Upload
brendan-bridges
View
216
Download
0
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
2
Module 10.1: The Problem of Stress
• Studying workplace stress
• 3 important factors: 1. Work stressors
– Task & role stressors
2. Moderators of the stress process– Individual differences & social support
3. Consequences of stress– Burnout & heart disease
3
Studying Workplace Stress (cont’d)
• Selye – “Father of Stress”– Defined stress as “the non-specific response of
the human body to any demand made on it”
– Eustress (good) vs. distress (bad)
• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)• Alarm reaction Resistance Exhaustion
• Response to chronic stress
4
Studying Workplace Stress (cont’d)
• Recent studies– In addition to physiological reaction to stress, there is
also a cognitive appraisal of situation & of resources available to handle stressors
• 2 coping styles– Problem-focused coping
• Managing or altering the problem causing the stress
– Emotion-focused coping• Reducing the emotional response to the problem
5
Framework for Study of Stress (Kahn & Byosiere, 1992)
Figure 10.1Theoretical Framework for the Study of Stress in OrganizationsSOURCE: Kahn & Byosiere (1992)
6
What is a Stressor?
• Stressors– Physical or psychological demands to which an
individual responds
• Strains– Reaction or response to stressors
Heat, cold, noise
Emotional labor
Perceived control
Situational constraints
Work scheduleWork pace, time pressure
Workload
Role stressorsInterpersonal conflict
8
Common Stressors at Work
• Physical/Task stressors– Effect of multiple
stressors can be cumulative
– e.g., Noise, demands of a given job
Royalty-Free/CORBIS
9
Psychological Stressors
• Perceived lack of control/predictability
– Individual’s perception of control or predictability determines his/her response to the situation
• Perceptions of control are related to Autonomy, which is the extent to which employees can control how and when they perform the tasks of their job
Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
• Interpersonal conflict– Negative interactions w/co-workers,
supervisors, clients
– Can occur when resources are scarce, employees have incompatible interests, or employees feel they are not being treated fairly
10
11
Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
• Role stressors: Result from multiple task requirements or roles of employees
• Role ambiguity– Employees lack clear knowledge of expected behavior
• Role conflict– Demands from different sources are incompatible
• Role overload– An employee is expected to fill to many roles at once
12
Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
• Work-family conflict– When workers experience conflict between roles
they fulfill at work & roles they fulfill in their personal lives
– Flexible time schedules & child care becoming increasingly important
13
Psychological Stressors (cont’d)
• Emotional labor: Regulation of one’s emotions to meet job or organizational demands (2 strategies):– Surface acting
– Consists of managing or faking one’s expressions or emotions
– Deep acting– Consists of managing one’s feelings, including emotions
required by the job
15
Behavioral Consequences of Stress
• Information processing• Chronic stress has negative effects on memory,
reaction time, accuracy, & task performance
• Performance• Hypothesis: Performance & stress have an inverted U relationship (Figure 10.2)
– As arousal increases, performance increases, but only up to a certain point, & then performance begins to decline
17
Psychological Consequences of Stress
• Burnout• Extreme state of psychological strain resulting from
prolonged response to chronic job stressors that exceed an individual’s resources to cope with them
• Measured with Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)
• 3 components– Emotional exhaustion– Depersonalization– Low personal accomplishment
19
Physiological Consequences of Stress
• Stressful situations cause overactivation of sympathetic nervous system (SNS), producing several kinds of stress hormones
– Initially, these changes can improve decision making & physical performance
– Chronic activation of SNS leads to “wear & tear” on coronary arteries & heart
Work Schedules
• 3 different scheduling formats– Shift work
– Fixed shift
– Rotating shift
• Scheduling variations– Flextime
– Compressed workweek
– Telecommuting
20
21
Module 10.2: Theories of Stress
• Demand-Control Model– 2 factors prominent in producing job stress
• Job demands– Workload or intellectual requirements
• Control (decision latitude)– Autonomy & discretion for using different skills
23
Demand-Control Model (cont’d)
• Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ)
– Role overload & role conflict (demands)– Skill utilization & job decision (control)– Depression, job dissatisfaction, & sleep
problems (health consequences)
24
Person-Environment Fit Model
• Hypothesis: Fit between person & environment determines amount of stress that person perceives
• Considers external influences like social support from family & work sources
• Person-job fit vs. person-organization fit
25
Individual Differences in Resistance to Stress
• Moderators of stressor-strain relationship– Locus of control (LOC)
• Belief of individuals that what happens to them is under their control
– Hardiness• Set of personality characteristics that provide
resistance to stress– Self-esteem
• Positive self-worth that is considered to be an important resource for coping
27
Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)
• Moderator of stressor-strain relationship
• Individuals displaying TABP characterized by ambitiousness, impatience, easily aroused hostility, & time urgency– Type A’s seem to thrive on “life in the fast lane”
28
Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)
• Compared to Type Bs, Type As more punctual, work at faster rates, & higher achievers in college & in professional careers– However, global TABP does not predict outcomes as well
as specific TABP subcomponents
• Hostility is primary TABP subcomponent associated with increased risk of heart disease & other long-term, harmful health outcomes
29
TABP Subcomponents
• Achievement strivings (AS)– Tendency to be active & work hard in achieving one’s goals– Positively correlated with academic performance, sales
performance, & job satisfaction
• Impatience/Irritability (II)– Intolerance, frustration that results from being slowed down– Associated with health problems like insomnia, headaches,
poor digestion, & respiratory difficulties
30
TABP Subcomponent
Time urgency
• Refers to feeling of being pressured by inadequate time
• Dimensions include eating behavior, nervous energy, list making, scheduling, speech patterns, & deadline control
31
Module 10.3:Reducing & Managing Stress
• Occupational health psychology (OHP)– Application of psychology to improving the quality of work life,
and to protecting and promoting the safety, health, and well-being of workers
– Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology• Comprehensive source for OHP issues (i.e., work-family balance, work
design, and stress management interventions)
– Occupational health psychologists often divide approaches into 3 major categories
• Primary, secondary, and tertiary
Primary Prevention Strategies
• Primary prevention strategies– Concerned with modifying or eliminating
stressors in work environment– Most proactive & preventative
approaches to stress management– Examples:
• Work & job design• Cognitive restructuring
32
33
Secondary Prevention Strategies
• Involve modifying responses to inevitable demands or stressors
• Role is often one of damage control
• Strategies that require no special training include lifestyle choices such as physical fitness, healthy eating, & weight control
• Can be proactive or reactive
34
Secondary Prevention Strategies
• Stress management training– Useful for helping employees deal with
workplace stressors that are difficult to change
– Cognitive-behavioral skills training• Stress inoculation
– Relaxation & biofeedback techniques• Progressive muscle relaxation & deep breathing
– Social support: Instrumental, emotional, informational, & appraisal support
Royalty-Free/CORBIS
35
Tertiary Prevention Strategies
• Focused on healing negative effects of stressors
• Employee assistance programs (EAPs)– Counseling provided by an organization to deal
with workplace stress, alcohol/drug difficulties, & problems stemming from outside the job
37
Summary of Stress Intervention Strategies
• Combining various stress management interventions is more effective than using any single approach
• Successful stress management interventions must accurately identify stressors causing strain & actively determine ways to reduce those stressors
• Primary stress intervention strategies generally preferred over other interventions
38
Future Work Trends & Challenges to Stress & Stress Management
• Workforce is becoming more culturally & ethnically diverse– Important for I-O psychologists to determine whether
factors that predict health problems in White males are same as in other populations
• Influences in the new millennium predicted to be stressful– Technological change, global competition, downsizing,
elder & child care, & increased teamwork
39
Module 10.4: Violence at Work
Violent actions carried out by a non-employee against an employee
Vs.
Violence perpetrated by employees & directed toward fellow employees
• Many hypotheses for why workplace has become more violent since the early 1990s
41
Experiential Sequence of Violence Perpetrators
Figure 10.5 Routine Experiential Sequence of ViolencePerpetratorsSource: Based on Kinney(1995).
42
“Typical” Violent Worker
• Most cases of workplace violence involve some feeling of being treated unfairly, & perpetrator has some real or imaginary grievance against organization or a person in the organization
• Characteristics of a violent worker– May include: Abuses alcohol, has a history of violence,
has difficult accepting authority, is a white male 25-30 years of age
43
Theories of Workplace Violence
• Frustration-aggression hypothesis– Argues that frustration leads to aggression– Ultimately found to be too broad
• Not all frustrated individuals act aggressively & not all aggressive acts are a result of frustration
– Modern view: Frustration leads to stress reaction & individual expends energy to relieve this stress
– High self-esteem is associated with violence
44
Employee Behavior as a Result of Frustration & Employee Control
Figure 10.6 Constructive and Destructive Employee Behavior as a Result of Frustration and Employee ControlSOURCE: Spector (2000)
45
Theories of Workplace Violence (cont’d)
• “Justice” hypothesis– Proposes that some violent acts can be
understood as reactions by an employee against perceived injustice
– Relevance to the 3 types of justice• Layoffs & firings• Performance appraisals
47
Special Type of Violence: Bullying
• Bullying - Harassing, offending, socially excluding, or assigning humiliating tasks to subordinate repeatedly & over long period of time
– 4 steps in escalation• A critical incident
• Bullying & stigmatizing
• Organizational intervention
• Expulsion of the victim
Royalty-Free/CORBIS