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Nursing ResearchNursing

Research

March

2007

(5)

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Research Problems Research Problems and Hypothesesand Hypotheses

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Research Process

1. Formulating the problem

2. Reviewing related literature

3. Developing/utilizing a theoretical framework

4. Identifying research variables

5. Formulating hypotheses6. Selecting a research

design7. Specifying the

population8. Operationalizing &

measuring research variables

9. Conducting pilot study & making revisions

10. Selecting the sample11. Collecting the data12. Organizing the data

for analysis13. Analyzing the data14. Interpreting the

results15. Communicating the

findings

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Developing & Refining a

Research Problem

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A researcher spends a great deal of time refining a

research idea into a testable research problem

The process of defining a research problem:

1. Define a specific problem area

2. Review relevant scientific literature

3. Examine the problem’s potential significance to nursing

4. Pragmatically examine the feasibility of studying the research problem

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1. Defining the Problem Area

Researchers generally begin with an interest in some broad topic area

Usually the research focuses on the dependent variable of the study, the variable that will be predicted or explained through its relationship to the independent variable.

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2. Beginning the Literature Review

The literature review should reveal that the scientific literature relevant to the problem area has been critically examined. Often concluding sections on recommendations and implications for practice identifying remaining gaps in the literature, the need for replication, or the need for extension of the knowledge base about a particular research focus

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3. Significance

Before proceeding to a final formulation of the problem statement, it is crucial for the researcher to examine the problem’s potential significance to nursing.

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Patients, nurses, the medical community in general, and society will potentially benefit from the knowledge derived from this study

Results will be applicable for nursing practice, education, or administration

The problem should have the following criteria:

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Results will be theoretically relevant

Findings will lend support to untested theoretical assumptions, extend or challenge an existing theory, or clarify a conflict in the literature

Findings will potentially formulate or alter nursing practice or policies

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4. Feasibility Feasibility of a research problem

includes considerations such as time, availability of subjects, facilities, equipment and money.

The experience of the researcher, and any ethical considerations may cause the researcher to decide that the problem in inappropriate because it lack feasibility

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Development of a Research

problem

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Idea emerges

Brainstorming

Review of the Literature

Identify Variables

Research Problem is Formulated

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The Variables A variable is something that varies.

Researchers attempt to understand how and why differences in one variable are related to differences in another variable.

The researcher is asking a question about the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable.

Independent variable is the variable that has the presumed effect on the dependent variable is manipulated by the researcher.

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The Variables In nonexperimental research the

independent variable is not manipulated and is assumed to have occurred naturally before or during the study.

Dependent variable is the consequence or the presumed effect that varies with a change in the independent variable.

The dependent variable is not manipulated, it is observed and assumed to vary with changes in the independent variable.

Predictions are made from the independent variable to the dependent variable.

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The Variables It is the dependent variable that the

researcher is interested in understanding, explaining and predicting.

Although variability in the dependent variable is assumed to depend on changes in the independent variable, that doesn’t imply that there is a casual relationship.

There is no restriction on the number of variables that can be included in a problem statement.

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The Variables Problem statements that include more

than one independent or dependent variables may be broken down into subproblems that are not concise.

Variables are not inherently

independent or dependent. A variable that is classified as

independent in one study may be considered dependent in another study.

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Population

The term population refers to the aggregate or totality of all the objects or subjects or members which conform to a designated set of specifications

The nature of the population being studied needs to be specified in the problem statement.

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The Final Problem Statement

A problem statement can be: Declarative Interrogative

A good problem statement exhibits the following:

It clearly and unambiguously identifies the study variables

It clearly expresses the variables’ relationship to each other

It specifies the nature of the population being studied

It implies the possibility of empirical testing

Both are acceptable

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The Final Problem Statement

The problem is associated with the purpose of the study,

but it is not identical.

The purpose of the study encompasses the aims or goals

the investigator hopes to achieve with the research,

not the problem to be solved

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Testability The statement of the research

problem must imply that the problem is testable, i.e. measurable by either quantitative or qualitative methods

A research problem must propose a relationship between at least one independent and one dependent variable indicating that these variables can be measured

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Developing the Research

Hypotheses

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Hypotheses: intelligent hunches, guesses, or predictions that assist the researcher in seeking the solution or answer to the research question.

A theory’s validity is not directly examined. Instead, it is through the hypotheses that the merit of a theory can be evaluated

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Hypotheses are often not stated explicitly in a research article

Hypotheses flow from the problem statement, literature review, and theoretical framework

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Each hypothesis represents a unit or subset of the research problem

Hypotheses are formulated before the study is conducted because they provide direction for the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data

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Interrelationship of Problem

Statement, Literature Review,

Theoretical Framework, and

Hypothesis

Hypothesis Theoretical Framework

Problem Statement

Literature Review

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Purposes of Hypotheses

1. Provide a bridge between theory and reality

2. Enable researcher to objectively enter new areas of discovery

3. Provide direction for any research endeavor by tentatively identifying the anticipated outcome

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Criteria for Formulating/Eval

uating Hypotheses

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The Relationship

Statement

A declarative statement that identifies the predicted relationship between two or more variables

The direction of the relationship is also specified in this statement e.g. greater than, less than, negatively, positively ….

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The nature of the relationship, either causal or associative, is also implied by the hypothesis

A causal relationship is one where the researcher is able to predict that the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable

It is rare in research that one is in a firm enough position to take a definitive stand about a cause-and effect relationship so,

One can only say that there is an associative relationship between the variables

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Testability Means that the variables of the study

must lend themselves to observation, measurement, and analysis

The hypothesis is either supported or not supported after the data have been collected and analyzed

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Theory Base

A sound hypothesis is consistent with an existing body of theory and research findings

Regardless of whether or not a hypothesis is arrived at inductively or deductively, it must be based on a sound scientific rationale

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Wording the Hypothesis

Hypothesis should be worded in clear, simple and concise terms

Directional Vs Nondirectional hypotheses:

Directional hypothesis: specifies the expected direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables

Nondirectional hypothesis: indicates the existence of a relationship between the variables but does not specify the anticipated direction of the relationship

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A deductive hypothesis derived from a theory will

almost always be directional.

The theory will provide a critical rationale for proposing that relationships between variables

will have particular output

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Statistical versus Research

hypotheses Statistical hypotheses (null hypotheses): states that there is no

relationship between independent and dependent variables

Research hypothesis (scientific hypothesis): a statement of

expected relationship between the variables. It can be directional or nondirectional

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A hypothesis can either be supported or not supported by

study findings

Rejection of the statistical hypothesis is equivalent to acceptance of the research

hypothesis

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Relationship Between

Hypotheses &

Research design

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The type of research design; experimental or non-experimental, will influence the wording of the hypothesis

In case of an experimental design, the hypothesis will reflect cause effect relationship

e.g. incidence of …. will be greater in subjects after …. than after ….

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Hypothesis related to non-experimental designs reflect associative relationship statements

e.g. there will be a positive relationship between … and ….

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Research Questions

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Exploratory studies usually have research questions not hypotheses The outcome of an exploratory study may

help in formulating hypotheses for future studies

Qualitative research studies are guided by research questions rather than hypotheses The descriptive findings of qualitative studies

can provide the basis for future hypothesis-testing studies

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Some studies may have research questions and hypotheses. In such case, research questions do not pertain to the proposed

outcomes, rather, they may provide additional information that may enrich the study and

may provide direction for further study

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Critiquing the Research

Problem

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1. Was the problem statement introduced promptly?

2. Is the problem stated clearly and unambiguously in declarative or research form?

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3. Does the problem statement express a relationship between two or more variables or at least between an independent and a dependent variable, implying empirical testing?

4. Does the problem statement specify the nature of the population being studied?

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5. Has the problem been substantiated with adequate experiential and scientific background material?

6. Has the problem been placed within the context of an appropriate theoretical framework?

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7. Has the significance of the problem been identified?

8. Have pragmatic issues, such as feasibility, been addressed?

9. Have the purpose, aims, or goals of the study been identified?

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Critiquing the Research

Hypotheses

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1. Does the hypothesis directly relate to the research problem?

2. Is the hypothesis concisely stated in a declarative form?

3. Are the independent and dependent variables in the statement of the hypothesis?

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4. Are the variables measurable or potentially measurable?

5. Is each of the hypotheses specific to one relationship so that each hypothesis can be either supported or not supported?

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6. Is the hypothesis stated in such a way that it is testable?

7. Is the hypothesis stated objectively, without value-laden words?

8. Is the direction of the relationship in each hypothesis clearly stated?

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9. Is the theoretical rationale for the hypothesis explicit?

10. Are research questions appropriately used?

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Thank You