1 WEAK PRESIDENTS!!!. 2 Rutherford B. Hayes 1876-1880 Republican “Ends” Reconstruction Unfairly called “His Fraudulency” Temperance Advocate Negligible

1

WEAK PRESIDENTS!!!

2

Rutherford B. Hayes 1876-1880Republican

• “Ends” Reconstruction

• Unfairly called “His Fraudulency”

• Temperance Advocate

• Negligible Record

• Unpopular with his own party (Republicans)

3

James A. Garfield (1881)Republican

• “dark horse” candidate due to contest b/w “Stalwarts” and “Half-Breeds” in Republican party

• Civil War General• “Rewards” his patron James G. Blaine• Assassinated by Charles Guiteau• Guiteau, likely insane, motivated by spoils

system• Assassination prompts civil service reform

4

Chester Arthur (1881-1884)Republican

• A spoilsman of the New York Conkling political machine

• Surprising advocate of Civil Service reform

• Pendleton Act of 1883 establishes merit based examinations and bi-partisan Civil Service Commission

• Unintended consequence? LOBBYING and Corporate influence in Washington.

5

Grover Cleveland(1884-1888)

Democrat• Defeats Blaine after defection of “mugwumps”

from Republican Party• Cleveland was a noted reformer• Former mayor of Buffalo and governor of New

York• Demoralizing campaign – little to distinguish

parties other than greed for office• Blaine looses support of Irish Catholic voters,

looses NY, looses race for failing to repudiate Nativist comments

6

Grover Cleveland(1884-1888)

Democrat

• Cleveland is “some-what” bipartisan due to Mugwumps influence

• “Somewhat” upholds civil service reform

• Personally takes on corruption in military pension system for Civil War veterans of the North, or the GAR (Grand Army of the Republic)

• Forces the tariff issue into the debate for 1888

7

Cleveland’s Accomplishments

• Dawes Act

• Interstate Commerce Act

• Returned much land to public domain, reversing power of cattle barons and railroads in the West

• Personal integrity

8

Benjamin Harrison (1888-1892)Republican

• Grandson of “Tippecanoe”

• Possible Tariff spurs Republicans to action

• Big Business backs Republicans with Big Money to preserve protective tariff

• Harrison narrowly wins, though Cleveland won the popular vote

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Industry Comes of Age

1865-1900

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What do the failure of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877

and the Chinese Exclusion Act

say about America after Reconstruction?

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CLASS STRUGGLE?

• 1877: Decline in Sectional Struggle marks opening of the class struggle

• Panic of 1873 hits country hard• Railroad workers strike over 10% pay cuts• Pres. Hayes crushes the strike by sending

in federal troops• Strikers tear apart on ethnic lines

– Irish in West blame Chinese “Kearneyites”– Wave of anti-Chinese sentiment

• Chinese Exclusion Act is passed

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13

Railroad strike of 1877This engraving depicts striking railroad workers in Martinsburg, West Virginia, as they stop a freight train on July 17, 1877, in the opening days of the great railway strike of that year. Engravings such as this, which show the strikers to be heavily armed, may or may not have been accurate depictions of events. But the photography of that day could rarely capture live action, and the technology of the day could not reproduce photographs in newspapers, so the public's understanding of events such as the 1877 strike was formed through artists' depictions. (Library of Congress)

Railroad strike of 1877

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

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The Baltimore Railroad Strike & Riot of 1877

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Chinese Exclusion Act

• Irish and other European Immigrants attack Chinese, both physically and politically

• Congress passes bill to close the “Golden Door”

• Pres. Hayes refuses to sign it

• Congress pasess law in 1882, ending Chinese immigration

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What do the failure of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877

and the Chinese Exclusion Act

say about America after Reconstruction?

18

Context• The Age of Monopolies, Trusts,

and Big Labor

• America accomplished heavy industrialization in the post-Civil War era. Spurred by the transcontinental rail network, business grew and consolidated into giant corporate trusts, as epitomized by the oil and steel industries.

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QUIZ1. What did the federal government give to

railroad companies to encourage new construction of new track?

2. What is the name of the tycoon of the railroad industry?

3. What year was the “golden spike” driven?

4. Name one of the two railroad companies to create the transcontinental railroad.

5. What legislation attempted to regulate the railroads?

20

Map: Transcontinental Railroads and Federal Land Grants, 1850-1900


21

Map: Expansion of Agriculture, 1860-1900

Expansion of Agriculture, 1860-1900The amount of improved farmland more than doubled during these forty years. This map shows how agricultural expansion came in two ways--first, western lands were brought under cultivation; second, in other areas, especially the Midwest, land was cultivated much more intensely than before. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

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Map: Industrial Production, 1919


23

The Iron Horse – Age of the Iron Rail

• Railroads were paid for through land grants and government subsidies. Why?– What problems does this raise?

• Construction of railroad helped by Civil War. How?

• Union Pacific (East to West) construction begins during Civil War

• Central Pacific (West to East) begins after

• Golden Spike driven in Ogden, Utah 1869

24http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/images/promontory-point-utah.jpg

Golden Spike driven in Ogden, Utah 1869EFFECT: United East and West; opens

trade with Asia

25

What are the effects of the finalization of the transcontinental railroad?

• Closing of the “Wild West”-ecological disaster• Spurs industrialization• Tie the country together/decline in sectionalism• Decline in Native American societies• Corruption/Speculation• Population shift• Time zones created • Millionaire class created (i.e Vanderbilt)• 1886 – Supreme Court’s Wabash decision!!!• Interstate Commerce Act-1887!!! the formation

of the Interstate Commerce Commission

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(pp. 541-542) OTHER EFFECTS OF THE

TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILROAD

New Inventions: – Steel rail– standard gauge rails– Westinghouse brake– Pullman Cars– standardized time-zones

27

Railroads and Corruption

SCANDALS Credit Mobilier Stock watering Bribery of

officeholders Creation of “pools” Secret “rebates”

REFORM EFFORTSGranger Laws

(reversed by Wabash case)

Interstate Commerce Act of 1887

Were these effective? How?

(see page 544.)

28

Interstate Commerce Act -1887

• Sec. 5. That it shall be unlawful for any common carrier subject to the provisions of this act to enter into any contract, agreement, or combination with any other common carrier or carriers for the pooling of freights of different and competing railroads, or to divide between them the aggregate or net proceeds of the earnings of such railroads, or any portion thereof; and in any case of an agreement for the pooling of freights as aforesaid, each day of its continuance shall be deemed a separate offense.

29

Why was the ICC necessary?

What was the intent of the ICC?

What was the effect of the ICC?(Did it work?)

31

RISE OF MONOPOLIESOverview

• Efficient use of expensive machinery called for bigness and consolidation proved more profitable than ruinous price wars

32

1. The nation’s first billion dollar corporation was ____ ________.

2. Carnegie made his wealth through ___________ integration.

3. Rockefeller made his wealth through __________ integration.

4. The transcontinental railroad was completed in the state of ________.

5. The first attempt by the federal government to regulate business was the __________ ________ ________.

33

1. Vanderbilt made his fortune in what industry?

2. Congress’ first attempt to regulate the railroads was the ________ _______ Act in 1887.

3. Carnegie made his fortune in what industry?

4. Rockefeller made his fortune in what industry?

5. The key invention in the steel industry was the B_________ process.

34

1. JP Morgan made his fortune in what industry?

2. Carnegie made his fortune in what industry?

3. Rockefeller made his fortune in what industry?

4. US Steel was the nation’s first _____ dollar company.

5. The key invention in the steel industry was the B_________ process.

35

Experience

• When was the last time you felt that the “game was rigged”?

• Have you experienced the power of a monopoly?

• Do you trust “big business”?

36

Vocabulary• Vertical integration = combining all phases

of manufacturing in to one organization (Carnegie)

• Horizontal integration = allying with competitors to monopolize a market (Rockefeller)

• Trust = a board of directors/stockholders that coordinates companies within an industry to avoid competition

• Syndicates = “interlocking directorates” of various competing enterprises and to consolidate an industry (JP Morgan)

37

Tycoons• Profiteering from the Civil War gives rise to

millionaire class• Transcontinental railroad mechanization,

industrialization, expansion of markets• Surplus of raw materials (coal + oil + iron),

cheap labor, foreign investment • CAPITALISM

Inventions Industrialization Inventions∞

ALL OF THIS GIVES RISE TO TYCOONS

38

Key Industrial Inventors and Inventions

• Alexander Graham Bell = telephone• Thomas A. Edison = electric lights,

phonograph• Bessemer Process/William Kelley = process

to convert iron to steel

• Kerosene lamp• Typewriter• automobile

39

Edison Lab at Menlo ParkAlways a self-promoter, Edison used this depiction of his "invention factory" to suggest that his development of a durable light bulb in 1879 would have an impact on life around the globe. (Departrment of the Interior, National Park Service, Edison National Historic Site)

Edison Lab at Menlo Park


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Thomas EdisonThis photograph from 1893 shows Thomas A. Edison in his laboratory, the world's leading research facility when it opened in 1876. By creating research teams, the Edison laboratories could pursue several projects at once. They developed a dazzling stream of new products, most based on electrical power. (Library of Congress)

Thomas Edison


42

The Manufacture of Iron

Manufacturing iron was a hot and strenous process, requiring workers to spend longs hours stoking hot blast furnaces. (Library of Congress)

The Manufacture of Iron


43

Henry Demarest Lloyd: “The Lords of Industry," North American Review 331 (June 1884)

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1884hdlloyd.html We have given competition its own way, and have found that we

are not good enough or wise enough to be trusted with this power of ruining ourselves in the attempt to ruin others. Free competition could be let run only in a community where every one had learned, to say and act "I am the state." We have had an era of material inventions. We now need a renaissance of moral inventions, contrivances to tap the vast currents of moral magnetism flowing uncaught over the face of society. … If the tendency to combination is irresistible, control of it is imperative. Monopoly and antimonopoly, odious as these words have become to the literary ear, represent the two great tendencies of our time: monopoly, the tendency to combination; anti monopoly, the demand for social control of it. … Our young men can no longer go west; they must go up or down. Not new land, but new, virtue must be the outlet for the future. … We cannot hereafter, as in the past, recover freedom

by going to the prairies; we must find it in the society of the good.

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Henry Demarest Lloyd: “The Lords of Industry," North American Review 331 (June 1884)

45

Andrew Carnegie = Steel Kingpin• Steel is King : US pouring out 1/3 of world’s

steel by 1890’s• “bootstrap” story: poor immigrant to tycoon• Carnegie uses vertical integration with

“Pittsburgh millionaires”• Controls all means of production, eliminates

middle man• Sells to JP Morgan for 400 million• Becomes a philanthropist – gives away $350

million before his death; establishes endowments

46

Dangerous conditions at the Meadville, Pennsylvania Steel CompanySteel became a vital component of American industrialization in the late nineteenth century, both as a product itself and as a material necessary for countless new machines. Steel mills--such as this one in Meadville, Pennsylvania--employed large work forces in ever more expansive, and dangerous, settings. (Library of Congress)

Dangerous conditions at the Meadville, Pennsylvania Steel Company


47

J P Morgan – Banker’s Banker

• Builds financial empire through railroads, banks

• Employs syndicates/interlocking directorates

• Buys out Carnegie and enters steel business

• Uses syndicates to consolidate wealth & power

• Forms US Steel Corporation – 1st billion $ corp.

48

Rockefeller – Standard Oil Corp.

• Kerosene and then Automobiles drive US oil consumption

• Rockefeller ruthlessly uses horizontal integration to create largest monopoly

• See “The Octopus,” 1904 - Cartoon

• 1877 controls 95% of oil refineries in US

• Robber Baron’s Baron

49

Standard Oil MonopolyBelieving that Rockefeller's Standard Oil monopoly was exercising dangerous power, this political cartoonist depicts the trust as a greedy octopus whose sprawling tentacles already ensnare Congress, state legislatures, and the taxpayer, and are reaching for the White House. (Library of Congress)

Standard Oil Monopoly


50

WHAT ARE SOME OF THE TRUSTS FORMED IN THIS

PERIOD?

WHAT ARE THE PROS AND CONS OF THE TRUSTS?

51

Justifications for Big Business

• Old Rich displaced by plutocracy of “new rich”

• Gospel of Wealth – discourages helping the poor

• Justified by Social Darwinism – survival of the fittest

• Poor are poor due to lack of initiative

52

William Graham Sumner (1840-1910): The Challenge of Facts http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1914sumner.html

The truth is that the social order is fixed by laws of nature precisely analogous to those of the physical order. The most that man can do is by, ignorance and self-conceit to mar the operation of social laws. The evils of society are to a great extent the result of the dogmatism and self-interest of statesmen, philosophers, and ecclesiastics who in past time have done just what the socialists now want to do. Instead of studying the natural laws of the social order, they assumed that they could organize society as they chose, they, made up their minds what kind of a society they wanted to make, and they planned their little measures for the ends they had resolved upon. … let us not imagine that the task will ever reach a final solution or that any race of men on this earth can ever be emancipated from the necessity of industry, prudence, continence, and temperance if they are to pass their lives prosperously.

53

William Graham Sumner (1840-1910): The Challenge of Facts http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1914sumner.html

54

Taking on the Trusts• Plutocracy defended by 14th amendment’s

due process clause • Constitution’s “interstate commerce” clause

inhibits states from controlling trusts• Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890

– Largely ineffective– IRONY: Used effectively against unions

More trusts formed in 1890’s during President McKinley’s so-called anti-trust era than any other!!!

55

Industry and the South

• 1900: less manufacturing than before Civil War

• James B. Duke: mechanizes tobacco industry & creates tobacco trust

• South acts primarily as source of raw materials

• Shift in cotton mills from NE to S in 1880’s

• Cheap labor (virtually sharecropping) brings rural white southerners to mill towns, traps them there

56

Impact of Industrialization

• Urbanization

• Erosion of Jeffersonian ideals

• Women’s roles change– Delayed marriages– Smaller families

• Accentuated class division– 1900: 1/10 of US owns 9/10 of US’s wealth– 1900: 2/3 of Americans are “wage slaves”

• Workers’ lives increasingly precarious

57

Scribner's magazine coverAthletics, the bicycle vogue, and colleges for women such as Wellesley, all portrayed in this May, 1898 magazine cover, helped give middle-class young women a sense of new possibilities at the dawn of the twentieth century. (Courtesy, Wellesley College Archives)

Scribner's magazine cover


58

Industry Comes of Age

1865-1900

Part 2 – Impact of Industrialization

59

1. Changes in the national economy in late-nineteenth century America resulted in

a. A lower standard of living for most

b. A decline in agriculture relative to manufacturing

c. No significant changes in marriage patters or family life.

d. Sharper class distinctions

2. The Knights of Labor were weakened by

a. Its refusal to endorse social reform and the 8 hour day

b. Stiff competition from the National Labor Union

c. Its association in the public mind with the Haymarket riot

d. Its inclusion of both skilled and unskilled workers

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and Big Labor

• Industrialization radically transformed the condition of American working people, but workers failed to develop effective labor organizations to match the corporate forms of business.

61

Experience• What do you think of unions?

• Have you ever signed a petition?

• Do you work now?

– Do you think you are treated fairly?

– Do you want to change your working conditions?

– How would your boss/employer respond?

62

63

Women telephone workers, Roanoke, VirginiaAs this telephone office in Roanoke, Virginia, reveals, women office employees usually worked under the direct supervision of male managers. (Library of Congress)

Women telephone workers, Roanoke, Virginia


64

Child worker, glass factory

Child labor was common in the factories of 19th century America. (Library of Congress)

Child worker, glass factory


65

Children in textile millsMuch of the new southern textile industry was based on child labor. These children were photographed by Lewis Hines in 1908. (National Archives/ Lewis Hines)

Children in textile mills


67

Rise of Big Labor

• Increasing economic change social & economic disruption in workers’ lives

• Labor strengthened by Civil War, then declines. Why?

• Big Business doesn’t fight fair– Pools wealth to hire lawyers & scabs– “lockouts,” “yellow dog contracts,”

blacklists”– “company towns”

• National Labor Union – 1866

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PREAMBLE AND DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES OF THE KNIGHTS OF LABOR

TO THE PUBLIC:

The alarming development and aggressiveness of great capitalists and corporations, unless checked, will inevitably lead to the pauperization and hopeless degradation of the toiling masses.

It is imperative, if we desire to enjoy the full blessings of life, that a check be placed upon unjust accumulation, and the power for evil of aggregated wealth.

This much-desired object can be accomplished only by the united efforts of those who obey the divine injunction, "In the sweat of they face shalt thou eat bread."

Therefore we have formed the Order of Knights of Labor, for the purpose of organizing and directing the power of the industrial masses, not as a political party, for it is more - … But no one shall, however, be compelled to vote with the majority, and calling upon all who believe in securing "the greatest good to the greatest number," to join and assist us, we declare to the world that are our aims are:

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Knights of Labor

Collective effort needed to counter trusts

• Founded as a secret society in 1869. Why?• Led by Terence Powderly, Irish, utopian• Inclusive and Diverse:

– men and women– white and black– skilled and unskilled

• Broad (utopian? Socialist?) goals• HURT by Haymarket Square riot, 1886,Chicago• Associated with anarchists, falls into decline

70

Knights of LaborBlack delegate Frank J. Farrell introduces Terence V. Powderly, head of the Knights of Labor, at the organization's 1886 convention. The Knights were unusual in accepting both black and female workers. (Library of Congress)

Knights of Labor


71

STRIKES

HOMESTEAD STRIKE

1892

STEEL STRIKEProtest work

& living conditions

Pinkerton Detectives

protect scabs,Several deaths

US troops end it

WEAKENS LABOR

HAYMARKET AFFAIR

1886

Labor marchBomb thrown

Several deaths

8 Anarchists arrested

4 hanged, 1 suicide

PUBLIC TURNS AGAINST

LABOR

PULLMAN STRIKE1893

Pullman Comp. cuts wages

during Panic of 1893

Does not raise after ends

Workers strike

US troops end it

Debs arrestedWorkers

BlacklistedLABOR WEAK

GREAT STRIKE OF 1877

Railroad strikeParalyzed rail & commerce

Pres. Hayes Sent US troops

to end it

CHINESE EXCLUSION ACT

72

Management and Labor



73

Management and LaborThis cartoon, from Puck, April 7, 1886, shows Terence Powderly, in the center, advocating the position of the Knights of Labor on arbitration. The Knights urged that labor and management (identified here as "capital") should settle their differences this way, rather than by striking. Note how the cartoonist has depicted labor and management as of equal size, and given both of them a large weapon; management's club is labeled "monopoly" and labor's hammer is called "strikes." In fact, labor and management were rarely equally matched when it came to labor disputes in the late nineteenth century. (Puck, April 7, 1886)



74

American Federation of Labor

• Skilled workers split from Knights of Labor 1886• AF of L was elitist in membership, narrow in goals• Led by Samuel Gompers, Jewish cigar maker• Foe of socialism and “utopian” policies• Avoided politics and focused on union goals:

– Better wages– Eight-hour day– Better working conditions

• AF of L successful in many of its strikes and in meeting many of its goals

75

1. The Knights of Labor were weakened by

a. Its refusal to endorse social reform and the 8 hour day

b. Stiff competition from the National Labor Union

c. Its association in the public mind with the Haymarket riot

d. Its inclusion of both skilled and unskilled workers

76

AF of LABORKNIGHTS OF LABOR

77

How was the Sherman Anti-Trust Act used against Unions?

(hint: look at Eugene V. Debs and the Pullman Strike in 1894)

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America Moves to the City

1865-1900

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Big Labor, and Big Cities

• In the late nineteenth century, American Society was increasingly dominated by large urban centers. Explosive urban growth was accompanied by often disturbing changes, including the New Immigration, crowded slums, new religious outlooks, and conflicts over culture and values. Cities also offered new opportunities and new perspectives, especially to women.

80

Urbanization

Immigration

Industrialization

82

Growth (Rise?) of Cities

• Booming population + immigration = explosive urban development

• Cities hold best and worst of America: richest of the rich, poorest of the poor

• Must solve problems of crowding, sanitation, education, and economic development/growth

83

Dumbbell Tenement

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Immigrants: Who are they?

Old Immigration =

(Ireland + Germany)

VS.

New Immigration =

(Southern Europe – Italians, Greeks + Central Europe – Slavs, Poles, Russians, Hungarians, etc. )

RESULT: US is increasingly diverse: we come from more countries and more religions, esp. Catholics and Jews

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Immigrants: Who are they?• Assimilation?

• Many new immigrants form ghettos that preserve customs and languages. Takes several generations to “Americanize”

• NATIVISM reemerges as a counter-reaction, forms American Protective Association (APA)

87

ANGEL ISLAND VS. ELLIS ISLAND

1882: Congress starts to restrict immigration

1883 Chinese Exclusion Act

1886: Statue of Liberty.

CONTRADICTION?

88

Important Folks to Remember:• Jane Addams: Reformer, studies social ills,

founds Hull House in Chicago in 1889• Mary Baker Eddy: founds Christian Science• Ida Wells: writer, activist; tackles lynching

and discrimination• Booker T. Washington: founds Tuskegee

and argues for “accommodation” to white society

• WEB Du Bois: helps found NAACP, demands equality for “talented tenth” = black community

89

Ida B. WellsIda B. Wells was a well-known crusader against lynching. (Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations)

Ida B. Wells


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W.E.B. Du BoisA brilliant young intellectual, W.E.B. Du Bois had to choose between leading the life of a quiet college professor or challenging Booker T. Washington's claim to speak on behalf of all African Americans. (Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations)

W.E.B. Du Bois


91

Religion in the Cities

• Most mainstream or old line Protestant churches struggle to address plight of urban poor

• Catholicism thrives, founds schools and parishes

• Salvation Army, YMCA and Christian Scientists are formed in this milieu

• Darwinism undermines literal interpretation of Bible, “modernist” clergy respond.

92

EDUCATION• Americans believe education is THE

ANSWER to fixing problems of industrialization and urbanization

• Public HIGH schools are built at this time

• Attendance at school (truancy) is enforced

• Catholic school systems are built

93

EDUCATION• Many colleges for women and minorities

are established

• Teacher colleges are formed

• Philanthropists fund universities (i.e Johns Hopkins, Vanderbilt, etc.)

• Adult education begins Chautaqua Movement

94

NEW MORALITY &THE NEW WOMAN MOVEMENT

• Families in industrial era experience sharp increase in divorce rate

• Birth Control developed delayed marriage and dropping birth rate

• Women challenge stereo-types limiting their roles in home and workplace

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http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/aencmed/targets/maps/map/T046212A.gif

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NEW MORALITY &THE NEW WOMAN MOVEMENT

1871: Victoria Woodhull argues for “free love”

1873: COUNTER-REACTION Comstock Law– Targets “obscene pictures and photos”

1898: Charlotte Perkins Gilman publishes Women and Economics

1890: Foundation of National American Woman Suffrage Assoc. (NAWSA)

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STOP AT PAGE 591, before “PROHIBITION OF ALCOHOL

AND SOCIAL PROGRESS

Documents

1 WEAK PRESIDENTS!!!. 2 Rutherford B. Hayes 1876-1880 Republican “Ends” Reconstruction Unfairly called “His Fraudulency” Temperance Advocate Negligible