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1
Social Enterprises in Western Europe:Some Insights from the EMES
Experience
UNDP – EMES Regional Workshop on Social Enterprises in CEE and the CIS
(December 11-12, 2006 – Brussels)
Prof. Jacques DEFOURNY University of Liège (Belgium)
and EMES European Research Network
2
Overview
1. Some conceptual backgrounds
2. The EMES research on "Work Integration Social Enterprises"
3. Policies supporting the development of social enterprises
4. Some prospective remarks
3
• Appearance of these notions around 1990 (US and Western Europe)
• Development of a whole literature since the mid-90's– United States: around business schools and pro-active
foundations' strategies to support social change– Western Europe: in relation to new developments within
the "third sector" or the "social economy" (voluntary organizations, cooperatives,…)
1. Some conceptual backgroundsA. SOCIAL ENTREPRENEUR, SOCIAL
ENTREPRENEURSHIP, SOCIAL ENTERPRISE
4
• "Vocational" conceptions stressing the profile of individual entrepreneurs with a social mission (e.g. Ashoka)
• "Funding-oriented" conceptions focusing on NPO's business strategy or activities to generate market income (in addition to or instead of grants and donations)
• "Social value-oriented" conceptions underlining the social dimension or the social aim of activities carried out by any form of enterprise may be close to CSR
• "Co-operative" conceptions stressing the participatory dynamics and the "public benefit" orientation of new forms of cooperative enterprises
B. A WIDE DIVERSITY OF CONCEPTIONS OF SE
5
C. THE EMES APPROACH OF SOCIAL ENTERPRISE
• Starting point: in most countries, emergence of new types of enterprises within the third sector, mainly in three fields:
• work integration of unemployed or marginalized persons,• personal services (e.g. childcare, health related services,…)• local development (community businesses, agro-tourist
cooperatives,…).
• 1996-2000: construction of a (Western) European approach of SE based on:
• a "working definition" of SE made of 4 economic and 5 social criteria (methodological tool, not normative criteria)
• country studies for all 15 EU member states,• building blocks for a theory of SE.
6
Redistribution
State(public agencies)
Not-for profit For-profit
Market
Privatecompanies
Reciprocity
Community(households, families)
Public
Private
Informal Formal
D. LOCATING SE IN THE WHOLE ECONOMYThird sector
7
2. 2001-2005: EMES RESEARCH PROJECT ON "WORK INTEGRATION SOCIAL ENTERPRISES"
Means : productive activity with guidance or training, with the view of achieving a lasting integration, be it within the social enterprise or within a traditional enterprise
Goal : occupational and social integration of handicapped or marginalised people
Besides the main criteria of the « working definition », a WISE is characterised by two major elements:
A. THE FIELD UNDER STUDY
8
B. MODELS OF WISEs IN THE EU
Germany
SBGa = Soziale Betriebe und Genossenschaften
= social firms and co-operatives
KBa = Kommunale Beschäftigungsgesellschaften
= municipality-owned social enterprises
BWa = Beschäftigungsgesellschaften von Wohlfahrtsverbänden
= social enterprises organised by welfare organizations
BLUIa = Beschäftigungsgesellschaften von Lokalen,
Unabhängigen Initiativen = social enterprises organised by local initiatives
9
Belgium
EIb = entreprises d’insertion
= work integration enterprisesETAb = entreprises de travail adapté
= sheltered work enterprisesEFTb = entreprises de formation par le travail
= enterprises for training through workSOLIDRb = entreprises sociales d’insertion SOLID’R
= SOLID’R work integration social enterprisesESRb = entreprises sociales d’insertion actives dans la récupération et le
recyclage = work integration social enterprises with recycling activities
SWb = sociale werkplaatsen
= social workshopsIBb = invoegbedrijven
= work integration enterprisesBWb = beschutte werkplaatsen
= sheltered workshopsAZCb = arbeidszorgcentra
= work health centers
10
Spain
CEEe = centros especiales de empleo
= special employment centres COe = centros ocupationales
= occupational centres ONCEe = empresas de la Organización Nacional de
Ciegos de España = enterprises of the Spanish National Organisation
for the Blind EIe = empresas de inserción
= social integration enterprises (for people at risk of social exclusion)
Finland
LCOfin = labour co-operatives
CSFfin = co-operatives and social firms for disabled people
11
France
CAVAf = centres d’adaptation à la vie active
= centres for adaptation to working life EIf = entreprises d’insertion
= work integration enterprisesAIf = associations intermédiaires
= intermediate voluntary organisationsRQf = régies de quartier
= neighbourhood enterprises ETTIf = entreprises de travail temporaire d’insertion
= temporary work integration enterprises GEIQf = groupements d’employeurs pour l’insertion et la
qualification = employers organisations for work integration and training
EINf = entreprises insérantes
= long-term work integration enterprises
12
Italy
COSOi = cooperative sociali di tipo b)
= B-type social co-operatives
Ireland
SEIrl = sheltered employment
LDIrl = local development work integration social
enterprises SEWIrl = Social Economy (National Programme) work
integration social enterprises
Portugal
EIp = empresas de inserção = integration
companies EPp = emprego protegido = sheltered workshops
13
United Kingdom
WCOuk = worker co-ops CBuk = community businesses
SFuk = social firms
ILMOuk = intermediate labour market organisations
Ruk = Remploy (large quasi-state enterprise)
Sweden
SOCOsw = social co-operatives SHsw = Samhall (network of sheltered workshops)
14
Identification sheet for each category of WISE
C. TYPOLOGIES OF WISEs
For each of these categories of WISE, spotting of the main characteristics: legal form, goals, types of jobs, importance of training, target group, resources…
15
Main characteristic of target groups
Persons with mental or physical
disabilities
« Abled » unemployed workers
WCOuk
WCOuk
ETAb
Women at risk
Minorities Low-qualified
young people
«Social handicap»
(alcohol, drug)
«Hard-to-place»
(long-term)
BWb
COSOi
EPp
CEEe
ONCEe
COe
SBGa
BWa
Aif
RQf
CBuk
KBa
SEWirl
LDirl
CBuk
LDirl
CSFfin
RQf
EFTb
EIe
RQf
ETTIf
GEIQf
CBuk
ILMOuk
CSFfin
SBGa
BWa
Eip
Eie
CAVAf
RQf
SEWirl
CSFfin
Ruk
PDLDuk
CSFDPfin
SOCOsw
SHsw
EIb
SOLIDRb
IBb AIf
ETTIf EINf
KBa BWa
LDirl
EIp SBGa
UCSirl LCOfin
CSFfin RQf
GEIQf BLUIa
SOLIDRb
ESRb
SWb
AZCbCOSOi
SEWirl
SEWirl
SEWirl
16
Integration goals
Socialisation through productive activity
Transitional employment supported by short-term subsidies
Permanent self-financed jobs
CAVAf
KBa
RQf
COSOi
SWb
ESRb
SOCOsw
AZCb ETAb
BWb
SHsw
EPp
CEEe
COe Ruk
CSFfin
ONCEe
EIb
IBb
EINf
SOLIDRb
WCOuk
ILMOuk
LCOfin
LDirl
SBGa
BLUIa
EFTb
EIf
AIf
EIp
EIe
ETTIf
GEIQf
EIe
Ruk
SFuk
SEirl
CBuk
Jobs supported by long-term subsidies
17
Resources used
Non-marketresources
Marketresources
Donations/Volunteering
ONCEe
KBa
LCOfin
LDirl
CBuk
BLUIa
BWa
EIb
IBb
EIe
SOCOsw
EFTb
ILMOuk
SFuk
AZCb
EIp
COe CEEe
SOLIDRb
ESRb
SFuk
SHsw
SWb
Ruk
COSOi
BWb
ETAb
CSFfin
EPp
SEWirl
SEirl RQf
EINf
ETTIf
GEIQf
WCOuk
A more elaborated typologyis used in the book
18
D. TOWARDS A THEORY OF SOCIAL ENTERPRISE
• The social enterprise as a multiple-goal and multi-stakeholder organisation first attempts of empirical testing with WISEs
• The social enterprise as a specific system of « contracts » and « incentives » (new institutional economics)
• The social enterprise as a structure which mobilises and reproduces « social capital » in specific forms
19
3. POLICIES SUPPORTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF SE
• Public policies focusing explicitly on the promotion of SE (UK since 2002, EQUAL programme,…)
• Creation of federative bodies providing various types of technical support (for instance, the Italian Consorzi)
• Setting up of public or public-private funds providing seed capital, loans and other financial supports (France, Belgium,…)
• Promoting access of SE to public procurement (e.g. local public goods)
• New legal frameworks designed for SE (see comparative analysis published by CECOP, 2006).
20
• New legal frameworks related to the "cooperative model":• Italy (1991): "social cooperative"• Portugal (1998): "social solidarity cooperative"• Spain (1999): "social initiative cooperative"• France (2001): "cooperative society of collective interest"• Poland (2001): "social cooperative"
• New legal frameworks based on a more "open model":• Belgium (1995): "social purpose company" • United Kingdom (2004): "community interest company" • Finland (2004): "social enterprise"• Italy (2006): "social enterprise"
21
4. PROSPECTIVE REMARKS
A. ACHIEVEMENTS
• Light shed on the potential of "civic" entrepreneurial initiatives for the public good
• Microeconomic approach going beyond the specific forms of organisations and able to encompass many of them (NPOs, co-operatives, companies with social purpose,…)
• Social enterprise : a concept which is probably easier to apprehend (and/or more relevant in non Western-style economies) than the broader concepts of « social economy » or « third sector », although it does not compete with them
22
B. CHALLENGES
• Possible confusion originating in the diversity of approaches and definitions
• More empirical research is needed beyond the field of "work integration" of vulnerable groups
• Theoretical work is also needed to conceptualise relations of SE with all other economic actors.
MUCH WORK REMAINS TO BE DONE