11.1 Genes are made of DNA

Griffith Experiment

Avery Experiment-Destroyed proteins-Mice still died with mix

Hershey Chase ExperiementVirus- nucleic acid wrapped in protein; needs host to reproduceBacteriophage- virus that infects bacteria

Hershey Chase Experiment

Question 1 & 2Explain how experiments done by Griffith, Avery & Hershey and Chase supported that genes are made of DNA? [4 points]2. Identify the parts of DNA and how the double helix is put together (bases)? [4 points]

11.2 Nucleic acids store information in their sequences of chemical units

DNA into chromosomes

Nitrogenous Bases

DNA- structures

DNA Nucleotide

Rosalind Franklin & Maurice Wilkins1950s photographs of the DNA molecule using X-ray crystallography which showed the shape to be a helix

Erwin Chargaff1951, proved that the % of A = T and % of G = C

Watson &Crick1953, used data from the other scientists and built models to finally figure out the exact structure of DNA1962 won the nobel prize in Medicine

11.3 DNA replication is the molecular mechanism of inheritance

DNA Replication

DNA ReplicationEnzymes are protein molecules that catalyze chemical reactions in a cell usually any protein ending in ase is an enzymeHelicase- unwinds DNADNA Polymerase 3 () - Adds complementary nucleotideDNA Polymerase 1 ()- Checks for errorSingle strand bind proteins- help hold open DNA

DNA ReplicationDNA primase- makes an initiation (starting) site for replicationRNA primer- short segment of RNA where DNA replication startsDNA ligase- binds two nucleotides togetherTopoisomerase (gyrase)- relaxes and recoils helix

DNA Replication

11.4 A gene provides the information for making a specific protein

DNA & RNADeoxyribose sugarA,T,C,GDouble strandStays in NucleusDNARibose sugarA,U,C,G Uracil pairs with adenineSingle strandNucleus to cytoplasmMessenger (mRNA), transfer (tRNA), ribosomal (rRNA)

Types of RNAmRNA - Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation. rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins, makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that translate the mRNA.

snRNA - Small nuclear RNA: With proteins, forms complexes that are used in RNA processing in eukaryotes. (Not found in prokaryotes.)

DNA & RNA

Beadle and TatumBeadle and Tatum discovered when looking at mutant Neurospora crassa (bread mold)Individual gene produces a specific enzymeOne gene - one polypeptide (combinaiton of amino acids)

DNA to Protein

Table of Codons

11.5 There are two main steps from genes to proteins

Transcription: Base Pairing of mRNA with DNA

RNA Transcription

Steps of Transcription1. DNA double helix unwound and separated by RNA polymerase2. RNA polymerase adds RNA nucleotides together, making a single strand of mRNA which is complementary to 1 strand of the DNA

Steps of Transcription3. mRNA is processed (modified) before leaving the nucleusintrons (non coding regions) are cut out of the mRNAexons (coding regions) are spliced together to form the final mRNA product4. Introns are cut out and exons are spliced together to form the final copy of messenger RNA (mRNA)

RNA editing

Most eukaryotic protein-coding genes contain segments called introns, which break up the amino acid coding sequence into segments called exons. The transcript of these genes is the pre-mRNA (precursor-mRNA). The pre-mRNA is processed in the nucleus to remove the introns and splice the exons together into a translatable mRNA. That mRNA exits the nucleus and is translated in the cytoplasm.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Adding Amino Acids to a Polypeptide Chain

Initiation Translation

Elongation Translation

Termination Translation

Steps of Translation1. mRNA leaves the nucleus and is transported to the ribosome where translation takes place2. Ribosome holds onto the mRNA, the mRNA codon AUG is located in the P site of the ribosome3. tRNA carries an amino acid to the P site of the ribosome4. Another tRNA carries the next amino acid to the A site of the ribosome

Steps of Translation5. Two amino acids are joined together with a peptide bond6. tRNA in the P site leaves7. Ribosome moves along the mRNA until the next codon is located in the A site (the tRNA which was located in the A site is now in the P site and is holding the peptide chain)8.tRNA carries the next amino acid to the A site

Steps of Translation9.New amino acid is joined to the peptide chain (the polypeptide is made of 3 amino acids)tRNA in the P site leaves11.Process continues until a stop codon appears in the A site of the ribosome12. Polypeptide is now complete

Rules for translation1. Codon is a three-base word that codes for one amino acid2. Determine the amino acid coded for by an mRNA codon use the genetic code3. Genetic code is universal all species use the same genetic code, the same 20 amino acids are used in all living organisms

Summary of Translation Process

11.6 Mutations can change the meaning of genes

Point vs. Frameshift Mutations

Chromosome Mutations

How mutations affect genes1. A mutation is any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA.2.Two categories of mutationsa.Base substitutions (point) replacement of one nucleotide with anotheri.This can change the protein or not change the proteinb.Base insertions or base deletions (frameshift) addition of an extra nucleotide or subtracting a nucleotidei. Have more effect on the protein than a substitution

What causes mutations?1. Mistakes during DNA replication can cause mutations2. Mutagens physical or chemical agents that cause mutationsa. Physical mutagens high energy radiation, X-rays, Ultraviolet lightb. Chemical mutagens chemicals that are similar to DNA bases and cause incorrect base-pairing

Mutations EffectsBody CellsCancersGametesBirth defectsGenetic disorders

Ch. 11 TestVocabularyDNA & RNA structureReplication, transcription, translation- content and problemsScientists & experiments involvedMutations & mutagens- types and effects

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