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CLAYTON STATE UNIVERSITY
BIOL1152L Course Documents
Updated 1/8/2014
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Table of Contents LAB 1: Special Senses ................................................................................................................................ 2
Pre-Lab Assignment 1: Eyes and Ears................................................................................................................................. 2
Special Senses In-Lab Assignment ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Eye and Ear ID Sheet .......................................................................................................................................................... 8
LAB 2: Endocrine System .......................................................................................................................... 9
Endocrine In-Lab Assignment .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Endocrine System ID Sheet .............................................................................................................................................. 12
LAB 3: Heart Anatomy ............................................................................................................................ 13
Pre-Lab Assignment 3: Heart Anatomy .............................................................................................................................. 13
Heart Anatomy In-Lab Assignment .................................................................................................................................. 15
Heart ID Sheet ................................................................................................................................................................... 18
LAB 4: Cardiovascular Physiology .......................................................................................................... 19
Cardiovascular Physiology In-Lab Assignment .................................................................................................................. 19
Blood Vessel ID Sheet ...................................................................................................................................................... 24
LAB 5: Respiratory System Anatomy ...................................................................................................... 25
Pre-Lab Assignment 5: Respiratory System Anatomy ........................................................................................................ 25
Respiratory Anatomy In-Lab Assignment .......................................................................................................................... 26
Respiratory System ID Sheet ............................................................................................................................................ 28
LAB 6: Respiratory System Physiology .................................................................................................... 29
Respiratory System Physiology In-Lab Assignment ........................................................................................................... 29
LAB 7: Digestive System .......................................................................................................................... 31
Digestive System In-Lab Assignment ................................................................................................................................ 31
Digestive System ID Sheet ............................................................................................................................................... 36
LAB 8: Urinary System ............................................................................................................................ 37
Urinary System In-Lab Assignment ................................................................................................................................... 37
Urinary System ID Sheet .................................................................................................................................................. 41
LAB 9: Acid-Base Balance ....................................................................................................................... 42
Acid-Base Balance In-Lab Assignment .............................................................................................................................. 42
REFERENCE MATERIAL/STUDY GUIDES ......................................................................................... 44
Instructions for Printing/Copying PAL Images for Studying ........................................................................................... 44
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LAB 1: Special Senses
Pre-Lab Assignment 1: Eyes and Ears
Don’t forget to type your name on the assignment. Type up the answers and turn in at the BEGINNING of lab.
Part I: Extrinsic Eye Muscles
There are six extraocular (extrinsic) muscles that move the eyeball. Fill in Table 1 with the location, action, and
cranial nerve innervation for each of the extrinsic muscles.
Table 1: Extraocular (extrinsic) Muscles
Muscle Location Action Cranial Nerve
Innervation
Superior rectus muscle
Inferior rectus muscle
Medial rectus muscle
Lateral rectus muscle
Superior oblique
muscle
Inferior oblique muscle
Part II: Eye Anatomy
You should be familiar with the following terms before coming to lab. Look up the functions of each of the
following structures.
Conjunctiva ________________________________________________________________________
Sclera ____________________________________________________________________________
Cornea ___________________________________________________________________________
Iris _______________________________________________________________________________
Pupil ______________________________________________________________________________
Lens ______________________________________________________________________________
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Ciliary body ________________________________________________________________________
Choroid ___________________________________________________________________________
Retina ____________________________________________________________________________
Part III: Ear Anatomy
You should be familiar with the following terms before coming to lab. Look up the functions of each of the
following structures.
Auricle (pinna) ________________________________________________________________________
External auditory meatus (canal) __________________________________________________________
Tympanic membrane ___________________________________________________________________
Auditory ossicles _______________________________________________________________________
Eustachian tube _______________________________________________________________________
Vestibule _____________________________________________________________________________
Semicircular canals _____________________________________________________________________
Cochlea ___________________________________________________________________________
Oval Window __________________________________________________________________________
Round Window ________________________________________________________________________
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Special Senses In-Lab Assignment
Part I: Testing Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Determine which extraocular muscles are responsible for moving the eyeballs in each direction. Also, list
the cranial nerve(s) involved.
1. Trace a line in the air about one foot in front of your partner’s eyes, moving from your partner’s left to right.
Have your partner follow your finger without moving his or her head. Which extraocular muscles produce the
movement to the right for each eye? List which cranial nerve(s) are involved.
Right eye ____________________________________________________________________
CN(s) ______________________________________________________
Left eye ______________________________________________________________________
CN(s) ______________________________________________________
2. Trace a diagonal line, starting at the upper right corner and moving to the lower left corner. Have your
partner follow your finger again. Which extraocular muscles produce the movements to the lower left for each
eye?
Right eye ____________________________________________________________________
CN(s) ______________________________________________________
Left eye ______________________________________________________________________
CN(s) ______________________________________________________
3. Trace a horizontal line from right to left having your partner following your finger. Which extraocular
muscles produce the movement to the left for each eye?
Right eye ____________________________________________________________________
CN(s) ______________________________________________________
Left eye ______________________________________________________________________
CN(s) ______________________________________________________
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4. Trace another diagonal, this time from your partner’s lower right to the upper left, and have your partner
follow along. Which extraocular muscles produce the movements to the upper left for each eye?
Right eye ____________________________________________________________________
CN(s) ______________________________________________________
Left eye ______________________________________________________________________
CN(s) ______________________________________________________
5. Test your partner’s vision by having her/him stand 20 feet from a Snelling chart, covering one eye, and
reading the largest line and progressing to the smallest line he/she is able to see clearly. Record the ratio (e.g.,
20/30) next to the smallest line your partner can read. Repeat for the other eye. Are the two eyes different?
What cranial nerve is responsible for sending these visual signals to the brain?
Ratio (Left Eye): _______________________
Ratio (Right Eye): ______________________
CN(s) ___________________________________________________________
Part II: Eyeball Dissection
1. Examine the external anatomy of the eyeball.
2. Identify the structures on your ID sheet.
3. Use scissors to remove the eye lashes and the adipose tissue surrounding the eyeball. Identify the optic
nerve on the posterior side of the eyeball.
4. Hold the eyeball at its anterior and posterior poles (thumb on cornea, index finger on optic nerve), and
use a sharp scalpel or scissors to make an incision in the frontal plane. Do NOT hold the eyeball in your
hand. Hold it on the dissection mat. Be CAREFUL, you may spray the fluid. The aqueous humor and
vitreous humor will spill out.
5. Complete the incision, and separate the anterior and posterior portions of the eyeball. Take care to
preserve the retina, the thin, delicate inner layer.
6. The vitreous humor (body) is gelatinous and will look like a lump of jelly.
7. Pull out circular lens (very hard). The black ring is the ciliary body.
8. The pupil is the hole. Next to pupil are the pupillary dilator muscles.
9. In the back of the eye you will see a very thin, delicate area that is easily detached. This is the retina.
10. Gently pick the retina up with the probe and locate the area where it is attached. The attachment site is
the optic disc.
11. The black (or brown) layer behind the retina is the choroid. This area is dark because of the rich blood
supply.
12. The blue/green iridescent area is the tapetum lucidum. This structure is not found in human eyes.
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Part III: Hearing Tests
Two clinical tests are used to determine hearing loss, the Weber test and the Rinne test. Conductive hearing
loss results from interference of sound conduction through the outer and/or middle ear. Sensorineural hearing
loss results from damage to the inner ear or the vestibulocochlear nerve. A tuning fork is placed directly on the
bones of the skull to evaluate bone conduction, the ability to hear the vibrations transmitted through the bone.
The fork is then placed near the ear, not touching bone, to evaluate air conduction, the ability to hear the
vibrations transmitted through the air.
Review the principles behind these two tests.
Weber Test
1. Obtain a tuning fork with a frequency of 500-1,000 Hz.
2. Hold the tuning fork by the base, and strike it lightly. The fork should begin ringing softly. If it is ringing
too loudly, grasp the tines to stop it from ringing, and try again.
3. Place the base of the vibrating tuning fork on the midline of your partner’s head.
4. Ask your partner if the sound is heard better in one ear or if the sound is heard equally in both ears. If
the sound is heard better in one ear, this is called lateralization.
Was the sound lateralized? If yes, to which ear? _____________________________
5. To illustrate what it would sound like if the sound were lateralized, have your partner place his or her finger
in one ear. Repeat the test.
a. In which ear was the sound heard better? __________________
b. If a patient has conduction deafness, in which ear do you think the sound will be heard most
clearly (the deaf ear or the good ear)? ______________________________
Why? (If you are confused, think about your results when one ear was plugged.)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
c. If a patient has sensorineural deafness, in which ear do you think the sound will be best heard?
_____________________________________________________________________
Rinne Test
1. Strike the tuning for lightly to start it ringing.
2. Place the base of the tuning fork on your partner’s mastoid process.
3. Time the interval during which your partner can hear the sound. Your partner will have to tell you
when he or she can no longer hear the ringing.
Time interval in seconds: ___________________________________________________
4. Once your partner cannot hear the ringing, quickly move the still-vibrating tuning fork 1-2cm lateral to
the external auditory canal (the fork should not be touching your partner at this points).
5. Time the interval from the point when you moved the tuning fork in front of the external auditory
canal to when your partner can no longer hear the sound.
Time interval in seconds: ______________________________
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Which situation tested bone conduction? _______________________________
Which situation tested air conduction? _________________________________
6. Typically, the air-conducted sound is heard twice as long as the bone-conducted sound. For example,
if the bone-conducted sound was heard for 15 seconds, the air-conducted sound should be heard for
30 seconds.
Were your results normal? _____________________________________________________
What type of deafness is present if the bone-conducted sound is heard longer than the air-conducted
sound? _________________________________________________________
Critical Thinking
Otosclerosis is a condition that results in irregular ossification (bone formation) around the stapes bone. Would
you expect this to result in conductive or in sensorineural hearing loss? What results would you expect from the
Rinne and Weber tests in an individual with otosclerosis?
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Eye and Ear ID Sheet
Eye and Ear Identification
You should be able to identify and name one function for all of the following structures. Be able to identify
structures on the models, dissections, and PAL 3.0.
Sheep Eye – External 1. Sclera
2. Optic Nerve
3. Extrinsic Muscles
4. Cornea
5. Pupil
Sheep Eye – Dissected
6. Vitreous Humor
7. Lens
8. Iris
9. Ciliary Body
10. Choroid
11. Retina
12. Optic Disk
Eye Models – Extrinsic Muscles
(You should be able to name each muscle and give
its specific motion. “Moves eye” is not sufficient.)
13. Superior Rectus Muscle
14. Inferior Rectus Muscle
15. Medial Rectus Muscle
16. Lateral Rectus Muscle
17. Superior Oblique Muscle
18. Inferior Oblique Muscle
Eye Models – Other Structures
19. Cornea
20. Pupil
21. Iris
22. Sclera
23. Choroid
24. Lens
25. Vitreous Humor
26. Pupillary Dilator Muscles
27. Pupillary Constrictor Muscles
28. Retina
29. Optic Nerve
Ear Models
30. Auricle
31. External Auditory Meatus
32. Tympanic Membrane
33. Auditory Tube
34. Cochlea
Inner Ear Models
35. Tympanic Membrane
36. Malleus
37. Incus
38. Stapes
39. Oval Window
40. Cochlea
41. Vestibule
42. Semicircular Canals
43. Round Window
44. Cranial Nerve VIII
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LAB 2: Endocrine System
Endocrine In-Lab Assignment
Part I: Endocrine Organ Functions
Fill in Table 1 for each of the following structures. Use your textbook as a reference.
1. Pituitary Gland 7. Adipose Tissue
2. Thyroid Gland 8. Kidneys
3. Parathyroid Glands 9. Testis
4. Adrenal Glands 10. Ovaries
5. Pancreas 11. Thymus
6. Heart
Table 1: Endocrine Organ Functions
Endocrine Structure Hormone(s) Secreted Functions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Endocrine Structure Hormone(s) Secreted Functions
8.
9.
10.
11.
Part II: PhysioEx Review
1. PhysioEx – Thyroid Experiment
a. Briefly describe the regulation of thyroid hormone secretion.
b. How does TSH affect the basal metabolic rate?
c. Explain how goiter can develop.
2. PhysioEx – Glucose Experiment
a. Briefly explain the regulation of blood glucose levels.
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b. Differentiate between the two types of diabetes mellitus.
3. PhysioEx – Hormone Replacement Experiment
a. How do estrogen levels affect bone density?
4. PhysioEx – HPA Axis Experiment
a. Briefly describe the regulation of glucocorticoid release from the adrenal glands.
b. Differentiate between Cushing’s syndrome and Addison’s disease
Critical Thinking
In each of the four experiments conducted in your PhysioEx activities, you saw how hormone release is
controlled by a negative feedback mechanism. Explain how negative feedback works, and give a specific
example from your PhysioEx experiments.
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Endocrine System ID Sheet
Endocrine Identification
You should be able to identify and name one function for all of the following structures. Be able to identify
structures on the models and PAL 3.0 (where possible).
Major Endocrine Glands 1. Pituitary Gland
2. Thyroid Gland
3. Parathyroid Glands
4. Adrenal Glands
Organs that have Endocrine Functions (You should be able to name one endocrine function of each of these organs.)
5. Pancreas
6. Liver
7. Spleen
8. Duodenum
9. Kidneys
10. Heart
11. Adipose Tissue
Male Reproductive Organs 12. Ductus Deferens
13. Epididymis
14. Testis
Female Reproductive Organs 15. Uterus
16. Ovary
Other Glands 17. Thymus
18. Lacrimal Gland
19. Parotid Gland
a. Parotid Duct
20. Sublingual Gland
21. Submandibular Gland
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LAB 3: Heart Anatomy
Pre-Lab Assignment 3: Heart Anatomy
Part I: Structures
You should be familiar with the following terms before coming to lab. Look up the functions of each of the
following structures.
Pericardium ________________________________________________________________________
Myocardium _______________________________________________________________________
Endocardium _______________________________________________________________________
Atria (right & left) ___________________________________________________________________
Ventricles (right & left) _______________________________________________________________
Tricuspid valve ______________________________________________________________________
Bicuspid valve _______________________________________________________________________
Pulmonary semilunar valve _____________________________________________________________
Aortic semilunar valve _________________________________________________________________
Chordae tendinae _____________________________________________________________________
Papillary muscles _____________________________________________________________________
Superior vena cava ____________________________________________________________________
Inferior vena cava _____________________________________________________________________
Aorta _______________________________________________________________________________
Pulmonary trunk ______________________________________________________________________
Pulmonary veins ______________________________________________________________________
Moderator band______________________________________________________________________
Coronary Vessels_____________________________________________________________________
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Part II: Blood Flow Through the Heart
Answer the following questions about the blood flow pathway through the heart. Use your textbook as a
reference.
1. Veins:
a. Where do veins carry blood? ________________________________________________________
b. Is this blood generally oxygenated or deoxygenated? _____________________________________
c. Does this rule have any exceptions? If yes, where? ______________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. Arteries:
a. Where do arteries carry blood? _______________________________________________________
b. Is this blood generally oxygenated or deoxygenated? _____________________________________
c. Does this rule have any exceptions? If yes, where? _______________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. Where does each atrium pump blood when it contracts?
Right atrium: _______________________________________________________________________
Left atrium: ________________________________________________________________________
4. Where does each ventricle pump blood when it contracts?
Right ventricle: _____________________________________________________________________
Left ventricle: ______________________________________________________________________
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Heart Anatomy In-Lab Assignment
Part I: Heart Dissection
1. Determine the superior aspect and the inferior aspect of the heart. The superior aspect of the heart is the broad
end (base), and the inferior aspect (apex) is the pointy tip. Determine the anterior and posterior sides. The
anterior view has the diagonal anterior interventricular artery. The top of the heart has veins coming out.
1. Start at bottom of heart
2. Snip off flabby membrane and peel back
3. Peel back pericardium as far as possible
4. Go a couple of inches above heart, snip through pericardium & remove
5. Translucent cover wrapping around heart = Pericardium
6. Parietal pericardium side = Away from organ, cut away from heart
7. Shiny covering of heart = Visceral pericardium (tight against heart )
8. Orient anterior and posterior sides of heart
9. Look for 2 major grooves = sulci
10. Diagonal on anterior side = Anterior interventricular sulcus
11. Roughly straight groove on opposite side = Posterior interventricular sulcus
13. Dark brownish flap = left atrium (auricle) at top of diagonal sulci (anterior intervent. Sulcus)
13. Locate right atrium – dark brownish flap on the opposite side.
14. The minor grooves on the surface of heart are the locations of the coronary blood vessels
15. On the top of the heart you can find the Pulmonary Trunk coming out of right ventricle
Pulmonary trunk angle aligns with the anterior interventricular sulcus
16. The Aorta is behind the Pulmonary Trunk
17. The Brachiocephalic artery is the first major branch off of the aorta
18. Look for posterior sulcus – straight up and down groove
T-shape; at top of T= coronary sinus
19. Pull groove open – bag-like structure = coronary sinus, not distinctive
20. Find Right Atrium, look for large blood vessel = Superior vena cava
21. Stick probe into Sup. Vena cava, comes out Inferior vena cava, both come together to empty
blood into right atrium
22. Left atrium: large opening to left atrium = Pulmonary vein (may find more than one – left &
right, will not distinguish btw left and right on sheep)
2. Now we will make the cuts to view interior structures.
1. Note that the left side is thicker & harder than the right side.
2. Put your thumb on posterior sulcus, with your hand wrapped around onto the anterior sulcus.
3. Put the scissors in the Pulmonary vein, and cut through the chambers to the apex.
4. Note the thick muscular wall of the left ventricle.
5. The shiny membrane on the inside is the endocardium.
6. Find the Bicuspid (mitral) valve connecting the left atrium and left ventricle.
Strings = chordae tendinae
Papillary muscle is found at the base of the chordae tendinae
7. Now put your scissors in the Superior vena cava and cut through right atrium and ventricle.
Note that the walls of the right ventricle are thinner.
8. Find the Tricuspid valve, chordae tendinae, and papillary muscle on the right side of the heart.
9. The Moderator Band is located in the right ventricle only (stretches across the ventricle).
10. The Pectinate Muscle is found in the left and right atria. It is composed of parallel ridges that
resemble a comb. It may be more prominent in the right atrium.
11. The Coronary sinus in found in the right atrium. It appears as a hole.
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12. Cut down through the Aorta and pulmonary trunk as follows:
On the Anterior side = Pulmonary trunk, cut through down to right ventricle
Pull open the base of Pulmonary trunk
The Flaps = pulmonary semilunar valves
With the anterior side up, cut through Aorta toward left ventricle
The Flaps = aortic semilunar valves
3. Three good resources for at-home review:
http://www.gwc.maricopa.edu/class/bio202/cyberheart/anthrt.htm
http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/heart_dissection.html#.Us1l7_RDt8E
http://anatomycorner.com/main/image-gallery/sheep-heart/
Part II: Exercises
1. Make sure you are able to trace the blood through the heart. Make sure to include all structures, including
valves. Begin and end with blood flow in the body. Use the diagram provided if it helps you (optional).
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Critical Thinking
1. When the pericardium fills with blood, it produces a condition called cardiac tamponade, which can be
rapidly lethal. Why is this condition so dangerous? (Hint: Consider the structure of the pericardium.)
2. One potential cause of valve dysfunction is rupture of the chordae tendinae. Why would this lead to valve
dysfunction? Would this affect the atrioventricular valves, the semilunar valves, or both? Explain.
3. The condition known as atrial septal defect is characterized by the presence of a hole in the interatrial septum.
How would this condition affect the normal pattern of blood flow? What effect would this have on the
oxygenation of the blood?
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Heart ID Sheet
Heart Anatomy Identification
You should be able to identify and name one function for all of the following structures. Note that some of the
external structures may not be visible on every heart. You are responsible for knowing them, even if your heart
doesn’t show them, so take the time to look at the hearts of other groups to view anything that yours is missing.
Be able to identify structures on the models, dissections, and PAL 3.0.
Sheep Heart – External 1. Epicardium (aka visceral pericardium)
2. Parietal Pericardium
Sheep Heart – External Anterior 3. Right Atrium
4. Right Ventricle
5. Left Atrium
6. Left Ventricle
7. Anterior Interventricular Sulcus
8. Coronary Blood Vessels
9. Pulmonary Trunk
10. Aorta
Sheep Heart – External Posterior 11. Right Atrium
12. Right Ventricle
13. Left Atrium
14. Left Ventricle
15. Coronary Sinus
16. Posterior Interventricular Sulcus
17. Vena Cava
18. Pulmonary Veins
Sheep Heart – Dissected 19. Endocardium
20. Pectinate Muscle
21. Coronary Sinus
22. Tricupid Valve
23. Chordae Tendinae (both ventricles)
24. Papillary Muscle (both ventricles)
25. Moderator Band
26. Pulmonary Semilunar Valve
27. Aortic Semilunar Valve
28. Bicuspid (mitral) Valve
29. Openings to Coronary Arteries
Model Hearts and PAL (where possible) 30. All structures listed to the left (1-29)
31. Left Pulmonary Artery
32. Right Pulmonary Artery
33. Left Pulmonary Vein
34. Right Pulmonary Vein
35. Ligamentum Arteriosum
36. Brachiocephalic Artery
37. Superior Vena Cava
38. Inferior Vena Cava
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LAB 4: Cardiovascular Physiology
Cardiovascular Physiology In-Lab Assignment
Exercise 1: Vessels
Describe the location and the organ or region of the body supplied by each of the arteries or veins in Table 1.
Table 1: Major Arteries & Veins
Artery Location Organ/Region Supplied
Aorta
Brachiocephalic trunk
Left common carotid
Right common carotid
Internal carotid artery
External carotid artery
Basilar artery
Vertebral artery
Left subclavian artery
Right subclavian artery
Inferior mesenteric artery
Superior mesenteric artery
Common hepatic artery
Internal Iliac artery
External Iliac artery
Renal artery
Femoral artery
Posterior tibial artery
Vein Location Organ/Region Drained
External jugular vein
Internal jugular vein
Subclavian vein
Axillary vein
Superior mesenteric vein
Inferior mesenteric vein
Renal vein
External iliac vein
Femoral vein
Popliteal vein
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Exercise 2: Measuring Blood Pressure
Measuring Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the blood vessels. It is determined by the
cardiac output, peripheral resistance, and blood volume.
Cardiac output (CO): amount of blood each ventricle pumps in one minute. It is the product of stroke volume
(amount of blood pumped with each beat) and the heart rate. CO = SV x HR
Peripheral resistance: any impedance to blood flow encountered in the blood vessels. It is determined by the
degree of vasodilation and vasoconstriction in the systemic circulation. Obstructions (plaques within the
arteries) and tears in the endothelial walls also influence resistance.
Blood volume: amount of blood found in the blood vessels at any given time. It is influenced by overall fluid
volume and is controlled by the kidneys and hormones of the endocrine system.
Arterial blood pressure is measured using a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope. You will take two pressure
readings: Systolic and Diastolic.
Systolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole.
Diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular diastole.
Arterial blood pressure is measured by placing the cuff of the sphygmomanometer around the upper arm. When
the cuff is inflated, it compresses the brachial artery and cuts off blood flow. When the pressure is released to
the level of the systolic arterial pressure, blood flow through the brachial artery resumes but becomes turbulent.
This results in sound known as sounds of Korotkoff, which may be heard with a stethoscope.
Procedure: All readings should be taken with your lab partner seated and relaxed.
a. Obtain a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope.
b. Clean the earpieces and diaphragm with alcohol and cotton balls.
c. Wrap the cuff around you partner’s arm. It should not be noticeably tight, but it should stay in place
when you are not holding it. It should be about 1½ inches proximal to the antecubital fossa.
d. Place the earpieces in your ears, and gently tap the diaphragm to ensure that it is on the proper side.
If it is not, flip to the other side.
e. Place the stethoscope diaphragm over the brachial artery. You should NOT hear anything at this point.
f. Support your partner’s arm by cradling it in your arm, or have your partner rest his/her arm on the lab
table.
g. Locate the screw of the sphygmomanometer near the bulb, and close it by turning it clockwise. Inflate
the cuff by squeezing the bulb several times. Pay attention to the level of pressure you are applying by
watching the pressure gauge. You should not inflate it beyond about 30 mmHg above your partner’s
normal systolic pressure (for most people, this is no higher than 180 mmHg).
21
h. Slowly open the screw by turning it counterclockwise. Watch the pressure gauge, and listen to the
brachial artery with your stethoscope.
i. Eventually you will see the needle on the pressure gauge begin to bounce; at about the same time, you
will begin to hear the pulse in the brachial artery. Record the pressure at which this first happens as
the systolic pressure.
j. Continue to listen, and watch the gauge until you can no longer hear the pulse. At this point, the
needle on the gauge will stop rhythmically bouncing. Record the pressure at which this happens as the
diastolic pressure. The numbers should be recorded as a fraction (e.g., 110/70, where 110 is the
systolic pressure and 70 is the diastolic pressure).
Systolic: __________________
Diastolic: _________________
Figure 1: Stethoscope
Bell
Diaphragm
Earpiece
22
Pulse Pressure
Pulse palpitation is the process of feeling the pulse with the fingertips. It is performed to assess rate, rhythm,
and regularity of the heartbeat and to assess the arterial circulation to different parts of the body. The most
commonly measured pulses are the radial ulnar, brachial, carotid, temporal, femoral, popliteal, posterior tibial,
and dorsalis pedis arteries.
The pulses are graded according to a standard scale. This allows health-care professionals to communicate
about a patient and to assess the progress or deterioration of a patient’s condition. The scale uses the following
four grades:
Grade 0/4: The pulse is absent.
Grade 1/4: The pulse is barely or only lightly palpable.
Grade 2/4: The pulse is normal.
Grade 3/4: The pulse is quite strong.
Grade 4/4: The pulse is bounding and visible through the skin.
In a healthy person most pulses are grade 2/4, although occasionally a pulse is weak or absent. This is simply
normal anatomical variation and does not signify pathology. Students often mistakenly grade any strong pulse
(such as the carotid pulse) as 4/4. If a pulse were truly 4/4, however, this would be a sign of extremely high
blood pressure in that artery.
Procedure: You will palpate certain pulses on your lab partner. Record the pulses in the table.
1. Wash your hands prior to palpating you lab partner’s pulse.
2. Locate the artery you are palpating on the common pulse points figure.
3. Lightly place your index finger and middle finger over the artery. You may increase the pressure slightly, but
be careful not to press too hard, because you could cut off blood flow through the artery and also could mistake
the pulse in your fingertips for your partner’s pulse. If you are unsure if the pulse is yours or your partner’s, feel
the lab table. If the lab table “has a pulse,” you are feeling the pulse in your own fingertips.
4. Palpate only on side (right or left) at a time, especially the carotid artery.
5. Grade you partner’s pulses according to the 0/4 to 4/4 scale, and record the results in the Pulse point table.
Table: Pulse Points Grades
Artery Right Side Grade Left Side Grade
Carotid
Temporal
Brachial
Radial
Posterior Tibial
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Figure 2: Common pulse points (antranik.org)
24
Blood Vessel ID Sheet
Vessel Identification
You should be able to identify and name the area of the body supplied (arteries) or drained (veins) by all of the
following blood vessels using PAL 3.0.
Major Arteries of the Systemic Circuit 1. Aorta
2. Brachiocephalic Trunk
3. Left Common Carotid
4. Right Common Carotid
5. Left Subclavian Artery
6. Right Subclavian Artery
7. Vertebral Artery
8. Internal Carotid Artery
9. External Carotid Artery
10. Basilar Artery
11. Common Iliac Arteries
12. Common Hepatic Artery
13. Superior Mesenteric Artery
14. Inferior Mesenteric Artery
15. External Iliac Artery
16. Internal Iliac Artery
17. Renal Artery
18. Femoral Artery
19. Posterior Tibial Artery
Major Veins of the Systemic Circuit 20. External Jugular Vein
21. Internal Jugular Vein
22. Subclavian Vein
23. Axillary Vein
24. Superior Mesenteric Vein
25. Interior Mesenteric Vein
26. Renal Vein
27. External Iliac Vein
28. Femoral Vein
29. Popliteal Vein
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LAB 5: Respiratory System Anatomy
Pre-Lab Assignment 5: Respiratory System Anatomy
Exercise 1: Anatomy
You should be familiar with the following terms before coming to lab. Look up the functions of each of the
following structures.
Pharynx __________________________________________________________________________________
What are the 3 regions of the pharynx? _________________________________________________________
Epiglottis _________________________________________________________________________________
Arytenoid Cartilage _________________________________________________________________________
Thyroid Cartilage __________________________________________________________________________
Cricoid Cartilage____________________________________________________________________________
Diaphragm ________________________________________________________________________________
Vocal Folds________________________________________________________________________________
False Vocal Folds ___________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 2: Questions
Answer the following questions.
1. Describe the branching of the bronchial tree, beginning with the trachea and ending with the bronchioles.
2. Describe the differences between the right and left lung.
3. Describe the blood flow through the pulmonary circuit.
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Respiratory Anatomy In-Lab Assignment
Exercise 1: Dissection
1. The lungs of a sheep are somewhat different than the lungs of a human. In sheep, the right lung is comprised
of four lobes, while the left lung has three lobes.
2. On your specimen, locate the trachea and primary bronchus. Touch the lungs, trachea, and bronchus;
notice the texture of the tissue. Pull on the trachea and note how elastic it is.
a. If the heart is still attached, identify the main blood vessels leaving and entering the lungs.
b. Identify any membrane surrounding the lungs.
3. Make a midsagittal cut down the trachea, separating the two lungs.
4. Choose one of the lungs and make a mid-coronal cut to separate the anterior portion of the lung from the
posterior portion.
5. On the anterior portion of the lung, using scissors, cut along one primary bronchus, and continue a
centimeter or more until you can see the opening of a secondary bronchus. How many secondary
bronchi do you see on each side?
6. Cut along a secondary bronchus until you see the openings of tertiary bronchi. Is it possible to remove
diseased portions of a lung, leaving other parts to inflate normally? Why or why not?
7. Cut a tertiary bronchus open. Do the airways opening along it contain cartilage? How do you know?
8. Cut out a piece of lung tissue. Would you say it is made of fine or coarse sponge? You will not be able to see
the bronchioles, which are the site of an asthma attack.
Exercise 2: Questions
1. What structure allows the trachea to stay open yet still be able to bend?
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2. Look at the two primary bronchi that branch off of the trachea. Is one bigger than the other? Explain your
observations.
3. Are the lungs hollow bags or spongy? What does the lung tissue look like where you cut into it? What
happens when you put this tissue into water?
4. In a living animal, what body movements draw air into the lungs? What body movements force air from the
lungs?
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Respiratory System ID Sheet
Respiratory System Identification
You should be able to identify and name one function for all of the following structures. You will be tested on
your ability to identify them in dissections, on models, and in PAL 3.0 (where possible).
Identification on Dissections
Trachea and Lung 1. Trachea
a. Tracheal Cartilage
2. Lungs
3. Diaphragm
Trachea, Sectioned Lung, and Heart 4. Heart
5. Pericardium
6. Pulmonary Arteries
7. Pulmonary Veins
8. Primary Bronchus
9. Secondary Bronchus
10. Bronchioles
Sectioned Larynx 11. Esophagus
12. Thyroid Cartilage
13. Cricoid Cartilage
14. Epiglottis
15. Vocal Folds (Vocal Cords)
16. False Vocal Folds (Vestibular Folds)
Identification on Models and PAL 3.0
Pharynx and Larynx 17. Nasopharynx
18. Oropharynx
19. Laryngopharynx
20. Epiglottis
21. Arytenoid Cartilage
22. Thyroid Cartilage
23. Cricoid Cartilage
24. Esophagus
Bronchial Tree 25. Trachea
26. Tracheal Cartilages
27. Bronchial Cartilage
28. Primary Bronchus
29. Secondary Bronchus
30. Tertiary Bronchus
Pulmonary Circuit 31. Right Pulmonary Artery
32. Left Pulmonary Artery
33. Right Pulmonary Vein
34. Left Pulmonary Vein
35. Pulmonary Trunk
Lungs and Pleura 36. Apex of Lung
37. Base of Lung
38. Horizontal Fissure
39. Oblique Fissure
40. Superior Lobe
41. Middle Lobe
42. Inferior Lobe
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LAB 6: Respiratory System Physiology
Respiratory System Physiology In-Lab Assignment
1. Label the following graph showing respiratory volumes and capacities.
a. _____________________________________ e. ________________________________________
b. _____________________________________ f. ________________________________________
c. _____________________________________ g. ________________________________________
d. _____________________________________ h. ________________________________________
2. Describe what causes emphysema. What lung values will change in an emphysema patient? Why?
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3. Describe what causes an asthma attack. What lung values will change in an asthma patient? Why?
4. What are some similarities between emphysema and asthma? What are the differences?
5. Explain how the presence/absence of surfactant affects airflow.
6. What is the importance of intrapleural pressure? What happens when the intrapleural pressure equals
atmospheric pressure?
Critical Thinking
1. In pneumonia, fluid accumulates in the alveoli of the lungs. How would this accumulation affect the vital
capacity? Explain.
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LAB 7: Digestive System
Digestive System In-Lab Assignment
Exercise I: As you work through today’s lab, fill in the following chart with descriptions and functions.
Structure Description (to help you identify) Function
Tongue
Hard Palate
Soft Palate
Esophagus
Epiglottis
Stomach
Small Intestine
(Describe the sub-sections)
Pancreas
Liver
(Describe the four lobes)
Gallbladder
Mesentery
Large Intestine
(Describe the sub-sections)
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Vermiform
Appendix
Exercise II: Answer the following questions.
1. Describe the flow of bile. Identify the structures involved (including ducts) on the torso models.
2. What is the purpose of the rugae in the stomach?
Exercise III: Fetal Pig Dissection
1. Secure the fetal pig to the dissection tray using string tied to the legs and passing underneath the tray.
2. Use a scalpel to cut the sides of the mouth so that the bottom jaw can be opened for easier viewing. You will
need to cut through the musculature and the joint that holds the lower jaw to the skull.
3. Open the jaw wide enough so that the glottis and epiglottis are exposed. The epiglottis projects up through
the soft palate into a region called the nasopharynx. The hard palate and soft palate separate the nasal
and oral cavities. The hard palate is the region on the roof of the mouth with hard ridges. Also make
note of the appearance of the tongue.
4. Insert one blade of scissors through the body wall on one side of the umbilical cord and cut posteriorly to the
base of the leg. Continue cutting from the anterior end of this cut so that it resembles an upside-down U.
Your finished cut will be anterior to the navel and along each side of the navel. The flap of body wall
that contains the navel can be folded posteriorly to reveal the internal organs of the abdomen.
5. Extend a single cut along the middle of the ventral surface of the animal to about 2 cm from the chin. Cut
completely through the body wall in the abdominal area.
6. Make a cut on the side of the animal from the point just posterior to the diaphragm dorsally. A similar cut is
made on the other side. These two cuts will enable you to spread open the abdominal cavity.
7. Your pig may be filled with water and preservative which you can drain over the sink if necessary and rinse
the organs.
8. Using a probe, trace follow the esophagus to the stomach. At the ends of the stomach are valves that
regulate food entering and leaving the stomach. Where the esophagus joins the stomach is the cardiac
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sphincter, and at the duodenal end of the stomach is the pyloric sphincter. Slice the stomach open
lengthwise and observe the rugae on the internal surface of the stomach.
9. Identify the small intestine and large intestine. Find the posterior part of the large intestine called the
rectum and observe that it leads to the anus. Locate the cecum, a blind pouch where the small intestine
joins the large intestine. The cecum is large in herbivores but much of it has been lost during evolution
in humans. The appendix in humans is the evolutionary remains of a larger cecum in human ancestors.
10. Identify the liver. Lift the right lobe and find the gallbladder. Find the bile duct that leads to the small
intestine.
11. The pancreas is located dorsal and posterior to the stomach. It extends along the length of the stomach from
the left side of the body (your right) to the point where the stomach joins the small intestine. Lift the
stomach and identify this light-colored organ.
12. Notice that the intestines are supported by a thin, web-like structure called the mesentery. In the pig, the
mesentery may appear pink from the red latex injected into the arteries.
13. Save your pig for next week’s lab when we will look at the urinary system.
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Exercise IV: PhysioEx Review
1. Use the following table to review the digestive enzymes you studied in the PhysioEx exercises:
Name of
Enzyme
Type of Molecule Hydrolyzed Assay Used to Measure Enzyme Activity
2. Explain what is measured by the IKI assay and by the Benedict’s assay. What does a positive result look like?
What does a negative result look like?
3. Explain what is measured by the BAPNA assay. What does a positive result look like? What does a negative
result look like?
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4. Explain why pH was used as a measure of fat digestion. Which direction of change in the pH would you
expect if fat digestion occurs (positive result)?
5. What happens to enzymes when they are heated? Which bonds are affected (covalent or hydrogen)? Which
level of structure is affected (primary or 3D)?
6. What happens to enzymes when they are placed in a pH outside of their normal physiological pH range?
Which bonds are affected (covalent or hydrogen)? Which level of structure is affected (primary or 3D)?
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Digestive System ID Sheet
Digestive System Identification
You should be able to identify all of the following structures. Your ability to identify these structures will be
based on the dissection, the torso models, and the PAL 3.0 software. You should also be able to name one
function of all of the items in bold text. For the fetal pig, you can assume the function of the structures is the
same as they are in the human body.
1. Tongue
2. Hard Palate
3. Soft Palate
4. Mandible
5. Uvula
6. Oropharynx
7. Laryngopharynx
8. Molar Tooth
9. Premolar (Bicuspid) Tooth
10. Canine (Cuspid) Tooth
11. Incisor Tooth
12. Esophagus
13. Epiglottis
14. Stomach
a. Rugae
b. Pyloric Sphincter
c. Pylorus
15. Small Intestine
a. Duodenum
b. Ileum
16. Pancreas
a. Main Pancreatic Duct
17. Liver
a. Left Lobe
b. Right Lobe
c. Caudate Lobe
d. Quadrate Lobe
e. Cystic Duct
f. Common Bile Duct
g. Common Hepatic Duct
h. Falciform Ligament
i. Gallbladder
18. Greater Omentum
19. Superior Mesenteric Artery
20. Superior Mesenteric Vein
21. Hepatic Artery
22. Hepatic Portal Vein
***Not the same thing as “hepatic vein”
23. Large Intestine
a. Cecum
b. Vermiform Appendix
c. Ascending Colon
d. Sigmoid Colon
e. Descending Colon
f. Transverse Colon
24. Rectum
a. External Anal Sphincter
Fetal Pig Dissection
25. Hard Palate
26. Soft Palate
27. Glottis
28. Epiglottis
29. Esophagus
30. Peritoneum
31. Liver
32. Gallbladder
33. Stomach
a. Rugae
34. Mesentery
35. Small Intestine
36. Large Intestine
a. Cecum
b. Rectum
c. Anus
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LAB 8: Urinary System
Urinary System In-Lab Assignment
Exercise I: As you work through today’s lab, fill in the following chart with descriptions and functions.
Structure Description (to help you identify) Function
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
Prostate Gland
Exercise II: Answer the following questions.
1. Describe the flow of blood through the kidneys. Begin with the renal artery and end with the renal vein.
2. Describe the flow of urine through the urinary system. Begin with the renal papilla and end with the urethra.
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Exercise III: Dissections
1. Obtain your fetal pig from last week’s lab. This would be a good time to review the digestive system
structures.
2. Remove the digestive system organs from the peritoneal cavity of the fetal pig so that you view resembles the
following diagram (below the diaphragm):
3. Locate the kidneys. The bladder is located between the umbilical vessels. See if you can locate the ureters
running from the kidneys to the bladder. Also identify the renal artery and renal vein.
4. Lift the bladder to locate the urethra.
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Pig Kidney Dissection
1. Obtain one of the large pig kidneys for dissection.
2. Observe the renal capsule. This structure is made up of dense, irregular connective tissue and provides
protection as well as helps maintain shape. Remove any adipose tissue that may be attached to the
capsule.
3. Locate the hilus, the indentation where the ureter and blood vessels enter and exit the kidney. Remove excess
adipose tissue to observe the ureter more closely. The renal artery and renal vein may be more
difficult to locate. You may see where red latex was injected into the artery and blue latex was injected
into the vein.
4. Carefully cut the kidney in half lengthwise. Locate the cortex and medulla. The medulla lies below the
cortex. Oberve the appearance of each region.
5. The medulla consists of numerous conical structures called renal pyramids. The base of each pyramid lies
next to the cortex, while the tip forms a renal papilla. Each papilla projects into a minor calyx. Locate
and observe the renal pyramids, the renal papilla, and the calyces.
6. Renal pyramids are separated by bands of tissue called renal columns. Each column begins in the cortex and
extends through the medulla. Notice that the columns have a texture similar to that of the cortex. Notice
the interlobar arteries and interlobar veins that pass through the renal columns. You should be able to
identify these vessels by looking for the injected latex.
7. After urine is produced in the nephron, the renal papilla discharges the urine into a cup-shaped minor calyx.
Four or five of the minor calyces merge to form a major calyx. Major calyces merge to form the renal
pelvis. Using a probe, trace the path of urine from the renal pyramids to the renal pelvis.
8. Examine the renal pelvis. It is formed by a wall of thick fibrous tissue and forms the expanded end of the
ureter. Using a scalpel, carefully cut one wall of the ureter and extend the incision to the hilus. The
ureter is continuous with the renal pelvis. Observe the fine ridges on the endothelial lining of the ureter
and renal pelvis.
Exercise IV: PhysioEx Review
1. Describe the structure of a nephron, the functional unit of the kidney.
2. Explain the two factors you experimented with that affect glomerular filtration. Explain how these factors
change the filtration rate (example: as “factor a” increases, the filtration rate decreases).
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3. Explain the role that ADH plays in water reabsorption by the nephron.
4. Explain why glucose is not normally present in urine. How is glucose reabsorbed?
5. Explain the role of aldosterone in solute reabsorption by the nephron.
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Urinary System ID Sheet
Urinary System Identification
You should be able to identify all of the following structures. Your ability to identify these structures will be
based on the dissection, the torso models, and the PAL 3.0 software. You should also be able to name one
function of all of the items in bold text.
Fetal Pig
1. Kidneys
2. Bladder
3. Ureters
4. Renal Artery
5. Renal Vein
Pig Kidney – External
6. Renal Capsule
7. Ureter
Pig Kidney - Internal
8. Cortex
9. Medulla
10. Renal Pyramids
11. Renal Columns
12. Renal Papilla
13. Calyx
14. Renal Pelvis
15. Renal Artery
16. Renal Vein
17. Interlobar Arteries
18. Interlobar Veins
19. Arcuate Arteries
20. Arcuate Veins
Models and PAL 3.0
21. Kidney
a. Renal Pelvis
b. Cortex
c. Medulla
d. Renal Pyramids
e. Renal Columns
f. Renal Papilla
g. Calyx
h. Interlobar Arteries
i. Interlobar Veins
j. Arcuate Arteries
k. Arcuate Veins
22. Ureter
23. Renal Artery
24. Renal Vein
25. Bladder
*** Both male and female views in PAL
26. Prostate Gland
27. Female Urethra
28. Male Urethra
a. Prostatic Urethra
b. Membranous Urethra
c. Spongy (Penile) Urethra
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LAB 9: Acid-Base Balance
Acid-Base Balance In-Lab Assignment
1. What are the normal ranges for pH and carbon dioxide in the blood? What pH is considered to be a state of
acidosis? of alkalosis?
2. What is the relationship between carbon dioxide levels and pH levels in the blood?
3. What happens to the pH and carbon dioxide levels with hyperventilation? with rebreathing?
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4. Fill in the following table to review respiratory acidosis and alkalosis and metabolic acidosis and alkalosis.
Acid Base Imbalance Blood pH Levels (↑ or ↓) Blood CO2 Levels (↑ or ↓) Possible Causes
Respiratory Acidosis
Respiratory Alkalosis
Metabolic Acidosis
Metabolic Alkalosis
5. Describe how the renal system would compensate for respiratory acidosis. Describe how it would
compensate for respiratory alkalosis.
6.Describe how the respiratory system would compensate for metabolic acidosis. Describe how it would
compensate for metabolic alkalosis.
7. Which is more likely to occur – alkalosis or acidosis? Why?
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REFERENCE MATERIAL/STUDY GUIDES
Instructions for Printing/Copying PAL Images for Studying
1) Find the image you want in PAL and prepare it so that it looks exactly like what you want it to look like
(labeled or unlabeled, with certain areas highlighted or not, etc.)
2) Press the “Function” and “Print Screen” button on your keyboard simultaneously.
3) Open up a program such as Paint (usually located in the “Accessories” folder).
4) Press “Ctrl-V” to paste the picture you took of your screen into the Paint program.
5) Use the “Select” tool in Paint to select the area that you want to keep. Crop in close to the image you want to
avoid printing unnecessary portions of the image.
6) Press “Ctrl-C” to copy the area you selected.
7) Open up another program (example include Microsoft PowerPoint or Microsoft Word)
8) Press “Ctrl-V” to paste your selection into the other program.
One good idea:
- Create a PowerPoint file with each image on a separate slide. Use the notes section at the bottom to indicate
what each picture represents. The notes section can be hidden as you “quiz” yourself on each picture. The
individual slides can also be printed out to create flash cards (I would recommend printing 4 slides per page of
paper (you can adjust this in the Print Settings) so that the pictures are not too large to fit onto note cards.
