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1
Psychology 320: Gender Psychology
Lecture 22
2
Social Learning Explanations of Gender Differences:
1. What theories illustrate the social learning view? (continued)
3
Models may be “real-life” models or symbolic models. Common models include:
parents.
peers.
toys.
books.
television programs.
advertisements.
What theories illustrate the social learning view? (continued)
1. Social Learning Theory
4
The Berenstain Bears
Little Bear
24
Children, Family, and Adult TV SeriesDesperate Housewives
Flashpoint
The Young and the Restless
Mighty Machines
The Office
Sex and the City
5
Signorielli & Lears (1992), Rivadeneyra & Ward (2005): Found a positive correlation between time spent watching television and the extent to which children held gender-role stereotypes.
Zurbriggen & Morgan (2006): Found a positive correlation between frequency of watching reality dating programs and traditional attitudes regarding heterosexual romantic relationships.
6Reality Shows
America’s Next Top Model
The Bachelor
The Bachelorette
7Advertisements
8
Coltrane & Messineo (2000): Found that men were more likely than women to be depicted as aggressive and instrumental and women were more likely to be depicted as sex objects or in domestic settings.
9
%
Percentage of Characters in Commercials by Sex, Activity and Race (Coltrane & Messineo, 2000)
10
2. Socialization (Operant Conditioning) Theory
Maintains that the characteristics of females and males diverge because they are reinforced and
punished by their caregivers and peers for exhibiting different characteristics.
11
Many studies have documented the differential patterns of reinforcement and punishment of females and males by caregivers and peers. Moreover, a number of these studies have demonstrated the influence of reinforcement and punishment on the behaviour of females and males. Examples:
Theorists distinguish between two types of reinforcement and two types of punishment: Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.
12
Raag & Rackliff (1998): Found that boys were more likely than girls to say that their fathers would think cross-gender-typed play was “bad.” Moreover, found that boys’ perceptions of their father’s expectations influenced their toy choice.
13
Perceptions of Social Expectations Regarding Gender-Typed Play
(Raag & Rackliff, 1998)
Source
Response Category
Good Bad Doesn’t matter
MotherBoysGirls
1413
00
1915
FatherBoysGirls
169
11
1517
14
Perceptions of Social Expectations Regarding Cross-Gender-Typed Play
(Raag & Rackliff, 1998)
Source
Response Category
Good Bad Doesn’t matter
MotherBoysGirls
25
83
2320
FatherBoysGirls
26
144
1617
15
Mean Time (seconds) Boys Played With Tool Set as a Function of Perceptions of Father’s Expectations Regarding
Cross-Gender-Typed Play (Raag and Rackliff, 1998)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Bad
Good/Doesn'tMatter
16
Mean Time (seconds) Boys Played With Dish Set as a Function of Perceptions of Father’s Expectations Regarding
Cross-Gender-Typed Play (Raag and Rackliff, 1998)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Bad
Good/Doesn'tMatter
17
Lamb, Easterbrooks, & Holden (1980): Found that, with respect to teachers and peers:
(a) Boys and girls were more likely to be reinforced for gender-role congruent activities than gender-role incongruent activities. Types of peer-reinforcement identified: praise, join play, imitation, approval, observe, comply, covet toy.
(b) Boys and girls were more likely to be punished for gender-role incongruent activities than gender-role congruent activities. Types of peer-punishment identified: criticize, divert, abandon play, disapproval, disrupt activity.
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(c) Boys and girls continued gender-role congruent activities that had been reinforced for a longer duration than gender-role incongruent activities that had been punished.
(d) Older children were more likely than younger children to engage in intentional punishment (e.g., criticism, disapproval) of peers for gender-role incongruent activities.
(e) Boys were more likely than girls to receive intentional punishment from other boys and girls for gender-role incongruent activities.
19
Social Learning Explanations of Gender Differences:
1. What theories illustrate the social learning view? (continued)