma lamps do not have ballast, they have an RF power
supply that fulfils the equivalent function. In electrodeless lamps, the inclusion of the electrical losses,
or ‘ballast factor’, in lumens per watt claimed can be particularly significant as conversion of
electrical power to radio frequency (RF) power can be a highly inefficient process, depending on
the type used.
Many modern plasma lamps have very small light sources, far smaller than HID bulbs or fluorescent
tubes, leading to much higher luminaire efficacies also. High intensity discharge lamps have typical
luminaire efficacies of 55%, and fluorescent lamps of 70%. Plasma lamps typically have luminaire
efficacies they can reach 90%.
2.12.5 System Efficiency
System efficiency of over 100 lumens per Watt is claimed with a usable system life of up to
40,000 hours and low lumen depreciation during life. The system is scalable from 70 watts
up to 5 kW; the lamp can be produced in mercury free versions and apparently can be easily
recycled at the end of life.
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2.12.6 CRI
The claimed CRI is in the 90 – 95 range and as it
dims the colour remains white. As the lamp dims the
CRI is said to remain constant. The colour consi-
stency from lamp to lamp is also claimed to be very
good but without seeing a whole row of pendants
or floodlights using the source it is not possible
to be sure about this yet. The light quality is very
usable for general commercial, sports and industrial
applications and large retail spaces. Figure 73
Plasma lamp 23,000 Lumens per light emitting plasma quartz
bulb size approx. 0.7mm x 0.7mm.
Figure 74
High Efficiency Plasma (HEP) technology is a new and unique genre of electrodeless, RF driven lighting.
Figure 75
NOTE 1 It must be considered that there are still some very important drawbacks too:
The tiny light source with such a high power limits low-light requirement lighting applications, increases potential
glare issues, if left uncontrolled and/or shielded.
NOTE 2 The systems have many restrictions like dimming limitations, testing proof regarding useful life and lumen
stability, high investment costs, the range is limited to a small group of manufacturers which makes it difficult to
achieve a competition on the market.
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Figure 76
Plasma lighting architecture consists of two fundamental parts:
• Emitter: A quartz lamp embedded in a ceramic resonator • Radio Frequency (RF) Driver: A solid-state RF generator and micro-controller
Figure 77
Other manufacturers are providing similar light sources and common use luminaires.
3.0 Electric Light Source Characteristics
There are a number of key properties of lamps that need to be considered when choosing which lamp
is right for a particular application. The following Chapters list these properties.
3.1 Luminous Flux
In any lighting application the amount of light that is needed is a key decision that has to be made.From this it is then possible to work out how many lamps of given rating are needed. There are
lamps with lumen outputs less than 1 lumen through to lamps with outputs in excess of 200,000
lumens. In most applications, it is the average maintained illuminance that is important so it is
important to consider the lumen maintenance through life at the same time as the initial luminous
flux.
3.2 Power Demand
It is important in any lighting scheme to know what the total power demand is going to be so
that the electrical infrastructure can be correctly designed. The power consumed by the lamp isimportant. However with many lamp types it is important also to consider the impact of the control
gear as well. In most cases it will be the total circuit watts that are important rather than the lamp
wattage.
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One further complication with some lamp types is
that the voltage and current waveforms are not
exactly in phase with one another. Thus the volts
multiplied by the amps in the circuit may be higher
than the watts. The power factor of the circuit is
defined by the following equation:
Most high wattage lamp circuits are designed to have
a power factor greater than 0.85. The other factor
that may affect the sizing of the cables that supply a
lighting installation is the current required during the
run-up of the lamps. With some types of lamp this
can be over double the nominal running current.
When using lighting controls the power demand is
more difficult to predict as the power consumed may
be reduced at times when full output is not required
from the lamp.
3.3 Luminous Efficacy
Luminous efficacy is usually expressed in terms of
lumens per watt. Many lamp manufacturers produce
lumens per watt Figures for their lamps. However,
for discharge lamps and other lamps requiring some
form of control gear, these Figures may be misleading
as they refer to the power consumed in the lamp only
and do not consider the power lost in the control
gear. All the values provided in this Chapter for
efficacy are based on total circuit watts. Efficacy is aprimary concern when selecting a lamp. In general, if
a range of lamps is suitable for a particular installation
then it is the most efficient that should be used.
NOTE 1 Luminous efficacy is a measure of how well
a light source produces visible light. It is the ratio of
luminous flux to power. Depending on context, the
power can be either the radiant flux of the source’s
output, or it can be the total power (electric power,
chemical energy, or others) consumed by the source.
Which sense of the term is intended must usually be
inferred from the context; sometimes the technical
data of the manufacturers are not clear in this matter.
The former sense is sometimes called luminous
efficacy of radiation, and the latter luminous efficacy
of a source.
NOTE 2 Not all wavelengths of light are equally
visible, or equally effective at stimulating human
vision, due to the spectral sensitivity of the human
eye; radiation in the infrared and ultraviolet parts of
the spectrum is useless for illumination. The overall
luminous efficacy of a source is the product of how
well it converts energy to electromagnetic radiation,
and how well the emitted radiation is detected by the
human eye.
NOTE 3 In lighting design, ‘efficacy’ refers to the
amount of light (luminous flux) produced by a lamp
(a lamp or other light source), usually measured in
lumens, as a ratio of the amount of power consu-
med to produce it, usually measured in watts.
This is not to be confused with efficiency which
is always a dimensionless ratio of output divided by input which for lighting relates to the watts of
visible power as a fraction of the power consumed
in watts.
power factor=ampsvolts
watts
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3.4 Lumen Maintenance
The light output of most lamps decreases as
the lamps get older. With some relatively short
life lamps this is not a problem as they fail
before the light output has fallen significantly.
See Chapter L / 2.3 for further details of the
lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF).
3.5 Life
It is normal when considering the life of a lamp
to talk about the percentage of lamps that will
survive after a certain number of hours of ope-
ration. This value is known as the lamp survival
factor (LSF). See Chapter L / 2.4 for further
details. Other factors in a particular installation
may affect the life of the lamp used. These
factors include the switching frequency, the
supply voltage, the ambient temperature and
presence of vibration. It is often the case that
the combined effect of the number of lamp
failures coupled with the reduced lumen out-
put of the lamps makes it necessary to replace
the lamps in an installation. Sometimes lamp
makers quote an economic service life for
lamps, this generally is the point where the
LSF multiplied by the LLMF falls below 0.7.
NOTE 1 For LED lighting the LLMF may differ
in many ways; therefore it is mandatory to
get all parameters of the used LED from the manufacturer, in order to accurately determine
the LLMF.
3.6 Colour Properties
The colour of the light produced by a lamp is
generally described by two parameters; the
correlated colour temperature and the CIE
general colour rendering index. These two
terms are described in Chapter A / 2.9 and
2.10 respectively. For most applications there
is a minimum requirement for the colour ren-
dering properties of the lamps used and the
correlated colour temperature of the source is
generally chosen for the atmosphere that the
lighting is designed to produce.
3.7 Run-up Time
When a lamp is switched on it takes a certain
amount of time to reach full light output. The
usual measure used to assess run-up time is
the time that it takes for a lamp to reach 80%
of its full output. For a GLS lamp this might be
a fraction of a second, while for low pressure
sodium this could be as much as 20 minutes.
For some applications such as road lighting
the run-up time is not very important.
However, for some facilities, like emergency
and/or security lighting of tunnels, sports, etc.
it is very important.
3.8 Other Factors
There are also many other factors that
impact upon the use of lamps in a particularapplication. These factors include the
following:
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• Dimming:
It is not possible to dim all lamp types and some types may be only dimmed down to a given percentage of
their output. Dimming for some lamps may require the use of special control gear.
• Ambient Temperature:
Not all lamps will run at a given temperature. For example some compact fluorescent lamps are not suitable for
outdoor use as they will not start if they are too cold.
• Disposal of Lamps:
Lamps may contain hazardous substances such as lead, sodium and mercury. This may mean with particular
lamps particular procedures have to be followed when disposing of the lamps. Under the WEEE Directive of the
European Commission it is the responsibility of the lamp manufacturer to provide the means of recycling used
lamps. Check local EMSA laws and regulations for more information about the recycling of lamps in the Abu Dhabi.
Figure 78
A typical restricted burning position symbol.
• Lamp Size:
Some lamps are too large for certain applications, whilst some small lamps may produce too high a luminance
for others.
• Burning Position:
Not all lamps may be used in all orientations, for some discharge lamps, lamp manufacturers produce diagrams
similar to Figure 78 to show which burning positions are permitted.
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3.9 Summary of Lamp Characteristics
Summary of the key characteristics of the main lamp families:
Table 5
Summary of lamp characteristics.
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4.0 Other Types of Lighting
4.1 Flames
Historically flames were the first form of artificial
lighting. They are occasionally still used to create a
particular atmosphere, but they are not considered
as major sources of artificial light, as most energy
emitted is heat.
4.2 Candle
It is said that the ancient Egyptians invented the
candle. They made candles by soaking reeds in
molten tallow (animal fat). However this was not the
candle as we know it today as it had no wick as such.
It appears that the Romans made the first true candle
with a wick, but it still used tallow rather than the later
wax as the fuel source. See Figure 80.
4.3 Oil
The oil-lamp has been around for a very long time.
Some of the earliest examples are hollowed out
stones that were filled with oil and these may be
70,000 years old. There are examples of earthenware
lamps made by all the ancient civilisations. In Europe
the most common oils used in these lamps were olive
and colza. The wick was generally made out of bark,
moss or plant fibres. See Figure 81, 82.
Figure 79
Flames
Figure 80
Candles
Figure 82
‘Modern’ Oil-lamp
Figure 81
Ancient Oil-lamp
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4.4 Gas
Gas lighting only became possible during the industrial revolution. During the 1780s several inventors
had been working with the flammable gas that is produced when coal is made into coke and they
realised that it could be used for lighting. The problem was that it became necessary to set up a whole
infrastructure of pipes to supply the gas to where it was needed. See Figure 83.
In 1813 a company was set up in London to supply gas and by 1815 there were 26 miles of gas
pipe installed. The first gas light burners were little more than small openings at the end of a gas pipe.
Over a period of time the shape of the burners evolved so that each unit would produce more light.
However, a major improvement in performance was achieved in 1887 with the invention of the gas
mantle. The gas mantle is a cube of fabric, impregnated with thorium and cerium oxides.
When the lamp is lit, the fabric burns away and it is leaving a brittle mesh of oxides.
As study made recently showed that in
Europe approximately 70,000 Gas Street
Lanterns are still in use. Some more will be
newly introduced. These lighting systems
are mainly used for historical parts of cities
and city centres of old towns. Contrary to
most people’s assumption; gas lighting
with a mantle produces a quite cool
blue/green hued white light and not a
warm light one sees from flames or
candles.
Figure 83
Gas street lighting lantern.
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Chapter D
Luminaires
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1.0 Basic Requirements
A luminaire is the apparatus containing the light source.
A luminaire is designed to: connect the light source
to the electricity supply, protect the light source from
mechanical damage and control the distribution of
light be efficient to withstand the expected conditions
of use and to be safe when used in the recommended
manner. To meet these design objectives it is neces-
sary to consider the electrical, mechanical, optical,
thermal and acoustic aspects of luminaires.
2.0 Electrical
2.1 Electrical Wiring
The internal wiring of a luminaire has to be capable
of handling the electrical current and the thermal
conditions in the luminaire. The cross sectional area
of the wire will determine the maximum allowable
current. IEC 598 specifies a minimum cross section
of 0.5 mm2 although this may be reduced to 0.4 mm2
where space is severely restricted. In any case, local
requirements and technical descriptions of tenders
are to be followed.
The wire itself can be solid or stranded. Solid wire is
easier to hold in position and to strip, making it simpler
to install in a luminaire. However, solid wire is not
suitable for luminaires that are subject to vibration
or for luminaires that may be frequently adjusted.
For such luminaires, stranded wire is better.Both types of wire are covered with insulating
material. The choice of insulation material is largely
determined by its heat resistance. The wiring of a
luminaire has to be capable of withstanding not only
the air temperatures inside the luminaire but also
the surface temperatures of components that the
wiring may contact, such as lamps, control gear and
lamp holders. PVC insulation that is heat resistant up
to 90 °C, 105 °C and 115 °C is available. Where
higher temperatures may be experienced, silicon
rubber (170 to 200 °C) and PTFE (250 °C) insulation
may be used. Additional thermal insulation can be
achieved by covering the electrical insulation with a
glass fibre sleeve.
Connection to the electricity supply:
There are three approaches commonly used to
connect a luminaire to the electricity supply; the
connection block, automatic connection and
through wiring. The most common method is via a
connection block within the luminaire. To prevent the
connection being accidentally broken, the supply
wire should pass through a cable clamp before
reaching the connection block.
2.2 Earthing
Metal parts of Class 1 luminaires (see Chapter D /
7.4.3 / Table 16 and 17) that are accessible when
the luminaire is installed or open for maintenance or
that may become live if the insulation fails should be
permanently connected to an earth terminal. The
wire used for earthing should be at least 2.5 mm 2
in cross section. Local standards and norms to be
followed as required.
3.0 Mechanical
The mechanical integrity of a luminaire depends on
the materials used and the quality of its construction.
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3.1 Materials
In general the materials are to be chosen based
on local requirements, climatic conditions at
the place of installation, ground and irrigation
conditions (in-ground luminaires) and expected
pollution of dirt (chemicals, salt, sand, etc.).
3.1.1 Steel
Many lighting luminaires are made from ready-
painted sheet steel, painted in different colours.
Where corrosion is a problem, galvanised sheet
steel is used. Where a very durable paint finish is
required, enamelling or powder coating is used.
3.1.2 Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is rarely used for luminaire
bodies but it is widely used for many small,
unpainted luminaire components that have
to remain free from corrosion.
Only certain grades of stainless steel are
suitable for external use for luminaires and
unless specifically stated in client briefs or
specifications, marine-grade (316) stainless
steel should be used only.
3.1.3 Aluminium Sheet
Aluminium sheet is mainly used for reflectors
in luminaires. It can have good reflection
properties and the physical strength to form
stable reflectors of the desired form.
3.1.4 Cast Aluminium –
Extruded Aluminium
Cast aluminium is widely used for housings
of different outdoor luminaires. Such housings
are light in weight and can be used in damp
or corrosive atmospheres without any further
treatment. Provided that the correct grade of
aluminium alloy has been used and this alloy
has the correct limits or copper or other
elements as set out in a client’s brief or
specification.
3.1.5 Plastics, PVC, Acrylic, etc.
There are many different forms of plastic used
in luminaires, either for complete housings or
components. These plastics differ in their
transparency, strength, toughness, sensitivity
to UV radiation and heat resistance.
3.1.6 Glass
Three types of glass are used in luminaires:
soda lime glass, borosilicate glass, and very
high resistance glass. Soda lime glass is used
where there are no special heat resistance
demands. Where high heat resistance,
chemical stability and resistance to heat
shock are required, borosilicate glass is used.
High resistance glass has the advantage that
it can deliver high heat resistance, high thermal
shock resistance and great physical strength
even in thin sheets.
3.1.7 CeramicsSome components of luminaires that produce
very high temperatures are made of ceramics.
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4.0 Construction
All luminaires should be designed to withstand the
rigours of transport to the site, installation and pro-
longed use. Generally, exterior luminaires need to be
more substantial than those designed for interior use.
Some luminaires are designed to resist the ingress of
foreign objects, dust and moisture. Such luminaires
have a transparent front cover and all points of
access to the luminaire have a seal. Front covers are
usually made of glass or plastic. Where there is a risk
of physical impact, as in a sports hall, glass or acrylic
front covers need to be covered with a wire screen.
If a polycarbonate front cover is used, (minimum IK07)
no such screen is necessary. As for the seals, these
come in various forms from a simple felt seal to
convoluted notched rubber seals. The effectiveness
of these seals is quantified by the IP classification
system and the IK classification of impact energy
(see Chapter D / 7.4.2 / Tables 14 and 15).
5.0 Optical Control
Optical control of the light output from a light source
is achieved by some combination of reflectors,
refractors, diffusers, baffles or filters. Several types of
reflectors are used in luminaires; specular, semi-
specular and mattor diffuse. Specular reflectors are
used when a precise light distribution is required.
The shape of the reflector and its position relative to
the light source determine the light distribution.
The most common shapes for reflectors are circular,parabolic and elliptical.
5.1 Reflectors
A circular reflector with a point light source at its
focus will produce a light distribution of the type
shown in Figure 84, reflections from some parts of
the reflector being almost parallel while those from
parts of the reflector away from the axis are divergent.
This type of circular reflector is used in cylindrical
form for wall grazing using tubular incandescent
and fluorescent light sources.
Figure 84
The light distribution from a circular reflector with a point light
source at its focus.
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A circular reflector with a point light source at
its centre of curvature produces a light distri-
bution of the type shown in Figure 85. This
type of reflector is widely used in projection
systems and spotlights to increase the amount
of light delivered to the associated lens system.
A parabolic reflector with a point light source
at its focus produces a parallel beam of
reflected light (Figure 86). Moving the light
source in front or behind the point of focus
will cause the beam to converge or diverge.
The parabolic reflector is widely used in
spotlight design either exactly, when the
reflector is smooth, or approximately, when
the reflector is facetted.
Figure 85
The light distribution from a circular reflector with a point light
source at its centre of curvature.
Figure 86
The light distribution from a parabolic reflector with a
point light source at its focus. The beam intensity will be
greater at the centre than at the edge — compare
cones aFb and AFB.
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An elliptical reflector with a point light source at one focus will ensure that the reflected rays all
pass through the second focus (Figure 87) Elliptical reflectors in trough form are widely used for tubular
fluorescent luminaires.
Figure 87
Elliptical reflectors showing the change in light distribution as the point light source is moved relative to the first focus ( F).
Spread reflectors are deliberately distorted specular reflectors. They can be circular, parabolic or elliptical in cross
section and spherical or cylindrical in form. The distortion takes the form of modulating the specular surface of the
reflector by hammering (peening) to produce a regular array of dimples, or by etching or brushing the surface.
The advantage of this distortion is that it smears out variations in light distribution caused by inaccuracies in the
manufacture of the reflector and the size of the light source. Spread reflectors are used where a well-defined but
even light distribution is required.
Diffuse reflectors are the opposite of specular reflectors. Unlike a specular reflector, the shape of a diffuse reflector
has only a small effect on the light distribution. Diffuse reflectors are used where there is a need to redirect light
with a very wide beam.
Asymmetrical and symmetrical lighting are two different principles of lighting. Asymmetrical light distribution is a
feature where the advanced reflector system directs the light sideways into a specific direction. Symmetrical light
distribution, however, spreads the light equally in all directions.
Many different materials are used in reflectors. Typical values of reflectance for these materials are given in Table 6.
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Table 6
Typical reflectance values for materials used in reflectors according
to DIN 5036-3 or ASTM-E 1651.
NOTE 1 Specular reflection is used to provide efficient and controlled light distribution,
depending on design of luminaire and reflector, glare control might be required, surface is
polished or similar to a mirror.
NOTE 2 Spread surface means semi-specular or brushed surface, directional- or omni-directional
properties. Light distribution is less controllable as with specular reflection, depending on design of
luminaire and reflector, glare control might be less important.
NOTE 3 Diffuse reflection is based on ‘lambertian surface’ (lambert’s law) and means the light
distribution is only controlled by adjustment of the diffuse reflector in connection with the light
source. This type is mainly used for semi-direct lighting effects. It is the less efficient way of light
distribution control. The diffuse reflector may produce non-controllable glare, depending on
placement, design and point of view.
Reflector type Material Reflectance
Specular(1) Commercial grade
aluminium
0.70 – 0.78
Specular(1) Aluminium with super
purity coating
0.80 – 0.95
Specular(1) Aluminium with silver
coating
0.90
Specular(1) Glass or plastic with
aluminium coating
0.85 – 0.90
Spread(2) Peened aluminium 0.90 – 0.95
Spread(2) Etched aluminium 0.82 – 0.87
Spread(2) Brushed aluminium 0.84 – 0.94
Spread(2) Satin chromium 0.60 – 0.78
Spread(2) Aluminium painted steel 0.60 – 0.70
Diffuse(3) White paint on steel Up to 0.84
Diffuse(3) Glossy white plastic Up to 0.90
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5.2 Refractors
Refractors control light distribution by turning the
incident light ray through a desired angle following
Snell’s Law. This can be done using either prisms or
lenses. For luminaires using large area light sources,
such as a fluorescent lamp, multiple prisms are
moulded in a transparent material, usually acrylic or
polycarbonate plastic. The number, location, angle of
incidence and shape of the different types of prism
determine the light distribution. For luminaires using
a point light source a lens can be used. The position
and shape of the lens determines the light distribu-
tion.
NOTE 1 By using LED technology the topic of
refractors became a much more important issue in
comparison to common lamp technology refractors.
Developments in this field are very fast and the
different manufacturers are using different combi-
nations of lenses, reflectors, refractors and diffusers
to optimise the light distribution, homogenous colour-
mixing, to get rid of glare problems or to improve the
efficiency of LED luminaires.
5.3 Diffusers
Diffusers are transparent materials that scatter light
in all directions. They provide no control of light
distribution but do serve to reduce the brightness
of the luminaire. Diffusers are commonly made of
materials that maximise light scatter and minimiseabsorption, such as opal glass or plastic.
NOTE 1 By using LED technology the topic of
refractors became a much more important issue in
comparison to common lamp technology refractors.
Developments in this field are very fast and the
different manufacturers are using different combi-
nations of lenses, reflectors, refractors and diffusors
to optimise the light distribution, homogenous colour-
mixing, to get rid of glare problems or efficiency of
LED luminaires.
5.4 Baffles
Baffles can have three functions; to hide the light
source from common viewing angles, to reduce
the amount of spill light, and to control the light
distribution. The extent to which the light source is
hidden from view is quantified by two angles, the
shielding angle and its complementary, the cut-off
angle. The shielding angle is the angle between the
horizontal and the direction at which the light source
ceases to be visible.
A common example of a baffle being used to hide
the light source is the diffusely reflecting louvre. This
louvre can take a wide variety of forms, lamellae,
egg-crate, concentric rings and honeycomb depen-
ding on the shape and size of the luminaire, for out-
door it is usually made of a black diffusely reflecting
material. If the purpose is primarily to reduce spill
light, the material used for the louvre will be of low
reflectance, and mostly black. In addition to louvres,
spill light can be controlled by the use of low reflec-
tance baffles, called barn doors (See NOTE 1) and
mounted on the luminaire (Figures 88, 89, 90).
NOTE 1 It is not usual to have barn doors used
at outdoor lighting applications – the wind can
easily create problems and will not allow for stable
adjustment.
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Figure 88
Standard Floodlight
Figure 89Floodlight with lamella baffle
Figure 90
Floodlight with simple anti-glare shield
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5.5 Louvres
If the purpose is to hide the light source and also to control the light distribution, the louvre is made from a
specularly reflecting material and shaped so as to direct light downwards and hence increase the shielding angle.
As a general rule, the finer the louvre and hence the more the light source is hidden, the lower will be the light
output ratio of the luminaire (see Chapter D / 5.6).
Figure 91 Source visible
An IP-rated luminaire fitted with a louvre designed to hide the
light source and control the light distribution inside the reflector
system- power OFF.
Figure 92 Source visible
An IP-rated luminaire fitted with a louvre designed to hide the
light source and control the light distribution inside the reflector
system- power ON.
Figure 93 Source invisible
An IP-rated luminaire fitted with a louvre designed to hide the
light source and control the light distribution inside the reflector
system- power OFF.
Figure 94 Source invisible
An IP-rated luminaire fitted with a louvre designed to hide the
light source and control the light distribution inside the reflector
system- power ON.
NOTE 1 Depending on the position of the viewer the luminaire will be actively glare controlled (Figure 94)
or will not have any glare control (Figure 89, 91).
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5.6 Filters
For display and decorative lighting it is sometimes required to change the colour of light emitted
by a luminaire. This can be done by the use of filters, either absorption or interference.
Absorption filters are usually made of plastic or glass. They absorb the unwanted wavelengths and
thereby raise their temperature. Plastic absorption filters are likely to change their properties if they
get too hot. The transmittance of absorption filters is limited. Typical transmittances for different
colour filters are:
Filter Colour Transmittance Factor Result/Light
Red 20% 5 100%
Green 15% 6.5 100%
Blue 5% 20 100%
Amber 50% 2 100%
Yellow 80% 1.25 100%
Orange 40% 2.5 100%
Purple 25% 4 100%
Pink 15 6.5 100%
Table 7
Factors for calculation of light loss through filters.
NOTE 1 Above Figures are approximate and will depend on material and quality of filters and
manufacturer. Manufacturer to provide exact information about light transmittance factors of filter
used, for approval.
NOTE 2 Coloured light through filters is not designed to achieve same light levels as under white
light! The main point is to consider the environmental lighting conditions and to design the coloured
light to achieve effects, this may require to avoid white light near to coloured light effects, to allow
effects created with minimum power input.
Another type of filter is the interference filter. Interference filters are more expensive and more exact
than absorption filters and do not absorb the unwanted wavelengths. Rather, they split the light into
two beams, one transmitted and one reflected; of two different colours (hence the name dichroic
filters).
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NOTE 3 It is recommended to use instead of filters ‘coloured’ lamps wherever possible, to improve the system efficacy.
NOTE 4 It is recommended to use only glass filters, if possible, interference or ‘dichroic’ filters instead of
PVC-filters, to avoid problems caused through colour-shift (because of aging) and/or damaged filters
(aging and heat absorption). Any filter technique will require more maintenance effort in comparison to coloured
lamps or RGB-LED sources.
NOTE 5 Coloured light can never be taken as an ‘efficient’ light in comparison to white light. This is as well valid
for LED coloured light (RGB, RGBW, RGBAW, etc.).
5.7 Luminaire Efficiency
The efficiency of a luminaire is quantified by its ‘Light Output Ratio’ (LOR). This is the ratio of the total light output
of a luminaire to the total light output of the light sources used in the luminaire when operating outside the luminaire.
LOR is sometimes split into upward and downward components; this happens most of the time in the case of
indoor applications. LOR measures the efficiency of the luminaire in the sense that it quantifies how much of the
light emitted by the light source escapes from the luminaire. LOR does not measure the efficiency of a lighting
installation. Light output ratio is defined as the ratio of luminous flux emitted by the luminaire divided by the flux
emitted by the bare lamps in free air. This means that for temperature sensitive lamps the LOR is a function of the
increase in temperature of a lamp within the luminaire as well as the optical efficiency of the luminaire, especially
applicable to LED fixtures.
NOTE 1 LOR (Light Output Ratio), according to DIN/EN 13032/2, the LOR is described as ‘the ratio of the
luminous flux of the luminaire to the lumens of the lamps used’
NOTE 2 In realities the light output ratio is a Figure that shows how much light gets lost inside the luminaire.
It is abbreviated to LOR, and sometimes subdivided into ULOR (Upper Light Output Ratio) or DLOR (Downward
Light Output Ratio) – i.e. what percent shines upwards, and what percent, down. It is calculated by dividing the
total light output from the luminaire (in lumens), by the total lamp output (also in lumens) to get a percent.For the ULOR and DLOR, it is the same, but with the light that comes from the upper and lower halves of
the luminaire. See Figure 95.
LOR = DOLR + ULOR
LampOutput
re LightfixtuOutput LOR
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NOTE 3 For outdoor Lighting applications it must be considered that ULOR is a ‘not wanted’ emission
of light due to light pollution mitigating standards, and may be only used in outdoor applications below
covered sites, e.g. car-shade structures, pedestrian underpasses, gazebos, tents, etc.
NOTE 4 Some manufacturers are claiming phenomenal LOR up to 99%.
This is because the manufacturer is being misleading with the definition of ‘lamp’
and classifying it as most of the luminaire. In fairness, it is hard to apply the term ‘LOR’ to LED
fittings because the light source and luminaire are so interlinked. The term is more
meaningful with future-proof luminaires where the LEDs come on small replaceable
modules.
Luminaire Efficacy Rating (LER) is the single Figure of merit the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association has defined to help address problems with lighting manufacturers’ efficiency claims
and is designed to allow robust comparison between lighting types. It is given by the product of luminaire efficiency (EFF) times total rated lamp output in lumens (TLL) times ballast factor (BF),
divided by the input power in watts (IP):
LER = EFF × TLL × BF / IP
Figure 95
Light distribution of typical direct/indirect
luminaire.
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5.8 Thermal
All luminaires increase in temperature when in
operation. The internal temperature of the luminaire
can affect the efficiency of some light sources and
the associated control gear. These changes in
efficiency contribute to the light output ratio of the
luminaire. The external surface temperature of a
luminaire may also pose a fire hazard if mounted on
a flammable surface (see Chapter D / 7.4.6).
NOTE1 Please refer to Abu Dhabi DMA Roadway &
Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway
Project Compliance Checklist Tables; exact Figures
for temperature ratings of LEDs, drivers, ballasts and
ambient climatic conditions are given.
5.9 Environmental
Luminaires may contain a variety of materials and
some of these could be hazardous to the environ-
ment when the luminaire is disposed of at the end of
life. To stop environmental pollution there are local
regulations, for more information refer to ESMA,
ESTIDAMA, etc. It is required that all luminaires are
recycled at the end of life and are not just thrown
away. To ensure that this occurs, luminaire suppliers
are required to make provision for the collection and
recycling of old luminaires in the future. Materials
such as lead, mercury, cadmium and polybrominated
biphenyls are all toxic and therefore professional
recycling and/or disposal is mandatory. Abu Dhabilocal laws and standards are to be followed in all
aspects. Lamps, luminaires, parts of luminaires,
drivers, and ballasts should not be placed along
with normal waste, special treatment is required.
6.0 Luminaire Types
The lighting industry produces many thousands of
different luminaires. Given below are brief outlines of
the main types of luminaire used in exterior lighting.
Details of any specific luminaire are best obtained
from the manufacturers.
6.1 Exterior Lighting
6.1.1 Road Lighting Luminaires
Road lighting luminaires used for lighting traffic routes
are designed to deliver light toa road so that the
surface is seen to be of uniform luminance and
objects on the road can be seen in silhouette. The
light distribution is therefore dependent on the posi-
tion of the luminaire relative to the road. Most road
lighting luminaires are mounted on columns placed
at regular intervals at the side of the road or between
crash barriers in the median. For conflict areas and
subsidiary roads (see Chapter G / 3.5.4 and following)
the luminaires are designed with a wide light distri-
bution so as to give a uniform illuminance across the
road. The light sources used in road lighting luminaires
are typically low pressure sodium, high pressure
sodium or metal halide, but LED has become more
and more important for Road lighting and statutory
under the DMA Lighting Specifications. Road lighting
luminaires are often provided with adjustable lamp
holders and/or reflectors so as to allow the light
distribution to be optimised for the light source androad layout. Two broad classes of road lighting
luminaire are semi-cutoff and full-cutoff (see Chapter
G / 3.2 / Table 28) these classes reflecting a different
balance between luminaire efficiency and the control
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of glare. Road lighting luminaires need protec-
tion against dust and moisture and so are
classified according to the IP system
(see Chapter D / 7.4.1 / Table 12 and 13).
They are almost always fitted with a photo-
electric control package, or controlled through
a central control system. Figure 96 shows a
selection of Abu Dhabi road lighting luminaires.
Figure 96
Examples of typical road lighting luminaires Abu Dhabi.
6.1.2 Post-Top Luminaires
Post top luminaires are a form of road lighting
luminaire but unlike the road lighting luminaires
described above, which are intended for the
lighting of high speed traffic routes, post topluminaires are intended for urban areas, where
pedestrians are considered as important as
drivers and the decorative aspect of the lumi-
naire is as important as the functional. Post
top luminaires are available with either rotatio-
nally symmetric or road lighting light distri-
butions, so that the same luminaire can be
used to light both roads and open pedestrian
areas in a city. Post top luminaires take manydifferent forms, some mimicking traditional
styles for historic areas, while others represent
the latest design trends. Because of their use
in urban areas, low pressure sodium light sour-
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ces are not used in post top luminaires, the most com-
mon light sources being high pressure sodium, metal
halide, compact fluorescent lamps and lately LED.
Post top luminaires need protection against dust and
moisture and so are classified according to the IP
system (see Chapter D / 7.4.1 / Tables 12 and 13).
Because of their relatively low mounting heights, post
top lanterns are often constructed of materials that
resist attacks by vandals. They are almost always
fitted with a photoelectric control package or control-
led through centralised control systems. The most
common problem with post top luminaires is glare.
This problem can be avoided if there is no direct view
of the light source. Figure 97 shows a selection of
post top luminaires used in Abu Dhabi.
Figure 97
Examples of typical post top luminaires in Abu Dhabi.
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6.1.3 Secondary Reflector Luminaires
Secondary reflector luminaires are designed
for use in pedestrianised places such as city
squares and parks. In this luminaire, light is
directed up from the light source in or on the
column and then distributed from a large sur-
face at the top of the column. By changing the
area and tilt of the reflecting surface, the light
distribution can be altered. Secondary reflector
luminaires are inevitably inefficient compared
to post top luminaires, but they do not cause
glare, are not prone to deliberate or accidental
damage and can provide a pleasing ambi-
ence. For examples of secondary reflector
luminaires see Figures 98 and 99.
6.2 Floodlights
Floodlights can be used on urban ground for
public sports lighting, to wash a large surface
with light (advertising) or to pick out a specificfeature of a building. Floodlights vary enor-
mously in their size, power and light distribu-
tion. The smallest floodlights consist LED or
20 W metal halide lamp with different reflectors
and accessories. The largest consist of a high
intensity discharge lamp with power in the
kilowatt range and a carefully shaped reflector.
The light distribution of a floodlight can be ro-
tationally symmetric, symmetrical about one
axis or asymmetrical about one axis. This dis-
tribution is usually classified as narrow, me-
dium or wide beam. The light sources used in
public ground floodlights should be high pres-
sure sodium, metal halide, but today more and
more LED especially when having local manual
or coinoperated switching where instant acti-
vation is essential. Floodlights need protection
against dust and moisture and so are classi-
fied according to the IP system (see Chapter D
/ 7.4.1 / Tables 12 and 13) and are often soundly
constructed of materials that resist attacks by
vandals. Filters mounted in front of the flood-
light can be used to change the light colour; in
some cases coloured lamps may give a good
alternative to filters or to colour changing LED.
From case to case it must be checked for which
types of metal halide lamps a replacement with
coloured lamps is possible. Barn door baffles
mounted on the floodlight can be used to mo-
dify the beam shape. Care is necessary when
using floodlights to avoid glare to passers-by
and especially to nearby residents. Figure 100
shows a floodlight with vandal proof cover.
Figure 98
Symmetrical light
distribution-fixed.
Figure 100
Typical playground vandal proof standard
asymmetric flood light for metal halide lamp.
Figure 99
Asymmetrical light
distribution-adjustable..
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Figure 101
Examples of wall mounted luminaires used in Abu Dhabi.
6.3 Wall-mounted Luminaires
As their name suggests, wall mounted luminaires are
designed to be mounted on walls (surface or reces-
sed) so as to provide a low level of illumination in the
nearby area. They are widely used for security and
amenity lighting. The light distribution is usually wide
and is achieved by a combination of reflecting and
refracting elements. The light sources used in wall
mounted luminaires are usually low wattage low
pressure sodium, high pressure sodium, compact
fluorescent, metal halide or LED. Wall mounted lumi-
naires need protection against dust and moisture and
so are classified according to the IP and IK system
(see Chapter D / 7.4.1 / Tables 12,13 and 7.4.2 /
Tables 14 and 15). Because of their relatively low
mounting heights, they should be solidly constructed
of materials that resist attacks by vandals. The most
common problem experienced with wall mounted
luminaires is glare. This problem is much reduced if
there is no direct view of the light source. Figure 101
shows a selection of wall mounted luminaires.
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6.4 In-Ground (Above-Ground)
Up-Lights, Directional Lights
For some design needs, in-ground or above-
ground uplighters may be applicable. They
could be used as tree up-lights, installed either
in ground recessing housings (mostly they are
part of the light fixture) or as above-ground
up-lighters on site-made base or on spike,
fixed in the soil.
By using in-ground fixtures in the UAE, the
quality of the housings and the materials used
becomes a main topic. Irrigation water can
destroy some cast aluminium composition
materials very fast. All these in-ground
luminaires require a proper drainage,
regardless of which IP5X or 6X rating they
have. Only the IP 68 rating would allow a
fixture to be all the time under water.
In case of on-site made base plate or on spike
mounting, then the problem of drainage is ob-
solete. Nevertheless the material topic is of the
same importance as with in-ground fixtures,
due to not well controlled or maintained
irrigation systems.
During the installation process, the availability
of aiming possibilities and/or the lighting
colours ‘white’ or ‘RGB’ are parameters tobe considered.
For orientation purposes ground mounted
with directional lights (so called ‘path-lights’
or ‘way-markers’) could be used in some
designs. These in-ground lights are available in
many shapes and with many different effects
and/or light distributions. It is to be considered
that such orientation lights could reach the re-
quired lighting levels, but the uniformity will not
be as per standards, if unless a mass of such
fixtures will are used with very small distances
between the fixtures. The width of the path-
way must be considered to be a limitation
when applying such installations.
All of the above systems require a very detailed
design process and a clear on-going commu-
nication with the client.
For all types of in-ground fixtures, it is recom-
mended to use them only in cases where there
is no other way of lighting available, especially
if it is required to replace lamps. The previous
past experience shows that maintenance of
in-ground luminaires is not being undertaken
correctly and breaching the IP resistance plus
diminishing the project lighting quality is mostly
a big problem in all installations worldwide.
On one side, there is the problem of the
lighting maintenance, plus on the other side,
there is the question of possible damage by
cars, people, transportation of materials and,
including, maintenance of other related areas,
as such may occur.
One more topic concerns the ’aiming’ of
such in-ground or above-ground fixtures.
Past experience shows that for most of the
time, the design is not fully carried out up
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to the last point, as required for best practice, and
this means that, on-site aiming and locking, or during
site installation, the contractors are not able to apply
the aiming as required to optimize the lighting.
As a result of the previously described facts, there is
a high risk that glare and/or light pollution may occur.
See Figure 102.
Figure 102
Samples of in-ground and above-Ground lights used in Abu Dhabi.
NOTE 1 Above-ground lights should be placed with care and in view to size of task. Additionally it should be
considered that especially above-ground lights can cause glare and light pollution.
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7.0 Certification and Classification
7.1 Certification
The principal EU Directives for electrical products
are the Electro-Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) Di-
rective and the Low Voltage (LV) Directive, sum-
marised for lighting products in Table 8. The
EMC Directive and the LV Directive both require
products put on the UAE market to be safe:
Compatibility being designated by the CE mark.
Products complying with specified Euronorm
(EN) safety standards are presumed to comply.
EN standards are based upon existing internatio-
nal standards, e.g. an IEC standard. For a list of
current EN standards relevant to lighting pro-
ducts see Tables 9 and 10 (EMC and Safety),
and Table 11 (Performance). In most instances,
there is an equivalent British Standard (BS),
known as a BS EN. For established products a
compatible BS standard may still be used, but
preference should be given to the EN standards.
Electrical EN standards are issued by the EU
sponsored organisation, CENELEC (see Figure
103). These standards are type tests, and
manufacturers are required to associate them
with controls for conformity of production.
Parallel to all the EU Standards and Certification
procedures for lighting products and lighting
parts, assemblies the US Standards known as
UL Standards (Underwriters Laboratories TM ) are
developed in a similar way. The listings and Ta-
bles below will show the main topics of both to
allow for orientation in view to lighting products
used for street-, tunnel- and public realm lighting.
All the standards and certifications needed for a
project are to be seen in close connection with
the client’s demands and/or the DMA tender
procedures and requirements.
7.2 European (EU) Standards and
Safety Trade Marks
The Table 8 shows the different European
directives to allow proper certification of lighting
and lighting components:
Table 8
EU directives and lighting products.
ENC Directive
from 1st of January 1996
Applies to: see Table 9
LV Directive
from 1st of January 1997
Applies to:
Luminaires, Lighting Components, Lamps
EN Standards
See Table 9
EN Safety Standards
See Table 10
NOTE 1 Use local Standards like ESMA 38-2012, 13-2013, 21-2013, etc. for specification in addition
to international ones.
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Responsibility for compliance of a product with the Directives and with the specified EN standards rests on
the person putting the product on the EU market, usually the manufacturer. Governmental authorities will
require additional independent test certificates from case to case. In any case local government (DMA) have
introduced new standards like the Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council’s exterior LED Luminaire
Certification Scheme, ESMA’s Lighting Regulations, ESTIDAMA, etc. These local standards and certification
requirements will prevail in all matters.
Figure 103
CENELEC Logo
Table 9
EU Directives for lighting products and materials, ballasts.
Notes for Tables 8, 10 and 11:
M = CE-mark obligatory (LV Directive)
S = ENEC mark optional (safety standard only available)
SP = ENEC mark optional (to safety standard and performance standard)
V= Older standard, still valid
n/a = Not applicable
Registered Mark of CENELEC –indicating a permanent conformitywith standards for electrical safety
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NOTE 1
Associated standards:
BS EN 40 Lighting columns; BS EN 60730–2–3 Thermal protectors for ballasts.
NOTE 2 The EN standards are based on IEC standards, and their numbers are the
IEC numbers plus 60,000; for example EN 60570 = IEC 570.
BS EN standards have the EN number:
like BS EN 60598–2 is linked to BS EN 60598–1
The EMC and LV Directives, in conjunction with the CE Marking Directive, require compliant
products to be accompanied by the CE-mark. CE represents Conformity European (be careful,
because especially this certification is often fake when produced in Eastern- or Far Eastern Markets.
The CE-mark should preferably be on both product and packaging. Responsibility for marking rests
on the person putting the product on the EU market.
The CE-Mark
The CE mark is not to be seen as the safest way for getting a certified product, especially since some
manufacturers are putting fake CE marks on their products. It is important to note that CE-marks on
components do not imply that a luminaire complies. The luminaire as a whole must comply and carry
the CE-mark. Further, if a luminaire is modified for use in the EU (e.g. with emergency lighting) the
modifier takes over responsibility and must make a new CE mark. A lighting product outside the LV
Directive (e.g. an ELV product) comes under the General Products Safety Directive.
Figure 104CE Mark
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Figure 105
ENEC Mark
XX
NOTE 1 Table 10:
‘X’ identifies luminaire types as follows: 1 General purpose, 2 Recessed, 4 Portable,
5 Floodlights, 6 With transformer, 7 Portable – garden, 8 Hand lamps, 9 Photo –
amateur, 17 Stage and studio, 18 Swimming pools, 19 Air-handling and 20 Lighting chains.
Due to the fact that the ENEC mark is to be applied by an independent certification body, it is advisable to look
for ENEC certification together with the CE mark. The ENEC mark indicates independent confirmation that the
product complies with all relevant EN safety standards and, where available, EN performance standards.
NOTE 1 The ENEC mark is not applicable to lamps or emergency luminaires. The ENEC mark is not obligatory.
Testing and approval are carried out by national Certification Bodies, e.g. in the UK by BSI. The XX in the diagram
is replaced by a number from 01 to 17 (European Country Code), e.g. 12 for the UK. The ENEC mark of each of
the Certification Bodies is valid throughout the EU. Again, it is important to note that ENEC marks on components
do not imply that a luminaire has an ENEC mark. Furthermore, if a luminaire is modified, than the modifier must
remove the ENEC mark.
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Table 10
EN Safety standards for lighting products (CE mark and LV Directive).
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Table 11
EN Performance standards and lighting products.
7.3 United States of America (US) Standards and Safety Trade Marks
Additionally to all EU Certifications, the US has introduced an independent testing procedure
which is very similar in all topics to the EU ones. It is known as UL (Underwriters Laboratories TM)
standards and testing procedure requirements.
Figure 106
UL Standards trade mark logo.
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Following UL Standards are applicable for lighting products and assemblies:
• ANSI/UL 153
• ANSI/UL 1598
• ANSI/UL 8750
7.3.1 The ANSI/UL 153 Standard
Covers portable electric luminaires:
• These requirements cover portable luminaires and subassemblies whose primary
function is task or ambient illumination.
7.3.2 The ANSI/UL 1598 Standard
Covers following main topics:
• Table of contents
• Body
• Scope
• Reference publications
• Definitions
• General requirements
• Mechanical construction
• Electrical construction
• Incandescent luminaires
• HID luminaires -
• Surface-mounted luminaires -
supplementary requirements
• Miscellaneous luminaires
• Environmental location luminaires -
supplementary requirements• Normal temperature tests
• Abnormal temperature tests
• Mechanical tests
• Electrical tests
• Factory production tests
• Test procedures and apparatus
• Marking
• ANNEX A (normative) Standards for
Components
• Annex B (CAN) (normative) Markings -
French Translations
• Annex C (MEX) (normative) Markings -
Spanish translations
• Annex D (normative) Pictograms
• Annex E (informative) Metric Conversion
Information
• Annex F (CAN) (normative)Printed Circuit
Boards
• Annex G (normative) Luminaires for use withself-ballasted compact fluorescent (CFL) or
self-ballasted light emitting diode (LED)
• Annex H (CAN) (normative) LUMINAIRES
FOR USE IN RECREATIONAL VEHICLES
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7.3.3 The ANSI/UL 8750 Standard
Covers Light Emitting Diode (LED) Equipment for Use in Lighting Products:
• Scope
• These requirements cover LED equipment that is an integral part of a luminaire or other lighting equipment
and which operates in the visible light spectrum between 400 - 700 nm. These requirements also cover the
component parts of light emitting diode (LED) equipment, including LED drivers, controllers, arrays, modules,
and packages as defined within this standard.
• These lighting products are intended for installation on branch circuits up to 600 V nominal or less and for
connection to isolated (non-utility connected) power sources such as generators, batteries, fuel cells, solar cells,
and the like.
• LED equipment which is utilized in lighting products that comply with the endproduct standards as listed below:
a) Portable Electric Luminaires, UL 153,
b) Underwater Luminaires and Submersible Junction Boxes, UL 676,
c) Emergency Lighting and Power Equipment, UL 924,
d) Luminaires, UL 1598,
e) Low Voltage Landscape Lighting Systems, UL 1838,
f) Self-Ballasted Lamps and Lamp Adapters, UL 1993,
g) Luminous Egress Path Marking Systems, UL 1994, and
h) Low Voltage Lighting Systems, UL 2108.
NOTE 1 These above listings are not intended to reflect all standards for all kind of lighting, ballasts, drivers, etc. it
shows only some the main topics related to this handbook.
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7.4 International used Standards and Safety Trade Marks
7.4.1 Operating Conditions (IP-Rating)
The International Protection (IP) system classifies luminaires according to the degree of protection
provided against the ingress of foreign bodies, dust and moisture. The degree of protection is
indicated by the letters IP followed by two numbers. The first number indicates the degree of
protection against the ingress of foreign bodies and dust. The second indicates the protection
against the ingress of moisture. Table 12 shows the degree of protection indicated by each number.
Using Table 12 it can be seen that as an example a luminaire classified as IP55 is dust protected
and able to withstand water jets. See Table 13 for more information about IP rating.
Table 12
IP classification of luminaires according to the degree of protection against foreign bodies, dust and moisture.
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Table 13
IP rating including details of testing procedures.
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7.4.2 IK Code and Impact Energy
The European standard EN 62262 - the equivalent of international standard IEC 62262 (2002) -
relates to IK ratings. This is an international numeric classification for the degrees of protection
provided by enclosures for electrical equipment against external mechanical impacts. It provides a
means of specifying the capacity of an enclosure to protect its contents from external impacts.
EN 62262 specifies the way enclosures should be mounted when tests are carried out, the
atmospheric conditions that should prevail, the number of impacts (5) and their (even) distribution,
and the size, style, material, dimensions etc. of the various types of hammer designed to produce
the energy levels required. See Table 14 and 15 below:
Table 14
IK Code for protection.
Table 15
IK Code System test characteristics.
* not protected according to the standard
1. R100 Rockwell hardness according to ISO 2039/2
2. Fc 490-2, Rockwell hardness according to ISO 1052
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7.4.3 Electrical Protection
Luminaires are also classified according to the protection they provide against electric shock.
Table 16 shows the luminaire classes in the IEC classification..
Table 16
The classification of luminaires according to the degree of electrical protection.
IEC voltage range AC DC defining risk
High voltage (supply system) > 1000 Vrms > 1500 V electrical arcing
Low voltage (supply system) 50–1000 Vrms 120–1500 V electrical shock Extra-low voltage (supply syst.) < 50 Vrms < 120 V low risk
NOTE1 ‘Extra-Low-Saftey-Voltage’ means ELV, see Table 17:
Table 17
ELV standards
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7.4.4 Separated or Safety Extra-Low Voltage (SELV)
IEC defines a SELV system as ‘an electrical system in which the voltage cannot exceed ELV under
normal conditions, and under single-fault conditions, including earth faults in other circuits’.
There exists some confusion regarding the origin of the acronym: ‘SELV’ stands for ‘separated
extra-low voltage’ in installation standards (e.g., BS 7671) and for ‘safety extra-low voltage’ in
appliance standards (e.g., BS EN 60335).
A SELV circuit must have:
Protective-separation (i.e., double insulation, reinforced insulation or protective screening) from
all circuits other than SELV and PELV (i.e., all circuits that might carry higher voltages), simple
separation from other SELV systems, from PELV systems and from earth (ground).
The safety of a SELV circuit is provided by
• The extra-low voltage.
• The low risk of accidental contact with a higher voltage.
• The lack of a return path through earth (ground) that electric current could take in case of
contact with a human body.
The design of a SELV circuit typically involves an isolating transformer, guaranteed minimum
distances between conductors and electrical insulation barriers. The electrical connectors of
SELV circuits should be designed such that they do not mate with connectors commonly used
for non-SELV circuits.
Figure 107
SELV Logo
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7.4.5 Class II Insulation
A ‘Class II’ or double-insulated electrical appliance is one which has been designed in such a way that it does not
require a safety connection to electrical earth (ground).
The basic requirement is that no single failure can result in dangerous voltage becoming exposed so that it
might cause an electric shock and that this is achieved without relying on an earthed metal casing. This is usually
achieved at least in part by having two layers of insulating material surrounding live parts or by using reinforced
insulation.
In Europe, a double-insulated appliance must be labelled Class II, double-insulated, or bear the double-insulation
symbol (a square inside another square).
Figure 108
Logo for Class II insulation products.
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7.4.6 Flammability
The temperature of a luminaire may limit the surfaces on which it can be mounted. If the surface is
non-combustible, then any luminaire may be mounted on it. But when the surface is either normally
flammable or readily flammable, restrictions may apply. A normally flammable surface is one having
an ignition temperature of at least 200 °C and that will not deform or weaken at this temperature.
A readily flammable surface is one that cannot be classified as normally flammable or non-
combustible. Readily flammable materials are not suitable for direct mounting of luminaires.
The IEC recommends a two part classification system. For luminaires suitable for direct mounting
only on non-combustible surfaces, a warning notice may be required. For luminaires suitable for
direct mounting on normally flammable surfaces a symbol consisting of a letter F inside an inverted
triangle is required.
Figure 109
Different marks for fire-safety rating
testing for US-market and EuropeUSA Europe
NOTE 1 In order to ensure all testing and safety is present and
correct, it is mandatory to check all certification and test
sheets, to ensure ESMA requirements have been met or
request fixtures are compliant with the technical criteria of the
DMA Lighting Specifications and/or (if external LED luminaires)
are ADQCC certified and marked. (www.qcc.abudhabi.ae)
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7.5 ADQCC and ESMA
7.5.1 Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC)
The Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity Council (ADQCC) was established by law No. 3 of 2009,
issued by His Highness Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, President of the UAE.
For more info please refer to: http://www.qcc.abudhabi.ae
ADQCC is responsible for the development of Abu Dhabi Emirate’s Quality Infrastructure, which enables
industry and regulators to ensure that products, systems and personnel can be tested and certified to UAE
and International Standards.
Products certified by ADQCC receive the Abu Dhabi Trustmark. The Trustmark is designed to communicate that a
product or system conforms to various safety and performance standards that are set by Abu Dhabi regulators.
7.5.1.1 Abu Dhabi Certification Scheme for LED Exterior Lighting Fixtures (Luminaires)
The LED Exterior Lighting Fixture Certification Scheme, developed through consultation with regulators and
industry, enables suppliers of LED exterior lighting fixtures to obtain voluntary certification of products that meet
quality criteria designed to satisfy the standards or equivalent outlined by the Department of Municipal Affairs.
The scheme has been specified for 11 types of light fixtures to ensure their safety, performance and energy
efficiency. Relevant municipalities or the Department of Transport may impose further requirements not specified
within this certification scheme, for example regarding, aspects of design, manufacturing, installation,
calculations of road lighting contribution, in order to qualify products for use in projects.
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7.5.1.2 Conformity Certificate
Products that achieve certification, through formal evaluation against the scheme criteria,
will be granted a Certificate of Conformity and licensed to bear the Abu Dhabi
"Trustmark for Environmental Performance" in product promotion and merchandising.
The Certificate of Conformity enables developers to present evidence of meeting standards as
specified for Abu Dhabi's built environment.
Figure 110
Trust mark environmental performance
The Trustmark indicates that select products meet Abu Dhabi specifications and, if required, UAE
standards. The Quality and Conformity Council's market surveillance inspectors actively ensure that
the integrity of the Trustmark is maintained through market sampling and testing of products bearing
the Trustmark.
7.5.2 ESMA
Emirates Authority for Standardization & Metrology, the national authority responsible for UAE standards.
The Emirates Conformity Assessment Scheme is a certification program enforced by ESMA for
regulated products. Under this scheme, products are evaluated based on requirements and
standards set by the program. As a result of the evaluation, a Certificate of Conformity is generatedto act as evidence of compliance. Mainly covering lamps the standard came into force in 2014 and
will increasingly be implemented from 2015 onwards for all relevant products being sold in the UAE.
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7.5.2.1 Scope
The regulation covers non-directional lamps, luminaires and control gears traded and
use in UAE that include the following:
• Incandescent lamps ≥ 16W (watts)
• Linear fluorescent lamps (excluding energy efficiency and functionality requirements); i.e. just safety is covered
• Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs)
• Halogen lamps
• Light emitting diode (LED) lamps
• Control gears for general lighting purposes
• Luminaires for general lighting purposes. (only Electrical Safety Requirements apply)
General exemptions for lamps, luminaires and control gears are listed in Annex 1 of the ESMA Standard.
7.5.2.2 Emirates Quality Mark
A quality mark granted by ESMA indicating that the given product complies with the requirements stated in the
accredited standard.
Figure 111
Emirates Quality Mark Logo
Additionally a certificate is issued by ESMA to the given product ensuring that the product complies the
requirements of this scheme.
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7.5.2.3 Energy Efficiency Label
Documents issued by ESMA show the stars classification for lighting products according to their
efficiency in energy consumption, up to a maximum five stars.
Figure 112
Emirates Quality Mark Logo
NOTE 1 In order to ensure all testing and safety is present and correct, it is mandatory to check all
certification and test sheets, to ensure ESMA requirements have been met or request fixtures are
compliant with the technical criteria of the DMA lighting specifications and/or (if external LED
luminaires) are ADQCC certified and marked.
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8.0 Road Lighting Luminaires
8.1 Luminous Intensity Distribution
Road lighting luminaires have traditionally been
classified as full-cutoff or semi-cutoff, accor-
ding to their luminous intensity distribution.
BS EN 13201: Part 2: 2003 has introduced
a finer classification designed to give better
control of disability glare and obtrusive light.
This classification uses the maximum luminous
intensity per 1000 lamp lumens at different
angles from the downward vertical in any di-
rection as a criterion.
Table 18 shows the limits based on EU Stan-
dards for each of the six classes (G levels) and
their relationship to the traditional semi-cutoff
and full-cutoff terms:
Table 18
BS EN 13201: Part 2: 2003 road lighting luminaire classification.
NOTE 1 The ‘G’-Classes are to be found in manufacturer’s data sheets or catalogues, in case missing the
manufacturer to provide the correct classification.
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The US Standards for road lighting are covered under by RP-08-00 which is valid for lighting
designs developed for Abu Dhabi areas.
The Classification of street lighting fixtures analogue to the EU ones above is covered by the
TM-15-07(-11) Standard as shown in the following Tables and explanations:
As shown in the addendum A to IESNA TM-15-07(-11); backlight, up-light, and glare (BUG) Ratings
should be shown in data sheets or on products as follows in Tables 19, 20, 21, 22. In no sufficient
info is provided, the manufacturer to provide accurate info about back-light, up-light and glare.
The following back-light, up-light, and glare ratings may be used to evaluate luminaire optical
performance related to light trespass, sky glow, and high angle brightness control. These ratings are
based on zonal lumen calculations for secondary solid angles defined in TM-15-07(-11) standard.
The zonal lumen thresholds listed in the following three Tables are based on data from photometric
testing procedures approved by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) for outdoor luminaires.
Table 19 (A-1)
Back-light ratings (maximum zonal lumens).
Table 20 (A-2)
Up-light ratings (maximum zonal lumens).
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Table 21 (A-3)
Glare ratings (maximum zonal lumens).
For explanation of capital letter codes (e.g. UH, UL, etc.) shown in Tables 19, 20, 21 and 22 see Figure 110.
Notes to Tables 19 (A-1), 20 (A-2) and 21( A-3):
NOTE 1 Any one rating is determined by the maximum rating obtained for that Table. For example,
if the BH zone is rated B1, the BM zone is rated B2, and the BL zone is rated B1, then the backlight rating
for the luminaire is B2.
NOTE 2 To determine BUG ratings, the photometric test data must include data in the upper hemisphere unless
no light is emitted above 90 degrees vertical (for example, if the luminaire has a flat lens and opaque sides),
per the IES Testing Procedures Committee recommendations.
NOTE 3 It is recommended that the photometric test density include values at least every 2.5 degrees vertically.
If a photometric test does not include data points every 2.5 degrees vertically, the BUG ratings shall be
determined based on appropriate interpolation.
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NOTE 4 A ‘quadrilateral symmetric’ luminaire (see Figure 110) shall meet one of the following
definitions:
• A Type V luminaire is one with a distribution that has circular symmetry, defined by the IESNA as being essentially the same at all lateral angles around the luminaire.
• A Type VS luminaire is one where the zonal lumens for each of the eight horizontal octants(0-45, 45-90, 90-135, 135-180, 180-225, 225-270, 270315, 315-360) are within ±10 percent
of the average zonal lumens of all octants
‘BUG’ Rating example for a 250-watt MH area luminaire, Type IV forward throw optical distribution
(see Figure 110):
Table 22
Example of BUG rating for sample luminaire shown in Figure 110.
Figure 113
250-watt MH area luminaire, Type IV forward throw optical distribution.
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Based on the photometric test data, the sample luminaire (Figure 110) has the following zonal lumen distribution:
• Back-light Rating:Determine the lowest rating where the lumens for all of the secondary solid angles do not exceed the
threshold lumens from Table 19 (A-1). In this example the backlight rating would be B2 based on the BL
lumen limit.
• Up-light Rating:Determine the lowest rating where the lumens for all of the secondary solid angles do not exceed the
threshold lumens from Table 20 (A-2). In this example the uplight rating would be U1 based on the FVH and
BVH lumen limits.
• Glare Rating:Determine the lowest rating where the lumens for all of the secondary solid angles do not exceed the
threshold lumens from Table 21 (A-3) for a Type IV distribution. In this example, the glare rating would beG2 based on the FH lumen limit.
Therefore, the BUG rating for this sample luminaire type IV would be: B2 U1 G2
Figure 114
Light distribution sections of a type IV light for BUG rating process.
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Chapter E
Electrics
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1.0 Control Gear
A wide range of lamps and LED requires control gear of some kind to ensure correct running and, in some cases,
starting of the lamp. With discharge lamps it is the job of the control gear to limit the current through the lamp
whereas with some incandescent lamps the gear is there to reduce the voltage. Some low voltage tungsten
lamps need units to supply them with the correct voltage and LEDs need electronics to limit the current going
through them.
1.1 Ballasts for Discharge Light Sources – General Principles
The control gear of discharge lamps has to perform a number of functions:
• Limit and stabilises the lamp current: Due to the negative resistance characteristic of gas discharge lamps
(see Chapter C / 1.2) it is necessary to control the current in the lamp circuit.
• Ensure that the lamp continues to operate despite the mains voltage falling to zero at the end of each half cycle.
• Provide the correct condition for the ignition of the lamp: This generally requires the gear to provide a high
voltage and in the case of fluorescent lamps requires a heating current to be passed through the electrodes.
As well as these basic functions, the control gear may also have the following additional requirements:
• Ensure a high power factor.
• Limit the harmonic distortion in the mains current.
• Limit any electromagnetic interference (EMI) produced by the lamp and ballast.
• Limit the short-circuit and run up currents to protect the lamp electrodes and to help the supply wiring system.
• Keep the lamp current and voltage within the specified limits for the lamp during mains voltage fluctuations.
With electromagnetic control gear several separate control components may be needed; these may include
ballasts, starters, igniters, capacitors and filter-coils, power supply units, drivers, etc.
When electronic control gear is used, it is common to integrate all the components into one package.
The details of the various circuits used are discussed in the following Chapters.
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1.1.1 Electromagnetic Control Gear for Fluorescent Light Sources
Choke coils used to be the most common type of current limiting device used with linear and
compact fluorescent lamps. The most common circuit is the switch start, see Figure 112..
Figure 115
Schematic diagram of a fluorescent lamp operated using a choke ballast and a switch start.
The choke ballast is made from a large num-
ber of windings of copper on a laminated iron
core. It works on the self-inductance principle
and is designed so that impedance of the
choke limits the current through the circuit to
the correct value for a given lamp and supply
voltages. A range of ballasts is available for
different lamps and different voltages. Also the
ballast design has to be changed if it is to
operate at a different mains supply frequency.
To start the lamp it is common to use a glow
starter. The glow starter switch consists of one
or two bi-metallic strips enclosed in a glass
tube containing a noble gas. The glow starter
is connected across the lamp so it is possiblefor a current to pass through the ballast,
through the electrode at one end of the lamp,
through the electrode at the other end of the
lamp and back to neutral.
When the mains voltage is first applied to the
lamp circuit, the total mains voltage appears
across the electrodes of the starter and this
initiates a glow discharge. This discharge
heats the bi-metallic elements within the
starter and as the electrodes heat up they
bend towards each other until eventually they
touch. While the electrodes are touching the
current passing through the lamp electrodes
pre-heats them. While the electrodes in the
starter are touching there is no glow discharge
and so the electrodes cool and separate.
At the moment that the electrodes come apartthe current through the ballast is interrupted
causing a voltage peak across the lamp.
Note 1 The glow starter does not always create the conditions for the lamp to start and sometimes
the starting cycle has to be repeated a number of times.
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Figure 116
The heat from the discharge in the starter causes the bi-metallic electrodes to bend together.
Figure 117
The bi-metallic electrodes touch and a current flows through the circuit preheating the electrodes of the lamp.
Figure 118
The electrodes cool and separate, causing a voltage peak which ignites the lamp.
In addition to the ballast and the starter most fluorescent lamps circuits have a capacitor connected across
the supply terminals to ensure a high power factor for the circuit.
Figures 116 to 118 illustrate the starting process:
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1.1.2 Electromagnetic Control Gear for HID Light Sources
There are a number of different types of circuits used for high intensity discharge (HID) lamps which
vary according to the type of lamp and its requirements for starting.
The most common type of ballast used is a choke or inductive ballast in series with the lamp.
The choke, which is a coil of copper wire wound on a laminated iron core, limits the current through
the lamp. Figure 119 shows a typical circuit using a choke.
Figure 119
Schematic diagram of a HID lamp circuit using a choke.
This type of circuit is used for all high intensity discharge lamps apart from the low pressure sodium
lamp. The low pressure sodium lamp has a long run-up during which time the voltage across the
lamp needs to be greater than normal mains voltage; this has given rise to a number of circuits for
running the lamp that provide the necessary voltage.
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1.1.3 Low Pressure Sodium Lamp
The most common of these circuits is the autoleak transformer (Figure 120).
The autoleak transformer works like an autotransformer increasing the supply voltage, but by careful design of the
secondary winding it can also act as a choke to control the current through the lamp.
Figure 120
Schematic diagram of a low pressure sodium lamp circuit using an autoleak transformer.
Figure 121
A semi-parallel ignition system.
1.1.4 High Pressure Sodium Lamp
Most high pressure sodium lamps and metal halide lamps require a high voltage pulse to start the arc in the lamp.
This is usually provided by an electronic ignitor. There are several types of ignitor circuits, the two most common
are the semi-parallel and the superimposed pulse type (Figures 121 and 122).
Figure 122
A superimposed ignition system.
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The semi-parallel ignitor relies on the tapped ballast coil to generate the ignition pulse whereas
the superimposed type ignitor has its own coil to generate the pulse. The semi-parallel has many
advantages in that it consumes no power when the lamp is running, it is cheaper and lighter but,
as it relies on the ballast, it may only be used with the ballast for which it has been specifically
designed.
Ignitors sometimes have other features built-in such as self-stopping ignitors that will not continually
try to restrike a lamp that has come to the end of its life. There are also some that are designed to
produce extra high voltages that can restrike hot lamps.
1.1.5 Electronic Control Gear for Fluorescent Light Sources
Operating fluorescent lamps at high frequency has a number of advantages (see Chapter C / 2.3)
and most modern control gears are now of this type. Most electronic ballasts for fluorescent lamps
are integrated into a single package that performs a number of functions.
These functions are:
• A low pass filter: this limits the amount of harmonic distortion caused by the ballast.
• Also controls the amount of radio frequency interference, protects the ballast against high voltage
mains peaks and limits the inrush current.
• The rectifier: This converts the AC power from the mains supply into DC.
• A buffer capacitor: This stores the charge from each mains cycle thus providing a steady voltage
to the circuits that provide the power to the lamps.
• The HF power oscillator takes the steady DC voltage from the buffer capacitor and using
semi-conductor switches controlled by the ballast controller creates a high frequency
square wave.
• The output of the power oscillator is fed through a small HF coil that acts as a stabilisation
coil to the lamp.
Figure 123 shows the main components in typical HF fluorescent lamp ballast.
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Figure 123
A circuit diagram of an electronic ballast for two fluorescent lamps.
In some ballasts the electronics that control the power oscillator can vary the frequency at which the power
oscillator runs; as the frequency increases the current passing through the coils decreases and thus it is possible
to dim the lamps. Some types of ballast have a 0 to 10 volt input that is used to regulate the output while
some have digital interfaces. See Chapter E / 2.0 for further information on controls.
1.1.6 Electronic Control Gear for HID Light Sources
Making electronic control gear for HID light sources is a complex process. There are many different lamp types
each with different electrical requirements and a limited range of frequencies in which they can be operated.
Also many lamp types do not show a significant gain in efficiency when operated on high frequencies. For these
reasons electronic control gear has been developed more slowly for HID lamps than for fluorescent lamps.
However, it is possible to gain a number of benefits from electronic gear for HID lamps. These include:
• Increased lamp life.
• Elimination of visible flicker.
• Better system efficacy.• Less sensitivity to mains voltage or temperature fluctuations.
• The possibility of dimming with some lamp types.
Not all these benefits are possible for all lamp types and all control gear combinations. However, the availability
and quality of electronic gear available for HID lamps is rapidly increasing.
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Figure 124
A circuit diagram for a transformer.
As well as reducing the voltage the transformer also isolates the lamp supply from the mains.
This means that even under a fault condition the voltage in the secondary circuit will not rise
significantly above the nominal output voltage and so it will always be safe to touch the conductors
on the low voltage side.
Most modern transformers for halogen lamps involve electronics. They usually contain high
frequency oscillators to permit the use of smaller transformers that have smaller power losses.With the introduction of electronics it is possible to introduce additional features such as constant
voltage output and soft starting of the lamps.
1.1.7 Iron-Core Transformers for Low-Voltage Light Sources
Many tungsten halogen lamps are designed to run on low voltages the most common of which is
12 volts. Thus they need a device to reduce the supply voltage. The traditional way to do this was
by using a transformer. Figure 124 shows the various currents and voltages in a transformer and
gives the approximate relationship between the voltages, currents and the number of turns in the
primary and secondary coils and all low-wattage lamp sizes are covered today and increasing into
the larger wattages.
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1.1.9 Drivers for LEDs
LEDs need to be run at a controlled current to ensure proper operation. To provide this drivers are
used. Most drivers take mains power and provide a constant current output. However, it is possible
to control some drivers so that the output current is varied and so that the LED may be dimmed.
In more complex systems it is possible to dim three different channels separately, so that when red,
green and blue LEDs are used together it is possible to make colour changes. Most LED drivers can
maintain their constant current output over a range of voltages so it is often possible to connect a
number of LEDs in series on one driver.
Figure 126
System sketch of LED with current constant driver on 1-10V dimming.
Figure 127
System sketch of LED with voltage constant driver on DALI dimming.
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2.0 Lighting Controls
2.1 Options for Control
There are a number of factors that need to be
considered in any control system; these are the
inputs to the system, how the system controls the
lighting equipment and what the control process is,
that decides how a particular inputs will impact on
the light setting.
Thus for a control system to work it must have:
• Input devices: Such as switches, presence
detectors, timers and photocells.
• Control processes: These may consist of a simple
wiring network through to a computer based
control system.
• Controlled luminaires: The system may control
luminaires in a number of ways, from simply
switching them on and off to dimming the lamp
and in more complex systems causing movement
and colour changes.
2.2 Input Devices
2.2.1 Manual Inputs
These vary from simple switches used to turn the
lights on, through dimmer switches and remote con-
trol units that interface to a control system, to lighting
control desks that are used in theatres. The point of these units is to allow people to control the lighting
and care is always needed in the application of such
devices to ensure that users of the system can
readily understand the function of any such control.
2.2.2 Presence Detectors
Most presence detectors are based on passive infra-
red (PIR) detectors; however some devices are
based on microwave or ultrasonic technology. PIR
devices monitor changes in the amount of infra-red
radiation that they are receiving. The movement of
people within an area will be detected by them and
this can be signalled to a control system. Thus, if a
device detects the presence of a person this can be
used to signal the control system to switch the lights
on, but if the device has not detected anybody for
some time this can be used to signal that there is
nobody there and that the lights can be turned off.
2.2.3 Timers
Most computerised control systems have timers built
in so that they can turn the lighting on and off at
particular times. However, there are also a large
number of time switches available that can turn
lamps on an off at given times. There are also timers
used for exterior lighting that change the time that
they switch at throughout the year so that the lamps
are always switched at dawn and dusk.
2.2.4 Photocells
There are many different types of photocell used to
control lighting. The simplest to use are those that
switch on at one illuminance value and switch off at
another; these are commonly used to turn exterior
lights on at dusk and off at dawn, by thresholdadjustment and in some cases additional with time-
period selection. Some photocells communicate the
illuminance value to the central control system, which
uses the information to adjust the lighting in some
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way. Some photocells are mounted on
constructions with shields around them so
that they only receive light reflected from the
surface nearby. This makes them act like
luminance meters and, provided the
reflectance of the surface remains constant,
they can be set up to follow the illuminance
of that surface.
2.2.5 Advanced Lighting Control
Systems
Some new advance lighting control systems
can help to control 24-hour, 7-days a year
thousands of light points. In combination with
astronomical timers it is possible to dim and
to take care about threshold adjustments
when used in conjunction with computerised
control stations. Additional manual override
can be provided in case of emergency or if
maintenance is on-going.
In case of new systems a centralized solution
may be implemented as this requires less
equipment and may allow for a simpler instal-
lation than a pole-based standalone solution.
Figure 128 shows a simple system sketch of
a centralised lighting control system.
Depending on the system and the manu-
facturer the control signals can be distributed
through a power bus system (signal is modu-lated on the power-cables supplying the
cabinets and lights) or through IP addresses
with IP interfaces at each pole or if simpler
systems are applied at the control cabinets.
Such solutions could have following features:
• Central control
• Complete monitoring
• Dimming
• Remote metering
• Power quality metering
• Voltage stabilization
• Control room installation
Following Cost Savings could be achieved:
A centralised lighting control solution that can
perfectly combine cost saving and less emis-
sion without compromising quality and safety
issues. Energy and cost savings may result
from:
• Dimming at off-peak traffic hours
• Reduced maintenance costs
• Burn hour optimization
• Accurate switch on/off
• Real-time control
• Load balancing and Load shedding
• Area-specific settings
• Fast reaction to special traffic or weather
conditions
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Additional Benefits may be caused by implementing centralised Lighting Controls:
• Control cabinet fault monitoring
• Automated reading of digital power meters in control cabinets
• Burn hour reports for proactive bulb change
• High up-time and immediate fault rectification
• One central photocell ensuring uniformity
• Improved quality of light
• Simplified maintenance
• Reducing the costs and CO2 emissions
• Get rid of increasing electricity costs
• Follow CO2 reduction requirements
• Learn about growing electricity demands
• Ease planning of infrastructure
Figure 128
System elements of a centralised lighting control system.
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2.3 Control Processes and Systems
2.3.1 0-10V or 1-10V Dimming Systems
0-10 V is one of the earliest and simplest elec-
tronic lighting control signalling systems; sim-
ply put, the control signal is a DC voltage that
varies between zero and ten volts. The con-
trolled lighting should scale its output so that
at 10 V, the controlled light should be at 100%
of its potential output, and at 0 V it should at
0% output (i.e. ‘Off’). Dimming devices may be
designed to respond in various patterns to the
intermediate voltages, giving output curves
that are linear for: voltage output, actual light
output, power output, or perceived light
output.
For dimmable fluorescent lamps, where it
operates instead at 1-10 V, where 1 V is
minimum of approximately 5 to 10% of the
lumen package and a separate switching relay
is required to turn the luminaires off.
For the entire analogue dimming systems it is
mandatory that cabling and connections are
done in a high quality, otherwise problems of
connections may cause different light levels
or flickering. In fact that these systems are
operate at a very low voltage the cable length
and voltage drop must be considered to allow
optimum signal performance.
Figure 129
1-10V Dimming without relay.
Figure 130
1-10V Dimming with relay.
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In the case of simple control systems these are generally configured as some form of automated switching in the
power supply to a luminaire or group of luminaires. However, more complex systems are generally configured as a
network of devices including luminaires, sensors and control inputs. In most systems the devices are physically
connected using some form of cabled network but, in principle, devices can be controlled using wireless or
infrared communication.
There are several systems in common use for lighting systems and care needs to be taken to specify the
correct type for each component in the system. Two of the most common systems available are DALI
(Digital A ddressable Lighting Interface) and DMX 512 (Digital Multiple x ).
The basic specification for DALI systems is contained in BS EN 60929: 2006:
AC-supplied electronic ballasts for tubular fluorescent lamps — Performance requirements.
The DALI system is largely used for lighting systems in buildings but has been extended so that it can be used
more widely. It controls luminaires via the ballast used to control the lamps. The system is designed to run multiple
luminaires on one circuit but there are devices that can control a series of different DALI clusters thus making it
possible to control all the lights in a large building.
2.3.2 DSI / DALI Lighting Control / Dimming System Description
Based on IEC 60929 and IEC 62386 as these are technical standards for network based systems that control
lighting in building automation, they were established as a successor of 0-10 V lighting control systems, and as
an open standard alternative to Digital Signal Interface (DSI), on which it is based.
IEC 60929 is the first version of the standard and will be withdrawn by the 23rd June 2014. Members of the AG
DALI are allowed to use the Digital Addressable Lighting Interface (DALI) trademark on devices that are compliant
with the current standard.
Each lighting device is assigned a unique static address in the numeric range from 0 to 63, making possible up to
64 devices in a standalone system. Alternatively, DALI can be used as a subsystem via DALI gateways to address
more than 64 devices.
Data is transferred between controller and devices by means of an asynchronous, half-duplex, serial protocol over
a two-wire bus, with a fixed data transfer rate of 1200 bit/s.
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DALI requires a single pair of wires to form the bus for communication to all devices on a single
DALI network. The network can be arranged in a bus or star topology, or a combination of these.
The DALI System is not classified as SELV (Separated Extra Low Voltage) and therefore may be run
next to the mains cables or within a multicore cable that includes mains power.
The DALI data is transmitted using manchester-encoding and has a high signal to noise ratio which
enables reliable communications in the presence of a large amount of electrical noise. DALI employs
a diode bridge in the interface circuitry so that devices can be wired without regard for polarity.
Figure 131
DALI Dimming system diagram.
2.3.3 DMX 512 or DMX 512-A Lighting Control System Description
DMX 512 was designed to control lights and other equipment in the entertainment industry.
In a typical spotlight that has its aiming controlled, three channels may be used, one to dim the
luminaire and one for each axis of rotation. The system has traditionally been used in theatres but
is increasingly being used in architectural feature lighting where the lighting equipment is more
complex.
DMX 512-A is the current standard and is maintained by ESTA (Entertainment Service and
Technology Association). The DMX 512 signal is a set of 512 separate intensity levels (Channels)
that are constantly being updated.
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One DMX link of 512 channels is defined as a
universe; typical theatrical control consoles have
multiple universe outputs. Each Level has 256 steps
divided over a range of 0(zero) to 100 percent.
The DMX 512 follows the RS-485 standard (similar
to QS digital link).
Since 1998 the Entertainment Services and Techno-
logy Association (ESTA) started a permanent revision
process to develop the standard as an ANSI stan-
dard. The resulting revised standard, known officially
as ‘Entertainment Technology—USITT DMX512-A;
‘Asynchronous Serial Digital Data Transmission Stan-
dard’ for Controlling Lighting Equipment and Acces-
sories, was approved by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). It was revised recently and
now is the current standard known as ‘E1.11 - 2008,
USITT DMX512-A’, or just ‘DMX512-A’.
Connectors
DMX512 1990 specifies that where connectors
are used, the data link shall use fivepin XLR style
electrical connectors (XLR-5), with female connectors
used on transmitting (OUT) ports and male connec-
tors on receiving ports.
The use of a 3-pin XLR connector is specifically
prohibited.
DMX512-A (ANSI E1.11-2008) allows the use of
eight-pin modular (8P8C, or ‘RJ-45’) connectors for
fixed installations where regular plugging and unplug-
ging of equipment is not required.
XLR-5 pinout
1. Signal Common
2. Data 1- (Primary Data Link)
3. Data 1+ (Primary Data Link)
4. Data 2- (Optional Secondary Data Link)
5. Data 2+ (Optional Secondary Data Link)
XLR-3 pinout
1. Ground
2. Data 1- (Primary Data Link)
3. Data 1+ (Primary Data Link)
NOTE 1 This connector is prohibited by ANSI - E1.11
standard; DMX+ and DMX- are often swapped.
RJ-45 pinout
1. Data 1+
2. Data 1-
3. Data 2+
4. Not Assigned
5. Not Assigned
6. Data 2-
7. Signal Common (0 V) for Data 1
8. Signal Common (0 V) for Data 2
NOTE 2 The 8P8C modular connector pinout
matches the conductor pairing scheme used by
Category 5 (Cat5) twisted pair patch cables.The avoidance of pins 4 and 5 helps to prevent
equipment damage, if the cabling is accidentally
plugged into a single-line public switched telephone
network phone 2.3.3 DMX 512 or now DMX
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2.3.4 LON (Local Operating Network)
Lighting Control Systems
LON is a networking platform specifically
created to address the needs of control appli-
cations. The platform is built on a protocol for
networking devices over media such as twi-
sted pair, power-lines, fiber-optics, and RF
(radio frequency). It is used for automation of
lighting to serve cities, governments with bet-
ter control of their streetand public realm
lighting; this may include feed-back from the
lights about their operation status or failures
as they are happening.
The communications protocol (known as
LonTalk) is specified by ANSI and accepted
as a standard for control networking known
as ANSI/CEA-709.1-B; and under EN 14908
(European building automation standard).
The protocol is also one of several data
link/physical layers of the BACnet
ASHRAE/ANSI standard for building
automation. ‘Building automation’ does not
only mean ‘inside buildings’, such systems
are now very common and in different areas
of applications based upon specific controls.
Figure 132
DMX Dimming system sample.
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Chapter F
Applications
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1.0 Lighting Design
1.1 Objectives and Constraints
Lighting design can have many different objectives.
Ideally, these objectives are determined by the client
and the designer in collaboration and cover both
outcomes and costs (Figure 133).
The most common objective for a lighting installation
is to allow the users of a space to carry out their work
quickly and accurately, without discomfort. However,
this is a rather limited view of what a lighting installa-
tion can achieve. For traffic routes, the objective of
lighting is to facilitate the safe and rapid movement of
vehicles after dark. For urban areas where people
and traffic may come into conflict, safety is the pri-
mary concern although the appearance of people
and buildings is also important. In areas where crime
is rampant, lighting can be used to enhance security.
Sport facilities are lit at night to encourage their use.
Businesses use lighting to promote their brand and
attract customers. Most lighting installations have to
serve multiple functions. When designing lighting it is
always desirable to identify all the functions that the
lighting is expected to fulfil.
As for constraints, an important aspect of lighting
design is the need to minimise the amount of
electricity consumed, for both financial and
environmental reasons. It is also necessary to
consider the sustainability of the lighting equipment.
This means using materials that can be easily repla-
ced and considering to what extent the equipment
can be recycled at the end of its life. The financial
costs, particularly the capital cost, are always an
important constraint. No one wants to pay more for
something than is absolutely necessary so the
designer needs to be able to justify the proposal in
terms of value for money..
Figure 133
Objectives, outcomes and costs.
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Figure 134
Poor colour rendering produced by sodium lamps; approx. RA 40 depending on manufacturer and type.
1.4 Visual Function
This aspect is related to the lighting required for carrying out tasks without discomfort. Chapter B has shown
how the illuminance incident on the task will affect the level of achievable visual performance. Recommended
illuminances for different areas and applications are given in the ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting
Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’.
Such values apply most of the time to the specific area and do not necessarily need to apply to the whole area.
The traditional way of lighting an exterior place or exterior area has been by the provision of a regular array of
luminaires. For this approach, the average maintained illuminance uniformity is recommended. This approach has
the benefit that the different areas and situations can be carried-out on the horizontal plane anywhere in the urban
environment.
In some cases there may be a need to have a colour recognition element. In such cases it will be necessary to
use lamps with a high general colour rendering index (CRI). For such areas it will be appropriate to use lamps
with up to CRI ≥80 for some applications.
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Figure 135
Good colour rendering approx. RA 70 through LED luminaires with newest technique.
The human visual system can adapt to a wide range of luminances but it can only cope with a
limited luminance range at any single adaptation state. When this range is exceeded, glare will
occur. If a field of view contains bright elements that cause glare, it is likely that they will affect
performance or at least cause stress and fatigue which in turn will cause problems.
To avoid this, luminaires that have limited luminances within the normal fields of view relative to the
adaptation level should be used. Glare limits for different areas and applications are given in the local
norms and standards. For more details please refer to Chapter G / 2.0 and Chapter G / 3.0 and
following pages for samples calculations of different typical streets and areas.
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Visual interest of light; non-uniformityLow => => => => => => => => => High
Leisure
Commercial
Industrial
High => => => => => => => => => LowVisual lightness (brightness)
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Figure 136
Sample of glare from high pole luminaire which is used to
light the road but supplies high level of light to the pedestrian
underpass area.
1.5 Visual Amenity
There is no doubt that lighting can add visual amenity
to a space, which can give pleasure to the occupants,
but whether this provides a tangible increased perfor-
mance benefit is uncertain.
Figure 137
Map showing the possible locations of three application
areas on a schematic diagram linking subjective impressions
of visual interest and visual lightness.
Studies have shown that people respond to the
lit appearance of a space on two independent
dimensions:
• visual lightness
• visual interest
Visual lightness describes the overall lightness of the
space, which is related to the average luminance of
vertical surfaces. Visual interest refers to the non-
uniformity of the illumination pattern or the degree
of ‘light and shade’.
People prefer some modulation in the light pattern
rather than an even pattern of illumination, and is it
the magnitude of the modulation depending on the
application. There is some evidence that visual
lightness and visual interest are inversely correlated
(Figure 137).
Industrial
Commercial
Leisure
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Although variation in the light pattern is desirable, it has to be seen as meaningful in terms of the
application and the architecture or landscape. To provide patches of light in an uncoordinated way
for no reason other than to provide light variation would be a poor design solution. Acceptable
examples could be highlighting seating areas, walkways in a sensitive way or playgrounds and
gates, to allow visitors/users proper orientation and understanding of the space.
Figure 138
Patches of light in well balanced lighting environment.
There are two further principles of visual amenity that need to be considered and these are in the
colour rendering and colour appearance of lighting. The required colour rendering will depend on
the functions the lighting is designed to fulfil. Where good colour discrimination is required,
light sources with a CIE general colour rendering index of at least 80 should be used.
Where a natural appearance is required for people and objects, light sources with a CIE general
colour rendering index of at least 60 and preferably higher should be used.
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Figure 139
Good colour rendering in a well-balanced lighting environment, technical street lighting luminaires are part of the overall design approach,
and the buildings are lit through hidden, glare free flood lights.
As for colour appearance, a light source with a correlated colour temperature (CCT) of +/- 3000K will appear
warm and, one with +/- 5300K, it will appear cool (see Chapter A / 2.9). Where, on this scale from warm to cool,
the colour appearance should be, will depend on the nature of the space or area. The designer and the client
should be, aware of the names and types applied in such a design; light source descriptions and data can be
misleading and differ among manufacturers. It is mandatory to apply correct light colour and colour rendering
during implementation and maintenance.
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Figure 140
Two types of colour of light are used within the same space; in this case to mark a conflict zone in the front part of the picture.
4000K
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1.6 Lighting and Architectural Integration
All elements of a lighting installation contribute to the architecture or the exterior design of a space, area,
street and/or facility. Understanding the use of space will be important when deciding what sort of lighting
is to be employed. The dimensions, finishes, texture and colour of the materials forming the space and the
appearance of the luminaires, lit and unlit, should be considered if the desired atmosphere is to be achieved.
Figures 141, 142
Lighting as integrated element of architecture and space.
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1.7 Energy Efficiency and Sustainability
It is the responsibility of the lighting profession
to use energy as efficiently as possible but at
the same time to provide lit environments that
enable people to operate effectively and com-
fortably.
Energy use involves two components:
• The power demand of the equipment
• Its hours of use.
The lighting industry has worked hard to deve-
lop equipment that has reduced the demand
for electricity for lighting by producing more
efficient light sources and their related control
circuits, as well as more efficient luminaires.
Then there are design options to be con-
sidered, such as the use of area/ambient
lighting rather than a blanket provision of light
by a regular array of the space.
The savings for the area/ambient approach
have been estimated to be up to 50%.
Good energy efficient lighting design is not just
about equipment; it is also about the use of
lighting. There are many examples where
lighting is left on when it is not required. This
may be because there are inadequate lighting
controls (for example: sensors of tunnels or
streets are not working or are not well adju-
sted) or because people are not present
(parks and other facilities are left on until early
morning without use, as they are closed and
lit) and therefore the lighting is unnecessary.
This aspect of lighting design and ownership
needs a dramatic change in attitude to
improve the energy efficiency of all lighting in-
stallations. This requires changes as to how
the lighting is controlled both manually and
automatically as well as how lighting is
provided in terms of the distribution of light,
particularly with respect to the daylighting
availability in some cases. It is also necessary
for the lighting industry and its customers to
use equipment that is sustainable.
This means that the used materials should
whenever possible, come from renewable
sources and that at the end of its life, the
redundant equipment can be disposed of
safely with most of the base materials being
recycled.
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Figures 144, 145
Damaged glass globe above street, pedestrian walkway.
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1.8 Maintenance
It must be recognised that electric light within an
installation will depreciate with time. To minimise the
effect of this a maintenance programme will need to
be designed and implemented. The maintenance
programme will also affect the lighting design and
the designer will need to state the maintenance
programme on which the design has been based,
otherwise, there could be problems when a client is
comparing different design proposals. It will also be
important for the client to be provided with a
maintenance schedule so that they know what will
need to be done. Chapter L discusses the various
factors that need to be considered when developing
a maintenance program for outdoor installations. It is
mandatory to apply the correct maintenance factors
in all light calculations and designs.
See Figures from 143 onwards as samples of long
term poor maintenance undertakings.
Figure143
Damaged street light if left unresolved can be potentially
dangerous as well as not performing its task which is an additional
risk for car drivers and pedestrians.
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Figures 146, 147
Post top lanterns which are damaged by wind may cause danger for nearby pedestrians, loose elements could fall down.
Figures 148, 149, 150Figure 148: The in-ground light is not performing as it was designed, replacement would be required.
Figure 149: The electrical circuit looks like still in use and may cause fatalities in case someone may touch it.
Figure 150: In fact of poor quality or maintenance humidity is shown inside this path luminaire.
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Figures 151, 152
Figure 151: Bollard showing dirt and wildlife inside an IP rated environment.
Figure 152: The luminaire is filled with sand and not performing anymore as designed. A replacement would be required.
The above samples are found in Abu Dhabi city, all the fixtures are in use and/or the circuits switched on during
the night. The maintenance gets more and more difficult for a client as more luminaires are installed. Therefore it is
advised to design carefully and not to use more luminaires than needed. This will ease the maintenance efforts
of the client dramatically.
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1.9 Lighting Costs
Costs are always a major concern for any
project and it is important to consider these
before any work is undertaken. Both the capi-
tal cost and the running, or operational, costs
must be considered at the outset. If the two
cost elements are not considered together in
terms of life cycle costing, then a solution
which has a low capital cost but a high
operational cost could be more costly overall
than an installation with a more expensive
capital cost but a low operating cost.
A conflict of interests may arise if the two cost
elements are paid for from different budgets
or organisations. Here the designer needs to
present a balanced view of the options to
enable the clients to decide on the best
approach. The capital costs include the cost
of the design process, the equipment and the
installation process, both physical and electri-
cal. It also includes the commissioning and
testing of the installation. Allowance must also
be made for any builder’s work that forms part
of the lighting installation. Any other costs that
are particular to the lighting design need to be
included. It is important that the capital cost is
agreed upon an early stage if a lot of time is
not to be wasted. The operational costs
include the cost of the electricity consumed,
which comprises items such as network char-ges, maximum demand charges and electricity
unit costs. They will also include the cost of
maintenance, which comprises cleaning and
relamping throughout the life of the installation.
In some cases charges may have to be
budgeted for the disposal of redundant
equipment although this may be borne by
the supplier or manufacturer.
2.0 Photopic or Mesopic Vision
The photometric quantities used to characte-
rise lighting are all based on photopic vision
(see Chapter B / 2.2 and following). This
makes sense for interior lighting where the
luminances are usually high enough to ensure
the visual system is operating in the photopic
state but there may be problems for exterior
lighting. This is because for adaptation
luminances below about 2-3 cd/m2 (this means
approx. 15-50 lux) peripheral vision is opera-
ting in the mesopic state (see Chapter B /
2.2.3) and exterior lighting sometimes pro-
duces luminances below this level.
This is a problem because the spectral sensiti-
vity of the peripheral retina changes continually
during mesopic vision depending on the adap-
tation luminance, the peak sensitivity moving
from the 555 nm to 507 nm as the adaptation
luminance decreases to the scotopic state.
There is no CIE mesopic observer and, there-
fore no system of mesopic photometry. In this
situation, the simplest approach to ensuringgood mesopic vision in exterior lighting is to
use a light source with a scotopic/photopic
(S/P) ratio greater than 1.5. Such light sources
provide stimulation to both the cone and rod
photoreceptors of the retina.
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The ratio of scotopic luminance (or lumens) versus photopic luminance in a lamp is called the ‘S/P ratio’, which is
a multiplier that determines the apparent visual brightness of a light source as well as how much light a lamp
emits that is useful to the human eye, referred to as visually effective lumens ( VELs ).
See Figure 153 for examples of light sources with S/P greater than 1.5:
Figure 153
Examples of lamps with different S/P ratio, this diagram is valid for all lamps including LED, the higher the Kelvin rating
(colour temperature, e.g. > 4000°K) the better.
Scotopic and Photopic Ratios:
Generally, lamps with high S/P ratios provide sharper vision both outdoors and indoors. So, a 200-watt magnetic
induction lamp would appear just as bright as, or brighter than a sodium vapour or metal halide of twice the wattage.
In the mesopic region the spectral sensitivity of the human visual system is not constant, but changes with lightlevel. This is due to the changing contribution of the rods and cones on the retina. Thus, we need not only one
mesopic spectral sensitivity function, but instead several functions, together with a defined procedure for using
these functions in a photometric measurement system.
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The new mesopic system describes spectral
luminous efficiency, Vmes(λ ), in the mesopic
region as a linear combination of the photopic
spectral luminous efficiency function, V(λ ), and
the scotopic spectral luminous efficiency
function, V’(λ ).
For applying the mesopic photometry, the
S/P-ratio of the light source, derived from
its spectral data, is needed as input value.
This is the ratio of the luminous output
evaluated according to the scotopic V’(λ ),
to the luminous output evaluated according
to the photopic V(λ ). The higher the S/P-ratio
the higher the luminous efficacy of the light
source in terms of the mesopic design.
The use of mesopic dimensioning changes
the luminous output and consequently the
luminous efficacy orders of lamps. Many of
the ‘white light’ sources currently used for
applications such as road lighting have S/P-
ratios between about 0,65 (high pressure
sodium, for example) and 2,50 (certain metal
halide lamps, for example).
The S/P-ratios of warm white LEDs are around
1.15 and those of cool white LEDs around
2.15, depending on their CRI. The use of the
new mesopic system to calculate the effectiveluminance of these white light sources results
in significant changes in their apparent efficacy.
Due to their fast development, LEDs are
increasingly penetrating the lighting markets.
LEDs offer new solutions to various mesopic
applications, too, not least because of the
possibilities of producing light sources with
varying spectral properties. Depending on the
LED spectra, their ranking on a luminous
efficiency scale may be subject to significant
changes if mesopic luminous efficiency
functions are used instead of the photopic.
A CIE system for mesopic photometry will
give manufacturers foundations on which
to develop LEDs that are optimised for low
light level applications. Consequently, the
coming CIE publication on mesopic photo-
metry may also have a major impact on the
evolution and adoption of LEDs as the future
light sources.
As mesopic dimensioning favours ‘white’ light
sources with high S/P-ratio, the extra benefits
from using the mesopic design are good
colour rendering characteristics of the lighting.
This is expected to further pave way for the
use of white LEDs in outdoor lighting.
The use of mesopic photometry will promote
the development of mesopically optimised
lighting products. It will give the manufacturersfoundations on which to develop light sources
that are optimised for low light level applications.
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This will result in better energy efficiency and visual
effectiveness in outdoor lighting conditions. The
accuracy of photometric instrumentation used in
mesopic applications can be increased by taking into
account the actual spectral sensitivity at these levels.
Industry and users should be strongly motivated to
use a photometric method that is valid and functio-
nally relevant.
It must be highlighted that the whole visual environ-
ment is often full of different lighting and lighted ad-
vertising affecting the people’s eyes, means SP ratios
are to be applied very carefully.
For example, the roads are affected very often by over-
loaded lighting scenarios, as people (drivers and, in
different ways, pedestrians) are subjected to headlights,
brake lights, indicators, dashboard lighting, shop-fronts
and many other sources overlaying the lighting from
street fixtures. A visual environment which is often mo-
ving, with the observer also moving at the same time.
Only when all lights applied are designed, placed, in-
stalled and maintained as they should be, the lighting
environment may become a simpler and nicer, more
efficient substance. See Figures 154, 155, 156 to learn
about overly bright light levels and very high light
pollution because S/P ratios and use of luminaires is
not always are controlled as it should be.
Figure 154
Birds-eye view of Abu Dhabi; S/P ratios below and above 1.5 are applied to the scene.
S/P ratio
above 1.5
S/P ratio
below 1.5
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Figure 155
Shop lighting with moving Cold-Cathode effects
and 400W MH lamps without housing, no IP rating
and without any protection against UV-Radiation.
NOTE 1 Such lighting is with high S/P ratios, but in full conflict with other, more safety relevant
lighting issues for cars or traffic lights and it causes a high level of light pollution.
NOTE 2 As per the manufacturers data sheets for such lamps; it is strictly forbidden to use such
lamps outside luminaires, or without UV-protection glass!
Figure 156
Recent street lighting in Abu Dhabi with S/P ratio below 0.5, the decorative lighting has a S/P ratio above 1.5.
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3.0 Light Trespass and Skyglow
Light can be considered a form of pollution. This
is implied by the inclusion of light as a statutory
nuisance as described in local standards like
‘Abu Dhabi Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Speci-
fications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist
Tables’, ‘Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual’,
‘Abu Dhabi UPC Manuals’ or ESTIDAMA, etc.
Exterior lighting is the major source of light pollution.
Complaints about light pollution from exterior lighting
can be divided into two categories, light trespass and
skyglow.
Light trespass is local in that it is associated with
complaints from individuals in a specific location.
The classic case of light trespass is a complaint
about light from a road lighting luminaire entering a
bedroom window and keeping the occupant awake.
Light trespass can be avoided by the careful selec-
tion, positioning, aiming and shielding of luminaires
and by operating a curfew system where lighting is
only available during specified times, all solutions
applied should be within latest ESTIDAMA require-
ments.
The Institution of Lighting Professionals (ILP) has
produced general guidance, which is used in this
handbook to cover this item for all Abu Dhabi Public
Realm areas as follows:
The maximum vertical illuminance that should be
allowed to fall on windows, the maximum luminous
intensity of any obtrusive light source and a maxi-
mum allowed building luminance for floodlighting is
summarised in the Tables below.
These limits are different for different environmental
zones. The idea behind environmental zones is that
some locations are more sensitive to light pollution
than others. Table 23 shows the four environmental
zones identified by the CIE and how they are in line
with local standards like the Abu Dhabi Urban Street
Design Manual.
The limits recommended for Abu Dhabi for limiting
light trespass are given in Table 23.
The environmental zoning system of the CIE and
referenced to local Abu Dhabi environmental zones
as follows:
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Table 23
Environmental zones
Environmental zone:
E1 => Areas with intrinsically dark landscapes: National Parks, areas of outstanding natural beauty (where roads are usually unlit)
NOTE - E1 This area is not used in the Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual.
E2 => Areas of ‘low district brightness’: outer urban and rural residential areas
(where roads are lit to residential road standard)
NOTE - E2 This is to be seen equal to the terms ‘Residential / Emirati Neighbourhood’.
E3 => Areas of ‘middle district brightness’: generally urban residential areas
(where roads are lit to traffic route standard)
NOTE - E3 This is to be seen equal to the terms ‘Residential / Emirati Neighbourhood’ when
mixed with some ‘Commercial’ areas.E4 => Areas of ‘high district brightness’: generally, urban areas having mixed recreational and
commercial land use with high night-time activity
NOTE - E4 This is to be seen equal to the terms ‘Town’, ‘City’, ‘Commercial’ and ‘Industrial’.
Table 24
Environmental zones - levels illuminance and luminance.
Maximum vertical illuminance on windows, maximum luminous intensity for obtrusive luminaires and
maximum building luminance produced by floodlighting, for four environmental zones (Table 24):
NOTE 1 For Abu Dhabi "curfew" means 24:00hours unless stated otherwise in
Estidama or other client's documentation.
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The values in Table 24 are for general guidance only
and may need to be adjusted for specific circum-
stances; in any case the requirements of ESTIDAMA
take precedence. For example, the criteria given
under zone E1 would not preclude the installation
of lighting to meet health and safety requirements.
As for the maximum building luminance, this is
given to avoid over-lighting but should be adjusted
according to the general district brightness.
Skyglow is more diffuse than light trespass in that
it can affect people over great distances. Skyglow
is caused by the multiple scattering of light in the at-
mosphere, resulting in a diffuse distribution of lumi-
nance. The problem this causes is that it reduces the
luminance contrast of all the features of the night sky
thereby reducing the number of stars and other
astronomical phenomena that can be seen. Skyglow
has two components, one natural and one due to
human activity. Natural Skyglow is light from the
moon, planets and stars that is scattered by interpla-
netary dust, and by air molecules, dust particles,
water vapour and aerosols in the Earth’s atmosphere,
and light produced by a chemical reaction of the
upper atmosphere with ultra-violet radiation from the
sun. The luminance of the natural Skyglow at zenith
is of the order of 0.0002 cd/m2 (meaning approx.
0.004 lux)*. The contribution of human activity is
produced by light traversing the atmosphere and
being scattered by dust and aerosols in the atmo-
sphere.
Skyglow can be reduced by limiting the amount of
light used for exterior lighting, by using full-cutoff lu-
minaires that have no upward component (see Chap-
ter D / Table 18) and by adopting a curfew in which
the exterior lighting is either extinguished or reduced
to a lower level when there are few people using it.
For each environmental zone the maximum installed
upward light output ratio of the luminaires used
should be limited as shown in Table 25. Again, this
is general guidance only and may need to be
overturned in specific circumstances.
* Lux level is indicative and only applied to show relation of figures described.
Table 25
Environmental Zone Maximum upward light output ratio (%)
E1 => 0
E2 => 5
E3 => 15
E4 => 25
Maximum installed upward light output ratio; luminous flux emitted above the horizontal plane as a percentage of
the total luminous flux emitted by the luminaire
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Figure 157 shows simple systems sketches of the street lighting luminaires that will help to reduce
the light trespass and Skyglow.
Figure 157
Luminaire systems
Figure 158 shows the principles of light distributed from a street lighting luminaire to the illuminated
surface and its associated light reflections (distributions of light reflected by surfaces).
Figure 158
Light distribution and associated reflections of distributed light.
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4.0 Basic Design Decisions
4.1 Choice of Electric Lighting System
The selection of the luminaire, light source and control system to be used is an important one, if electricity is not
to be wasted and an efficient lighting installation achieved. The first choice to be made will be to determine the
technique to be employed.
For exteriors, the techniques, in order of decreasing energy consumption, can be
sometimes simply categorised as:
• General system:
Providing a uniform illuminance over the whole area/space as required.
• Localised system:
Using luminaires located adjacent to places of interest to provide the illuminance for safety or use,
whilst the overall ambient lighting is provided by the spill light from other luminaires nearby.
Figure 159
Location where spill light from the high mast pole lighting supports the decorative lighting of a pedestrian underpass.
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NOTE 1 Lighting design should be carried out every time under consideration of available light
levels, to allow lowest energy and investment for new installations.
Figure 160
Location where the shadows of a person are produced by adjacent street and flood lighting. The spill l ight of these invisible flood lighting
(in the back) and, street lighting luminaires providing 98% of the illuminance level on the pavement. The wall mounted luminaires are only
for decorative use.
Shadows caused by spill light from adjacent luminaires
For exteriors, a general system is the usual choice where the provision of the required light levels on
different areas like streets, walkways, cycle routes, parks, etc., is to be carried out but much greater
degrees of non-uniformity are acceptable where the function of the lighting is essentially decorative.
The second decision to be made will be the choice of the light source and the luminaire.
The characteristics of available light sources and luminaire types are set out in Chapters C and D
respectively. It is important to appreciate that light sources differ in their luminous efficacy, life, colour
properties, run-up and restrike times and in their ability to be dimmed. Luminaires differ in the
distribution of light and the efficiency with which they emit the light produced by the light source.
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The third choice to be made is the type of control system. Switching luminaires used to be the only viable
approach to take, but now, with high frequency electronic dimmable ballasts dramatically reducing in price,
dimming is a realistic option in some cases. For exterior today especially with LED and also some cases with
fixtures with fluorescent light sources, dimming can be used to reduce energy consumption even when daylight is
absent. This is due to the fact that all lighting is designed for average maintained illuminance, which provides
more light to start with, than is required. For exteriors, switching and dimming can be used to match the
lighting to the patterns of use, for example a supermarket car park does not need to be completely lit at 3 a.m.
Experience has shown that any users at that hour will likely park near the entrance.
There are basically two different forms of lighting control systems: analogue and digital (see Chapter E / 2.0):
• Analogue systems typically use a 1–10 volt protocol providing continuously variable dimming,
not recommended for exterior installations; because of the fact that it is an old technology and switch off
must be provided by additional power relays.
• The digital systems most widely used are DALI and DMX 512(-A) (see Chapter E / 2.3). Both of these systems
provide continuously variable dimming. The advantages of digital over analogue control are many, one of the
most important being the ability to monitor an installation through a two-way communication capability.
This transfer of information makes preventative maintenance and energy monitoring possible, additionally it is
possible to make a ‘zero’ setting, having the fixtures on ‘zero energy’ mode, but in standby. Making them ‘off’
power would sometimes, depending on the system used, require a separate switching module. During design
attention must be put on the fact that ‘power off’ may cause problems during re-start because some fixtures
may not be able to get their addresses as needed/wanted. This problem could be resolved by to choosing the
right fixtures (for example with manual address element) or by programming so that all fixtures in groups are
governed by DALI which instant addresses during every start-up phase.
Control systems can provide the possibility of individual or group addressing, zoning and scene setting.
The recording of energy consumption is also highly desirable if the installation is to provide the information for
monitoring required by the authorities.
Some control systems allow remote monitoring via the internet. This can be of great benefit to cities, governments
with large areas. By monitoring centrally in a region or area, preventative maintenance can be undertaken such as
the anticipation of bulk lamp replacement from the hours-run data.
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4.2 Integration
Integration of a lighting installation takes four forms:
• Integration within the space, architecture, landscaping, exterior design, use of space.
• Integration with other services.
• Integration with daylight; on/off execution of exterior installations.
• Integration with the surroundings.
4.2.1 Integration within the Space
A lighting installation can be visible and express the exterior design or it can disappear into the
background with only its effect being seen. Both approaches rely heavily on attention to detail,
specifically, attention to the appearance of the luminaire, lit and unlit, it is necessary for a design
that is intended to express the exterior design, while attention to the designer’s details is required,
during execution, if the intention is to hide the luminaires.
Figure 161
Lights found well integrated in the space, considering the use of space.
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Figure 162
Lights found which are not well integrated; the green area is overloaded with different types of luminaires,
some of them surplus to requirements.
NOTE 1 The big flood lights mounted on poles are aimed to light the flag,
for safety reasons they must be out of reach.
NOTE 2 Low grade buildings do not require any façade lighting.
NOTE 3 Maintenance issues are covered in Chapter L of this handbook.
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The other aspects of the space, what can inter-
act with the lighting are the reflectances and
colours of the exterior décor and surroun-
dings. Large areas of low reflectance or widely
open spaces reduce the amount of inter-re-
flected light. If interreflected light is planned to
make a significant contribution to the amount
of light delivered, large areas of high reflectance
surfaces or covered areas are needed. As
for surface colour, the extent to which they
interact with the lighting depends on the
saturation of the colour and the area it covers.
Large areas of saturated colour can distort the
colour of the light delivered. However, spaces
without any colour elements can be very
uninteresting. The use of saturated colours
over small areas provides some interest
without distorting the lighting.
4.2.2 Integration with the Surroundings
For exterior lighting, the lighting of the
surrounding area has an impact on the
perception of the brightness of the installation.
The same installation in rural and urban
settings will look very bright in the former
and very dim in the latter. This means that
the maintained illuminance selected needs
to be matched to the illuminances of the
surroundings if the expected appearance
is to be achieved.
Figure 163
Lighting and surroundings are not balanced, due to the glare of the high mast street lighting, the nearby wall mounted ones are not
able to provide the light as needed or as it should be to reach a ‘pleasant’ environment.
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NOTE 1 The camera lens shows in this case, the real impression; and the human eye will add some information
required in previous visits during day and night. Therefore, the pedestrians are able to move around safely.
But the environment is not as pleasant as it should be in order to enjoy the place and the panorama.
4.2.3 Integration with other Services
Especially in outdoor areas, the coordination with all in-ground and sometimes above-ground services as well is
very important. Services like irrigation, storm-water, drainage of grounds in connection with drainage of in-ground
fixtures, power cabling, foundations of planters, or heavily used pedestrian routes (for example glare of inground
lights, surface temperature of in-ground lights, risk-factors of in-ground lights if they are not flush with surface for
pedestrians, children and/or cycle riders), etc. are to be considered and the design shall reflect their interaction
and the required coordination thereof.
Figure 164
Floor mounted pathway lights placed in a way that causes danger for bicycle riding children or elderly people walking along to the bench.
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Creating a landscape design, in general, requi-
res the overlay all of the previously mentioned
parameters. The aim of achieving a harmonious
view together with an attractive landscape de-
sign including all functions will requires compro-
mise.
4.2.4 Integration with Daylight
Daylight is only in some parts of the exterior
lighting design, a matter for which integration or
coordination is possible; like street tunnels en-
trances and exits, pedestrian underpasses or un-
derground car-park facilities entrances and exits.
One of the very important topics, besides provi-
ding the right light levels and other technical pa-
rameters as per local standards, are the controls
of such lighting systems. These controls should
be able to provide artificial light levels in correla-
tion with the daylight levels outside. This means
the people, drivers and/or cyclists should have
no fear when walking or driving into a ‘dark’ hole
or when approaching a street tunnel which may
cause problems of adaption for the eyes of the
driver. All tunnel lighting is therefore designed
with adaption zones and brightness manage-
ment to make sure that in relation to the daylight
the internal lighting of the tunnel is well balanced.
The control elements (sensors) are shall be pla-
ced in safe areas, where no problems are cau-sed for the function or for the programming be-
cause of vandalism or planting. Control elements
(daylight sensors) are to be placed carefully to
make sure operation of sensors and tunnel light
will follow the designed parameters. If such sen-
sors are not working correctly, which could be
caused by shadows of buildings or trees nearby,
the tunnel lighting will service a wrong set-up
and supply higher light levels as required.
This may result on one side in huge additional
amounts of energy costs, but more important is
the fact that the safety of the tunnel is not any-
more guaranteed. Additionally the maintenance
may require more efforts and additional costs.
If daylight sensors in connection with astronomi-
cal-time controllers are used for example to light
up pedestrian underpasses, during day and
night times, reductions on energy bills may be
achieved.
Automatic photo-electric controls can be used
to switch-control electric lighting in response to
daylight. Figure 165 shows the percentage of a
normal year during which the luminaires would
be off, as a function of the orientation-weighted
daylight factor and of the illuminance at which
the luminaires are control-switched; known as
the ‘design’ illuminance. These curves assume
that ‘on’ and ‘off’ switching will occur at the
same illuminance levels. Where this is not the
case, and the luminaires are switched-off at an
illuminance level considerably greater than that
at which they are switched -on, the mean of
the two illuminances should be taken as the
‘design’ illuminance. Such scenarios are to bedeveloped with care and by applying all parame-
ters which are important to allowing the maxi-
mum reduction of energy and maintenance but
at the same time to providing maximum safety
to the users.
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Figure 166
The percentage of the normal year that electric lighting will be switched-off, for different ‘design’ illuminances, assuming a top-up
photoelectric dimming system is applied and controlled through an orientation weighted daylight sensor.
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Figure 165
The percentage of the working year in which that electric lighting will be switched-off; plotted against orientation-weighted daylight factor for
different ‘design’ illuminances, assuming only an on/off photo-electric switching system.
Automatic photoelectric controls can also be used to dim the electric lighting in response to daylight. Figure 166
shows the percentage of a normal year during which the luminaires would have to be switched-off in order to
ensure that the energy saving obtainable by continuous photo-electric dimming to be achieved. It applies to
Project Lighting Management Systems (PLMS) that can control down to 10 percent light output or less. This
could be achieved by most of the luminaires with tube fluorescent and with all LED light sources.
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4.3 Equal and Approved
One problem that frequently affects lighting designs is the substitution with a cheaper luminaire of
the one specified in the original design. Such substitutions are usually made if a project undergoes a
value engineering process. Sometimes, substitutions are justified, sometimes they are not.
The key in determining if a substitution is justified, is a review carried out by the original designer
and/or a fully qualified and experienced third-party to determine if the substitute luminaire is the
same as the originally specified luminaire and approved according to the relevant standards,
i.e. if it is equal and approved. The factors to be considered in the review are the photometric
characteristics, the construction and the aesthetics of the substitute luminaire. In addition, attention
should be paid to the electrical characteristics, conformity to the relevant standards and the impact
on maintenance. Further details of these elements of the review can be found in the ‘DMA Roadway
& Public Realm Lighting Specifications’.
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Chapter G
Road Lighting
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1.0 Road – Public Realm Classification
Road lighting is generally divided into three classes; traffic routes where the needs of the driver are dominant,
subsidiary roads where the lighting is primarily intended for the pedestrian and the cyclist, and urban centres,
where the lighting is designed to do what can be done for public safety and security, while also providing an
attractive night-time environment. The photometric recommendations for all types of road and public realm
lighting in Abu Dhabi are given in this document. Additionally local standards like the ‘Abu Dhabi Urban Street
Design Manual’ to be seen as an global guideline, meaning light levels may differ in the latest local standards
from ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’
in latest version issued which will take precedence.
1.1 Lighting for Traffic Routes
Lighting for traffic routes is lighting designed primarily to meet the requirements of the driver of a motorised
vehicle. Road lighting recommendations identify three distinct situations:
• Traffic routes where motorised vehicles are dominant and move without conflict.
• The edges of roads where pedestrians and cyclists may be at risk, and conflict.
• Areas where streams of motorised vehicles intersect with each other or with pedestrians and cyclists.
2.0 Road Lighting Calculation Tutorial
2.1 Short-Cut Tutorial for DIALux 4.12.0.1- for Standard Street Lighting Calculations
This Tutorial is intended to explain the basic features of the lighting calculation program ‘DIALux’ and how to
design a simple ‘Typical Road with Luminaires’, starting from designing the road to achieving the final luminance
results.
NOTE 1 The lighting calculation program Relux will help to work out results in a similar way. Both programs
(DIALux and Relux) are quite similar in quality of results and in technical, programming and support features.
NOTE 2 The designer should only use luminaires of which light distribution files in formats (*ldt, *uld, *ies)
are available. It is highly recommended to use only luminaires from trusted manufacturers.
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Figure 167
To begin, please choose ‘New Standard Street’- see Figure 168.
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Please start DIALux - see Figure 167.
Figure 168
Select ‘Street 1’ in the Project Tree. Under the ‘General’ tab above the Project Tree, whereby the
Standard can be selected on which the lighting calculation will be based. The two options are:
• the European Standard CIE 140 / EN 13201
• the US Standard IESNA RP-8-00 (to be used for Abu Dhabi)
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Figure 169
For this tutorial, please select IESNA RP-8-00 - see Figure 169.
Figure 170
The default maintenance factor for exterior installations in DIALux is 0.57.
NOTE 1 This value needs to be discussed and confirmed by the client. Other maintenance factors are only possible
by reaching an agreement, and must correspond to a specific maintenance plan, as basic input of the design!
Under the „Maintenance plan method’ tab of ‘Street 1’ whereby the ‘Maintenance Factor’ can be specified -
see Figure 170.
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Figure 172
NOTE 1 This value needs to be discussed and confirmed by the client. Other reflection factors are possible -
the exact information about the surface material and quality of reflection should be obtained, in order to use the
actual design parameters of the project.
In the Project Tree, expand the folder ‘Roadway 1’, by clicking the ‘+’ sign next to it. By selecting ‘Valuation Field
Roadway 1’, which may specify the evaluation class according to the design parameters - see Figure 173.
Figure 173
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Figure 174
In this tutorial example the road will be categorised as a ‘Local high pedestrian conflict’,
which is comparable to a ‘Street’ as described in ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting
Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’.
Under the ‘Calculation Grid’ tab, above the Project Tree, you may choose the Illuminance Class may
be chosen from the drop-down menu. Please choose ‘Local High Ped. Confl.’ - see Figure 174.
The next step is to specify the evaluation method according to IESNA RP-8-00. For standard roads,
the ‘Luminance Method’ is recommended, and is also the default in DIALux (the second drop-down
menu of the ‘Illuminance Class’) - see Figure 175
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Figure 175
Right-click ‘Street 1’ in the Project Tree, and choose ‘Insert Street Arrangement’ from the menu - see Figure 176.
Figure 176
The options for the street arrangement appear above the Project Tree. The first tab is called ‘Luminaire’ and
shows the type of luminaire to be used. The luminaire calculation files must be imported in DIALux before they are
available in the drop-down menu of this tab. Different ‘Luminaire Calculation Files’ are available from the different
manufacturers websites or through DIALux Plugins - see Figure 177.
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Figure 177
The ‘Pole / Boom’ tab shows different options of the boom (bracket) and the pole arrangement to
be selected - see Figure 178.
Figure 178
NOTE 1 It is important to specify the ‘Distance Pole to Roadway’, the ‘Mounting Height’
of the Luminaire and the „Pole Distance’.
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Figure 179
Please click ‘Insert’ to select the configured luminaire arrangement. Right-click ‘Street 1’ and choose
‘3D Standard View’ from the pop-up menu - see Figure 180 and Figure 181.
Under the ‘Arrangement’ tab, the typical pole arrangement may be chosen:
• Single row on the bottom placed.
• Double row opposing.
• Etc.
See Figure 179.
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Figure 180
Figure 181
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Figure 184
Figure 185
After the program has completed calculation data may be selected as should be extracted and
printed as PDF file – see Figure 185. At the bottom of the project tree, click on the ‘Output’ tab.
In the Output Project Tree, expand ‘Street1’, then ‘Valuation Fields’ and then ‘Valuation Fields
Roadway 1’ under it. By double-clicking on the first sheet, ‘Results overview’, the results will appear.
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Figure 186
In this example the requirements are met – see Figure 186.
NOTE 1 Please note, that however the value for Lav is 1.11 cd/m² instead of 0.6 cd/m², as per the DMA Lighting
Specifications.
NOTE 2 The aim is, to try, to get as close as possible to the given values of the applicable standards, to design the
lighting as efficient as possible.
NOTE 3 All needed safety is implemented by using correct parameters for design of road, luminaires and poles,
including maintenance factor. This means that there is no need to ‘over-design’ or to provide more luminance as the
values required by the DMA Lighting Specifications. This will only cause higher investment costs, higher energy and
running costs!
NOTE 4 In this case (sample calculation of tutorial) the value of 1.11 cd/m² in comparison to the required value of
0.6 cd/m² would end up with approximately 75% higher cost in all aspects, as described under NOTE 3!
NOTE 5 The ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist
Tables’ requirements for ‘Streets’ asks for:
• Average maintained luminance Lav = 0.6 cd/m²
• Uniformity ratio u0 = Lmin/Lav = 0.4
NOTE 6 The ‘RP-8-00 method’ will not show the uniformity ratio, therefore the sheet with
‘Isolines (L, IESNA RP-8-00)’ will be helpful – see Figures 187, 189.
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Figure 187
In this example calculation Lmin = 0.65 cd/m² and Lav = 1.11 cd/m²; This means that u0 = Lmin/Lav = 0.59.
In order to achieve a more efficient result in this example, the pole distance is to be increased.
By applying a pole distance of 28m it is possible to fulfil all the requirements (see Figure 188)
without having values which are much higher than the standard ones – see Figure 189.
Figure 188
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Figure 189
In developing the skills, different configurations and situations can be calculated, as it is explained under the
following paragraphs in this handbook.
3.0 Lighting Recommendations for Traffic Routes
The primary function of the lighting of traffic routes is to make other vehicles on the road visible. Road lighting
does this by producing a difference between the luminance of the vehicle and the luminance of its immediate
background, the road surface. This difference is achieved by increasing the luminance of the road surface
above that of the vehicle so that the vehicle is seen in silhouette against the road surface.
3.1 Design Criteria used to define Lighting for Traffic Routes
Average Road Surface Luminance:
The luminance of the road surface averaged (maintained) over the carriageway (cd/m2 ).
3.1.1 Overall Luminance Uniformity (U0 ) means Lmin /Lav
The ratio of the lowest luminance (maintained) at any point on the carriageway to the average luminance
of the carriageway.
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3.1.2 Longitudinal Luminance Uniformity (U\)
The ratio of the lowest to the highest luminance (maintained) found along a line along the centre of a
driving lane. For the whole carriageway, this is the lowest longitudinal luminance uniformity found for
the driving lanes of the carriageway.
3.1.3 Threshold Increment
A measure of the loss of visibility caused by disability glare from the road lighting luminaires.
Quantitatively, percentage threshold increment is given by the expression
TI = 65 (Lv / L0.8 )where:
Lv = equivalent veiling luminance (cd/m2
) (see Chapter B / 2.11)L = average road surface luminance – maintained – (cd/m2 )
3.1.4 Surround Ratio
The average illuminance (maintained) just outside the edge of the carriageway in proportion to the
average illuminance just inside the edge of the carriageway.
Traffic routes are divided generally into different classes. The different classes normally are based on
the type of road, the average daily traffic flow (ADT), the speed of vehicles, the type of vehicles in the
traffic and the frequency of conflict areas and pedestrians. Table 26 specifies the different classes
and identifies the recommend lighting criteria for Abu Dhabi. Details of the recommended lighting
criteria for dry roads are given in Table 27 (IESNA standard adopted, see notes below).
These are the lighting criteria adopted for Abu Dhabi as given in the ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm
Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’. The aim of this table is
to understand that the values given specifically as adapted to the needs of Abu Dhabi road and
traffic safety.
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For all Tables 26 to Table 27 following notes are to be considered:
(1) ‘DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’
comprise the strict standard for all values given within this Handbook.
(2) Lighting classes are adopted to fit into the Abu Dhabi standards.
(3) Lighting Class ME2 is to be adopted as per DMA Lighting Specifications either to 1.3 cd/m2 or 1.5 cd/m2,
this means either approximately 20 lux or 25 lux, see item (6).
(4) Lighting Class ME4a is to be adopted as per DMA Lighting Specifications to 1.0 cd/m2,
this means approximately 15 lux, see item (6).
(5) DMA Lighting Specifications are not referring to ‘S’-classes, the ‘Surrounding Factor’ for all areas near or
beside streets should be approximately 0.5 (50%) of the relevant street illuminance, depending on the location.
Outside cities a maximum width of the adjacent area is to be confirmed, to allow sustainable design.
The designer must obtain approval by the client for all values used in the design.
(6) Lighting calculations with results given as luminance values (cd/m2 ); as output of lighting calculation
programs e.g. DIALux are only possible for straight standard streets, this is valid for all types of streets as per
DMA Lighting Specifications. For all other areas, like conflict zones, curvy roads, pedestrian crossings, etc.
the results out of the different calculation programs are given as illuminance values (Lux). Therefore the tables
are sometimes fitted with approximate illuminance values to show correlation between luminance and
illuminance values. These values are not to be understood as strictly correct mathematically, and are only
applied for a better understanding of the relationship between the different units.
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3.2 Lighting Classes for Traffic Routes
Road classification as per DMA Roadway & Public Realm Lighting Specification and
Roadway Compliance Checklist Tables (1):
Table 26
Lighting recommendations for traffic routes.
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Luminaire classes to control the disability glare:
Table 28
Luminaire classes for the control of disability glare.
NOTE 1 The higher the ‘G’-class the better! Luminaires with low G-classes should not be used in
general for street lighting.
3.3 Samples of Street Lighting Calculations
The following street lighting calculations are developed based on latest DMA LightingSpecifications for street and public realm lighting.
The following street lighting calculations are done by using the DIALux lighting calculation software in
latest version. The tutorial (see Chapter G / 2.0 Road Lighting Calculation Tutorial) shows the exact
way how to set up and calculate all the samples shown in this part of the handbook.
The sample street lighting calculations are divided into following parts:
The samples below are the basic input for design and layout of the all streets including bends
and conflict zones as follows:
• Typical Highway
• Typical Boulevard
• Typical Avenue
• Typical Street
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NOTE 1 It is to be considered that these ‘typical’ street lighting calculations are done to determine the luminance in
cd/m², the pole spacing, the set-back of poles, the pole height, the length of the bracket used, the power of
luminaires and the light distribution.
NOTE 2 To receive results in cd/m² the street lighting calculation must be done on a straight piece.
NOTE 3 All other types or combinations, like conflict zones, sidewalks and landscaping zones will show results
only as illuminance in lux (lx).
NOTE 4 All street lighting calculations are to be done based on confirmed factors for:
• Maintenance
• Type of source – Discharge (MH) or LED
• CRI
• Colour of light (K)
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3.3.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Highway Layout
Figure 191
3D false-colour rendering of a typical highway street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Figure 190
3D Rendering of a typical highway street lighting layout.
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3.3.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Boulevard Layout
Table 29
Table of results for a typical highway lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications, results provided by DIALux in cd/m².
Figure 192
3D Rendering of a typical boulevard street lighting layout.
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Figure 193
3D false-colour rendering of a typical boulevard street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 30
Table of results for a typical boulevard street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in cd/m².
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3.3.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Avenue Layout
Figure 194
3D Rendering of a typical
avenue street lighting layout.
Figure 1953D false-colour rendering of
a typical avenue street
lighting layout, including
approximate lux (lx) levels
shown by different colours.
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Table 31
Table of results for a typical avenue street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in cd/m².
3.3.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Street Layout
Figure 196
3D Rendering of a typical street lighting layout.
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Figure 197
3D false-colour rendering of a typical street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx)
levels shown by different colours.
Table 32
Table of results for a typical street l ighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications, results provided by DIALux in cd/m².
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3.3.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a curvy Street Layout
Figure 199
3D false-colour rendering of a curvy street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Figure 198
3D Rendering of a curvy street lighting layout.
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Table 33
Table of results for a curvy street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications, results provided by DIALux in lx.
3.4 Lighting Recommendations for Areas
adjacent to the Carriageway
People and objects adjacent to the carriageway need
to be seen by the driver. Such locations include
unmade verges, footways and cycle paths and the
emergency lanes of motorways. For all traffic routes
other than heavily used footways and cycle tracks
and the emergency lanes of motorways, lighting of
the area adjacent to the carriageway should conform
to the surround ratio of at least 0.5, means 50% of
street luminance or illuminance values, if no othercarriage way is adjacent with its own given values.
For traffic routes with heavily trafficked footways and
cycle tracks an appropriate lighting criterion should
be selected. Which criterion is selected will depend
on the lighting class used for the carriageway.
To ensure adequate illuminance uniformity, the actual
maintained average horizontal illuminance should not
be more than 1.5 times greater than the minimum
maintained average horizontal illuminance.
Emergency lanes on motorways should be lit to
lighting class ME5 (see Table 27).
3.5 Lighting Recommendations
for Conflict Areas
A conflict area is one in which traffic flows merge or
cross, e.g. at intersections or roundabouts, or where
vehicles and other road users are in close proximity,
e.g. on a shopping street or at a pedestrian crossing.
Lighting for conflict areas is intended for drivers
rather than pedestrians. The criteria used to definelighting for conflict areas are based on the illuminance
on the road surface rather than road surface lumi-
nance. This is because drivers’ viewing distances
may be less than the 60m assumed for traffic routes
and there are likely to be multiple directions of view.
The criteria used for the lighting of conflict areas are:
3.5.1 Average Road Surface Illuminance
The illuminance (maintained) of the road surface
averaged over the carriageway (lx).
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3.5.2 Overall Illuminance Uniformity (U0 )
The ratio of the lowest illuminance (maintained) at any point on the carriageway to the average
illuminance (maintained) of the carriageway.
The recommendations for the lighting class for conflict areas are given in ‘DMA Roadway & Public
Realm Lighting Specifications and Roadway Project Compliance Checklist Tables’. These recom-
mendations can be applied to all parts of the conflict area or only to the carriageway when separate
recommendations are used for pedestrians or cyclists.
The lighting recommendations for crosswalks are given with 30 lx, conflict areas are
to reach 2.0 cd/m2. The uniformity should stay with U0 0.4 for both.
A specific form of conflict area is the pedestrian crossing. Where a pedestrian crossing is close to a
junction it is treated simply as part of the conflict area but where it occurs in isolation there are two
possibilities for lighting.
• To use the normal lighting of the traffic route with the crossing positioned at the midpoint between
luminaires.
• Or to use additional local lighting. The local lighting approach is recommended when the traffic
routes are lit to less than lighting class ME3 (see Table 27) or the crossing is located on a bend,
on the brow of a hill or where the relative positions of the crossing and road lighting luminaires
cannot be coordinated. The local lighting should illuminate the crossing to a higher illuminance
than is provided on the roads approaching the crossing. The suitable lighting class for horizontal
illuminance one step higher as the one used for the street. The local lighting should have strong
vertical component to ensure that pedestrians are positively illuminated but care must be taken
to control glare towards drivers (Chapter G / 3.1 / Table 28).
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3.6 Samples of typical Conflict Area Lighting Calculations
3.6.1 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Two Lane Roundabout Layout
Figure 200
3D Rendering of a typical two
lane roundabout street lighting
layout.
Figure 201
3D false-colour rendering of a
typical two lane roundabout
street lighting layout, including
approximate lux (lx) levels shown
by different colours.
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Table 34
Table of results for a typical two lane roundabout street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in lx.
3.6.2 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical
One Lane Roundabout Layout
Figure 202
3D Rendering of a typical one lane roundabout street lighting layout.
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Figure 203
3D false-colour rendering of a typical one lane roundabout street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 35
Table of results for a typical one lane roundabout street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in lx.
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3.6.3 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Street (mini)
Roundabout Layout
Figure 204
3D Rendering of a typical street (mini) roundabout street lighting layout.
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Figure 205
3D false-colour rendering of a typical street (mini) roundabout street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 36
Table of results for a typical street (mini) roundabout street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in lx.
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3.6.4 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Junction of
Boulevard / Boulevard Layout
Figure 206
3D Rendering of a typical junction of boulevard/boulevard street lighting layout.
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Figure 207
3D false-colour rendering of a typical junction of boulevard/boulevard street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 37
Table of results for a typical junction of boulevard/boulevard street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in lx.
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3.6.5 Sample of a Street Lighting Calculation for a typical Junction of
Street / Street Layout
Figure 208
3D Rendering of a typical junction of street/street lighting layout.
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Figure 209
3D false-colour rendering of a typical junction of street/street lighting layout, including approximate lux (lx) levels shown by different colours.
Table 38
Table of results for a typical junction of street/street lighting layout, showing conformity with DMA Lighting Specifications,
results provided by DIALux in lx.
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3.7 Coordination
It is obviously important that the lighting of conflict areas should be coordinated with that of the
traffic routes. Where two traffic routes, which are lit to different classes lead into the same conflict
area, the match should be made to the higher traffic route class.
3.8 Traffic Route Lighting Design Fundamentals
The design process for traffic route lighting consists of the following stages:
3.8.1 Selection of the Lighting Class and Definition of relevant Area
The lighting class of the carriageway is selected (Chapter G / Table 26 and 27). The nature and
extent of adjacent areas and any conflict areas are identified and the lighting approach to be used
chosen. The compatible lighting classes for adjacent areas and conflict areas are selected.
Please see also recent applicable local DMA Lighting Specifications for detailed information about
selection lighting classes for all areas.
3.8.2 Collection of Preliminary Data
The following data is required before calculation can start:
• Mounting height
• Luminaire type and optic setting
• Lamp type
• Initial luminous flux of lamp
• IP rating of luminaire
• Cleaning interval planned for luminaire
• Pollution category for location
• Luminaire maintenance factor
• Lamp replacement interval
• Lamp lumen maintenance factor at replacement interval
• Maintenance factor
• Luminaire tilt
•Width of carriageway
• Width of driving lane
• Width of adjacent areas
• Luminaire transverse position relative to the calculation grid
• Luminaire arrangement
• other client specific data.
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The emphasis given to maintenance factors in this list arises from the fact that the lighting recommendations are
made in terms of minimum maintained average values. Table 39 sets out typical luminaire maintenance factors to
be applied for different locations, luminaires and cleaning intervals. In this table, high pollution generally occurs in
the centre of large urban areas and heavy industrial areas; medium pollution occurs in semi-urban, residential and
light industrial areas while low pollution occurs in rural areas Luminaires are classified by the protection against